{{Short description|Historic moat in Nigeria}} {{Good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} {{Use British English|date=September 2023}} {{Infobox historic site | name = Benin Moat | native_name = Iyanuwo | native_language = bin | image = | image_size = | caption = | area = {{cvt|814|acre|ha}} | elevation = {{cvt|150|ft|1|in}} | locmapin = Nigeria | image_map = | image_map_caption = Map of the Benin Moats in Rural Areas | map_width = 275 | map_caption = Location within Nigeria | map_dot_mark = Blue pog.svg | mapframe = no | location = Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria | coordinates = {{Coord|region:NG_type:landmark|format=dms|display=inline,title}} | type = Defensive fortification | built = 13th century | builder = Edo people | nearest_city = Benin City | length = Approximately {{cvt|16000|km}} | height = Varies, over {{cvt|20|m}} in places | designation1 = | designation1_date = | designation1_type = | designation1_criteria = | designation1_number = }}
The '''Benin Moat''' ({{Langx|bin|'''Iyanuwo'''}}),<ref name="Ebegbulem 2011 m3962">{{Cite news |last=Ebegbulem |first=Simon |date=25 March 2011 |title=National monument, Benin moat...On the edge of extinction |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/03/national-monumentbenin-moat-on-the-edge-of-extinction/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=12 October 2023 |newspaper=Vanguard|archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908111638/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/03/national-monumentbenin-moat-on-the-edge-of-extinction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> also known as the '''Benin City Iya,''' the '''Inner City Iya of Benin''' or the '''Wall of Benin''', is a large earthwork within Benin City in Nigeria's Edo state, which formerly encircled the city at the time of the Benin Empire.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}
It is the central part of a series of connected earthworks surrounding the city which are collectively known as the 'Benin City Walls', consisting of the massive Inner City earthwork and much smaller, though more extensive Outer City earthworks.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Connah|1967}} Other earthworks are spread out across Edo State (known as the rural ''iya''), and all of these earthworks are sometimes referred to collectively as 'the Walls of Benin'. All of these earthworks are known as ''Iya'' in the Edo language.<ref name=":0" />
With the exception of a small part of the Benin City Iya, these structures are not really 'walls' but rather linear earthworks, consisting of a ditch and earth rampart known as a 'dump rampart'.{{sfn|Connah|1967}} The Inner City Iya was built on a significantly larger scale with much taller ramparts and deeper ditches than any of the surrounding earthworks or other earthworks spread across the country, many of which are described as having a 'slight' and 'casual' profile.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}<ref name=":0" />
Most of these earthworks only served to delineate boundaries, whereas the Inner City Iya served a defensive purpose.{{sfn|Connah|1967}} Historical European accounts of the 'Benin Moat' or 'Benin City Wall' probably only refer to the Inner City Iya, though the accounts sometimes differ in their description of its structure.{{sfn|Connah|1967}} Several wooden entrance gates are said to have existed, but 19th century accounts make no mention of them and their remains have yet to be identified by archeological research.<ref name=":0" />
The Inner City Iya had a total length of approximately 12 kilometres (7.45 miles), though much of it has disappeared due to urban expansion and destruction in the modern era.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-025-09630-y |journal=African Archaeological Review |volume=42 |date=2025 |title=Current Condition of the Iya in Benin City, the Gates and Future Preservation Strategies |last1=Schepers |first1=Christian |display-authors=etal |pages=519–537 |doi=10.1007/s10437-025-09630-y|doi-access=free }}</ref> The combined length of all of the earthworks across the entire country, including ditches and ramparts and boundary traces, has been estimated to be approximately {{Convert|16,000|km|mi}}, covering about {{Convert|6,500|km2}} of land, though little remains today.<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Connah|1967}} Whilst some sources have erroneously referred to these earthworks as comprising a single built structure, they actually consist of many different structures created at different times, some of which are connected and others which are not.<ref name=":0" />
These earthworks have deep historical roots, with evidence suggesting their existence before the establishment of the Oba monarchy. Construction may have begun as early as 800 AD, continuing up to the modern era. The Inner City Iya itself was built in c. 1460 AD.{{sfn|Connah|1967}} Its construction involved large-scale manual labour and the repurposing of earth from the outer ditch to build the inner rampart. It is estimated that a labour force of 5,000 men, working 10 hours a day, could have completed the work in 97 days, within the period of a single dry season.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}
Today, remnants of the Iya can still be found in Benin City, although urbanisation and land disputes pose challenges to their preservation. Recognised for their historical significance, the Benin Iya have been placed on a tentative list of Nigerian World Heritage Sites, though they have yet to be included in the official list by UNESCO.<ref name=":0" /> The Guinness Book of World Records describes 'The Linear Earthworks of Benin and Isha' as "the longest earthworks of the pre-mechanical era", though this refers to the estimated length of all the earthworks and boundary traces across the country combined and not specifically to the moat and rampart surrounding Benin City.<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com">{{cite web |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/97959-longest-earthworks-of-the-pre-mechanical-era |title=Longest earthworks of the pre-mechanical era| website=guinnessworldrecords.com}}</ref>
== History == {{See also |Kingdom of Benin}}
=== Background ===
The origins of the Benin Moats, also known as the Walls of Benin, cannot be attributed to a single ruler or era.<ref name=":3" /> While Oba Oguola played a role in expanding and deepening the moats, evidence suggests that these moats existed before his reign and even before the establishment of the Oba monarchy.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=21 May 2013 |title=Benin Moat: Amazing legacy of great people |url=https://thenationonlineng.net/benin-moat-amazing-legacy-of-great-people/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=25 August 2023 |newspaper=The Nation|archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825174109/https://thenationonlineng.net/benin-moat-amazing-legacy-of-great-people/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Various villages and wards that later coalesced into Benin City may have initially dug their moats for both defensive and boundary purposes.<ref name="Ebegbulem 2011 m396">{{Cite news |last=Ebegbulem |first=Simon |date=25 March 2011 |title=National monument, Benin moat...On the edge of extinction |url=https://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/03/national-monumentbenin-moat-on-the-edge-of-extinction/ |location=Lagos, Nigeria|access-date=18 September 2023 |newspaper=Vanguard|archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908111638/https://www.vanguardngr.com/2011/03/national-monumentbenin-moat-on-the-edge-of-extinction/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The moat is an example of large-scale engineering by the Benin Empire.{{sfn|Onokerhoraye|1975|pp=299–300}}
=== Construction === thumb|Profile of a section of the rampart and ditch structure of the 'walls' around Benin city
The earliest phase of moat construction in the Benin Kingdom likely predates the Ogiso kings. Archaeological findings and oral traditions suggest that some moats were in existence before the arrival of the Ogiso rulers.<ref name="SchoolForAfrica.org 2021 g073">{{cite web |date=28 February 2021 |title=The Great Wall of Benin — Giving Children a Fighting Chance |url=https://schoolforafrica.org/nigeria/the-wall-of-benin/ |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=SchoolForAfrica.org |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825174122/https://schoolforafrica.org/nigeria/the-wall-of-benin/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These early moats served various purposes, including socio-political organisation, economic activities, and defense.<ref name="edoworld.net your Guide To The Benin Kingdom & Edo State, Nigeria 2021 k368">{{cite web |date=1 July 2021 |title=The Benin Moats |url=https://www.edoworld.net/The_Benin_Moats_Iya%C2%A0.html |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=edoworld.net your Guide To The Benin Kingdom & Edo State, Nigeria |archive-date=30 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230930163343/https://www.edoworld.net/The_Benin_Moats_Iya%C2%A0.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
During the rule of the Ogiso kings, the culture of moat construction continued and likely expanded. Moats varied in their origins and purposes. Different villages and wards within the Benin Kingdom had their moats, often constructed for distinct reasons. The Ogiso kings contributed to the development of some of these moats, maintaining control and organisation within the kingdom.<ref name="edoworld.net your Guide To The Benin Kingdom & Edo State, Nigeria 2021 k368" /> With the transition from the Ogiso kings to the Obas, the moat-building tradition persisted. Obas like Oba Oguola and Oba Ewuare re-dug and deepened some of these structures.Oba Oguola, who reigned around 1280 AD, also played a role in moat construction.<ref name="edoworld.net your Guide To The Benin Kingdom & Edo State, Nigeria 2021 k368" />
thumb|Overview of all the ''Iya'' across Edo State, including the Benin City Iya and rural iya, based on the map of Darling (1984, black lines) and the results of recent remote sensing (orange lines)
The Benin City Moat itself was built around 1460 AD.<ref name="Ogundiran">{{cite journal |last1=Ogundiran |first1=Akinwumi |date=June 2005 |title=Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=133–168 |doi=10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y |s2cid=144422848}}</ref> This defensive system comprised moats and ramparts protecting Benin City, while outer earthworks extended to encompass numerous villages and communities.<ref name="Ogundiran" /> Manual labour was the sole means of construction, precluding the use of modern earth-moving equipment or technology. Earth excavated to create the moat was used to build the inner rampart. In some places the height from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the rampart reached 17 metres, with the ramparts themselves reaching up to 9 metres at their highest point.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}
The moat and rampart, vigilantly guarded, functioned as an effective defensive line. It exposed invaders attempting to breach the city, resulting in their capture or meeting fierce resistance by Benin soldiers.{{sfn|Connah|1967|pp=593–609}} The steep earth banks posed an obstacle to invaders, who risked burial in sand avalanches. The towering rampart discouraged climbing, making invaders targets for Benin soldiers armed with spears and poisoned arrows.<ref name="Daerego 2020 t853">{{cite web |last=Daerego |first=Mary M.K. |date=6 August 2020 |title=GRANDEUR OF THE BENIN MOAT (ancient Benin civilization) |url=https://observenigeria.com/grandeur-of-the-benin-moat-ancient-benin-civilization/ |access-date=18 September 2023 |website=Observe Nigeria |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825185640/https://observenigeria.com/grandeur-of-the-benin-moat-ancient-benin-civilization/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The outer earthworks provided an additional layer of protection, effectively shielding the city. Strict access control was maintained through nine gates in the city rampart.{{sfn|Graham|1965|pp=317–334}} Within the city were located the Royal Palace and chiefs' residences.{{sfn|Graham|1965|pp=317–334}} Access through this fortified earthwork required payment of a toll, contributing to the city's reputation for safety by subjecting visitors, including traders, to thorough scrutiny.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Trammell |first=Victor |date=20 September 2020 |title=Pre-Colonial Africa's Benin Moat Was Much Wider & Longer Than China's Great Wall |url=https://blackthen.com/pre-colonial-africas-benin-moat-was-much-wider-longer-than-chinas-great-wall/blackthen.com/pre-colonial-africas-benin-moat-was-much-wider-longer-than-chinas-great-wall/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Black Then |language=en-US |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029062015/https://blackthen.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite news |date=16 June 2021|title=Benin's ancient moat wall turned dumpsite|url=https://tribuneonlineng.com/benins-ancient-moat-wall-turned-dumpsite/|access-date=25 August 2023|newspaper=Nigerian Tribune|language=en-GB|archive-date=10 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110220538/https://tribuneonlineng.com/benins-ancient-moat-wall-turned-dumpsite/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Urban core and protective moats === The heart of Benin City's historical landscape under the Kingdom of Benin covered an area exceeding {{convert|7|km2}}. It included the residences of the Oba (king), nobility, and indigenous inhabitants.<ref name="beninmoatfoundation.org 2011 c975">{{cite web |date=25 July 2011 |title=HOME – BENIN MOAT FOUNDATION |url=http://www.beninmoatfoundation.org/clarioncall.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303065806/http://www.beninmoatfoundation.org/clarioncall.html |archive-date=3 March 2012 |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=beninmoatfoundation.org}}</ref> The city's layout revolved around two perpendicular streets: the principal sacred king's palace passage extending from the palace to the east, and a cross street connecting the King's Square to Oba Market, where slaves and ivory were traded.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=Carvajal |first=Guillermo |date=17 October 2016 |title=Las murallas de Benin, la estructura más larga construída por el hombre, con 16.000 kilómetros de longitud |url=https://www.labrujulaverde.com/2016/10/las-murallas-de-benin-la-estructura-mas-larga-construida-por-el-hombre-con-16-000-kilometros-de-longitud |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=La Brújula Verde |language=es-es |archive-date=22 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322230709/https://www.labrujulaverde.com/2016/10/las-murallas-de-benin-la-estructura-mas-larga-construida-por-el-hombre-con-16-000-kilometros-de-longitud |url-status=live }}</ref> The city's various communities extended along these streets and other minor ones.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Readman |first=Kurt |date=17 January 2022 |title=Mysterious and Massive: Who Built the Walls of Benin? |url=https://www.historicmysteries.com/walls-of-benin/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Historic Mysteries |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825174110/https://www.historicmysteries.com/walls-of-benin/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The Benin Moat, possibly originally over thirty-five feet in width, surrounded the city and acted as a protective barrier.<ref>{{Cite web |last=@NatGeoUK |date=17 September 2022 |title=The story of Nigeria's stolen Benin Bronzes, and the London museum returning them |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2022/09/benin-bronzes-return-to-nigeria |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=National Geographic |language=en-gb |archive-date=8 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230908144520/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/2022/09/benin-bronzes-return-to-nigeria |url-status=live }}</ref>
There were two distinct sections of the moat: the primary moat around the urban core and the sacred palace, and a secondary moat constructed later, encircling an area to the south.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Editorial |date=19 November 2018 |title=The Ancient Walls of Benin: 16,000 Kilometres (800AD-14th Century) |url=http://thinkafrica.net/walls-of-benin/ |access-date=25 August 2023 |website=Think Africa |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825174119/https://thinkafrica.net/walls-of-benin/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Together, the moats and walls constituted defenses.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Affairs |first=Edo |date=21 February 2023 |title=The Benin Moat – Largest Man Made Earthworks |url=https://edoaffairs.com/benin-moat/ |access-date=8 September 2023 |website=Edoaffairs |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825174109/https://edoaffairs.com/benin-moat/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
===Historical accounts===
Various European authors wrote descriptions of the earthworks surrounding Benin City, either from first-hand or second-hand knowledge. These accounts date from those of Portuguese traders in the 16th century up to the British Punitive Expedition in 1897. The earliest written description of Benin City is from the Portuguese geographer and navigator Duarte Pacheco Pereira in his book ''Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis'', dating from 1508:
{{blockquote|the great city of Beny ... is about a league long from gate to gate; it has no wall but is surrounded by a large moat, very wide and deep, which suffices for its defence. I was there four times. Its houses are made of mud-walls covered with palm leaves.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.1658 |title=Esmeraldo De Situ Orbis |date=1508 |last=Pereira |first=Duarte Pacheco |pages=125–126 |publisher=The Hakluyt Society; London; 1937}}</ref>{{Efn|A 'league' is approximately equal to 3 miles.}}}}
The archaeologist Graham Connah suggests Pereira's statement that there was 'no wall' may be due to him not considering a bank of earth to be a wall in the sense of the Europe of his day.{{sfn|Connah|1967}} In c. 1600 the Dutch ship captain Dierick Ruiters gave a slightly more detailed description:
{{blockquote|At the gate where I entered on horsebacke, I saw a very high Bulwarke, very thick of earth, with a very deepe broade ditch, but it was drie, and full of high trees ... That Gate is a reasonable good Gate, made of wood after their manner, which is to be shut, and there alwayes there is watch holden.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}}}
[[File:Ancient Benin city.JPG|thumb|Depiction of Benin City made by a Dutch illustrator in Holland in 1668, included in Olfert Dapper's ''Description of Africa''. Whilst the illustration is not first-hand or historically accurate,{{sfn|Connah|1967}} it reflects how the city was conceived of by Europeans in 17th century.]]
A famous account is given by the Dutch physician and author Olfert Dapper in his 1668 book ''Description of Africa''. Dapper never visited Africa himself, but he compiled his book from the reports of Dutch travellers and missionaries who had explored various regions of the continent:
{{blockquote|Benin shows itself, a city of that largeness, as cannot be equalled in those parts, and of greater civility than to be expected among such barbarous people ... It confines within the proper limits of its own walls three miles, but taking in the Court makes as much more. The wall upon one side rises to the height of ten feet, double pallisaded with great and thick trees, with spars of five or six foot, laid crossways, fastened together, and plastered over with red clay, so that the whole is cemented into one entirely, but this surrounds hardly one side, the other side having only a great trench, or ditch, and hedge of brambles, impassable, with little less difficulty than a wall, and consequently a good defence. The gates, being eight or nine foot high, and five broad, and made of one whole piece of wood, hang, or rather turns on a pin, in the middle, being the fashion of that country.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bim_early-english-books-1641-1700_africa-being-an-accurat_dapper-olfert_1670/page/n597/mode/2up?q=Benin |title=Description of Africa |date=1668 |last=Dapper |first=Olfert |pages=470}}</ref>{{Efn|Ten feet is approximately equal to 3 metres.}}}}
Connah suggests that the 'timber revetting' described by Dapper might have existed at the points where the rampart was breached by gateways, and that this feature was presumed by the author or his informant to have been a general feature along the whole length of the wall. The thickness of vegetation shrouding the rampart at each side of the gate and completely filling the ditch might have obscured the rest from view.{{sfn|Connah|1967}}
In 1820 a British Naval officer, Lieutenant John King, visited Benin city and wrote the following:
{{blockquote|Benin is situated in a plain at the foot of an amphitheatre formed by hills which extend to the east, west, and north. The walls having been to a large extent destroyed and the city having been formerly depopulated by a civil war, the circumference of the inhabited area does not now exceed two or three miles.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/greatbeninitscus00roth/page/164/mode/2up |title=Great Benin; its customs, art and horrors |date=1903 |publisher=F. King & Sons, ltd. |last=Roth |first=Henry Ling |pages=164}}</ref>}}
An account written in 1897 by Reginald Bacon, a member of the British Punitive Expedition, only briefly mentions the earthworks surrounding Benin City. The expedition force entered through one of the main entrances, which was defended by a wooden stockade armed with a 'Spanish' cannon:
{{blockquote|Forcing on, we next met a stockade erected between two high banks through which the path ran. In front was a causeway over a ravine about twenty feet deep; in the stockade could be seen a gun.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bacon-reginald.-benin-the-city-of-blood-1897_202010/page/80/mode/2up |title=Benin: The City of Blood |date=1897| last=Bacon |first=Reginald |pages=80 |publisher=Arnold}}</ref>{{Efn|Twenty feet is approximately equal to 6 metres.}}}}
According to Bacon's account the city itself was about a mile beyond the large ditch and rampart, suggesting that the city had shrunk in size from its earlier peak. Bacon describes Benin city as "an irregular straggling town formed by groups of houses separated from each other by patches of bush. It is perhaps a mile and a half long from east to west, and a mile from north to south."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bacon-reginald.-benin-the-city-of-blood-1897_202010/page/86/mode/2up |title=Benin: The City of Blood |date=1897| last=Bacon |first=Reginald |pages=80 |publisher=Arnold}}</ref>
== Current state == thumb|Remains of the Benin City Iya, showing the different categories of preservation. A: Good preservation. B: Fair preservation. C: Partial preservation. D: Severely damaged
The Benin City Moat is currently in a degraded state and risks further degradation from urban expansion.<ref name=":0"/> Although some recent sources have claimed that the British punitive expedition in 1897 'destroyed' or 'heavily damaged' the Benin Moat,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/mar/18/story-of-cities-5-benin-city-edo-nigeria-mighty-medieval-capital-lost-without-trace |website=theguardian.com |date=2016 |title=Story of cities #5: Benin City, the mighty medieval capital now lost without trace |last1=Koutonin |first1=Mawuna}}</ref> there is no evidence for this from either historical or archaeological sources.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/bacon-reginald.-benin-the-city-of-blood-1897_202010/page/86/mode/2up |title=Benin: The City Of Blood |date=1897 |last=Bacon |first=Reginald |publisher=Arnold, London & New York}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://beninexpedition120yearson.weebly.com/uploads/1/5/0/7/15075616/account_by_rawson_benin_punitive_expedition.pdf| title=Benin Punitive Expedition Report |date=1897 |last=Rawson |first=Geoffrey}}</ref> A survey in 1964 found that the ramparts and ditches were still largely complete, though the city had already begun to expand beyond the Moat and some damage had been done.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10437-025-09630-y|journal=African Archaeological Review|volume=42|date=2025|title=Current Condition of the Iya in Benin City, the Gates and Future Preservation Strategies|last1=Schepers|first1=Christian|display-authors=etal|pages=519–537|doi=10.1007/s10437-025-09630-y|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, since the 1960s urban development has spread rapidly and more than half of the original ramparts have been destroyed. Causes of the destruction include earth extraction for road repairs and bricks, flattening the ramparts or filling up of ditches to gain space for buildings, accelerated erosion and silting of the ditches from the drainage of streets, cutting gaps into the Iya to make way for streets, and using the moat as a dumping ground for refuse.<ref name=":0"/>{{sfn|Connah|1967|pp=593–609}} The 'rural iya' spread across Edo State have also suffered from destruction and neglect by local populations.<ref name="Cambridge Scholars Publishing">{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/37492343/The_Protection_of_Archaeological_Heritage_in_Times_of_Economic_Crisis_pdf|title=The Protection of Archaeological Heritage in Times of Economic Crisis|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|chapter=Conservation Management of the Benin Earthworks of Southern Nigeria: A Critical Review of Past and Present Action Plans|last1=Darling|first1=Patrick|last2=Agbontaen-Eghafona|first2=Kokunre|pages=341}}</ref>
Around 2007 the Benin Moat Foundation (BMF) was founded by the engineer Solomon Uwaifo with the aim of preserving the earthworks and promoting them for the purposes of tourism and national heritage.<ref name="beninmoatfoundation.org 2011 c975"/> Owaifo "was horrified by what he saw of the Benin moat today, compared with what he remembered when he was a boy.”<ref name="Cambridge Scholars Publishing"/> According to the BMF, during the period of colonial rule the British filled in parts of the moat to create roads for the city, and this continued after Independence as the need for new roads grew.<ref name="beninmoatfoundation.org 2011 c975"/>
Many of the local population "see the moat as a nuisance – a gaping, useless hole", and as a convenient dumping ground, whilst the ramparts are seen as both obtrusive structures and as an easy source of building materials. The lack of a government-implemented master plan for the city or properly enforced laws has resulted in anarchy and corruption, and the absence of public waste management and drainage systems has further exacerbated the problem.<ref name="beninmoatfoundation.org 2011 c975" /> Nonetheless, today in parts of Benin City remains of the ancient moats still persist, visible as tree-lined embankments woven into the contemporary cityscape.
thumb|Part of the Benin City Iya affected by refuse dumping
The moats encircling various towns and villages in Benin Metropolis historically served as boundaries. In many cases, these moats now encompass multiple villages, leading to complexity in areas like Benin City due to urban expansion and ongoing development for housing and industrial purposes.<ref name="Ogundiran" /> As a result, some villages assert ownership claims over parts or the entirety of the moat enclosures, citing their longstanding presence in the area, even if it means displacing the original inhabitants.<ref name="Ebegbulem 2011 m396" /> Such claims have sometimes resulted in conflicts and disruptions in the region, where the interests of long-standing settlers have clashed with those of newer, more populous arrivals.<ref name=":3" /> Land disputes in the courts often involve clashes between the original owners of ''Iya'' or moats enclosures and newer settlers claiming ancestral rights.<ref name="edoworld.net your Guide To The Benin Kingdom & Edo State, Nigeria 2021 k368" />
Portions of the moats have yielded to residential and commercial development, experienced degradation from drainage projects, and been transformed into refuse disposal sites.{{sfn|Maduka|2014|pp=83–106}} Certain sections of the moats, such as the area near Ogba Road, have succumbed to pollution and serve as dumping grounds for waste.{{sfn|Adekola|Iyalomhe|Paczoski|Abebe|2021|p=}} Preserving these historical assets necessitates comprehensive programs encompassing documentation, preservation, and vigilant safeguarding.{{sfn|Onwuanyi|Nwodo|Chima|2021|pp=21–39}}
== Legacy ==
In 1961, shortly after Independence, the Benin Moat was proclaimed a national monument by the Nigerian government.<ref name="beninmoatfoundation.org 2011 c975"/> Recognised for their historical significance, the Benin Iya have been placed on a tentative list of Nigerian World Heritage Sites, though they have yet to be included in the official list by UNESCO.<ref name=":0" />
The Guinness Book of World Records describes 'The Linear Earthworks of Benin and Isha' as "the longest earthworks of the pre-mechanical era", though this refers to the estimated length of all the earthworks and boundary traces across the country combined and not specifically to the moat and rampart surrounding Benin City.<ref name="guinnessworldrecords.com"/>
== Notes == {{notelist}}
== References == {{reflist}}
== Works cited == {{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}} * {{cite book |last1=Willett |first1=Frank |title=African Art: An Introduction |date=1985 |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=0-500-20103-X |edition=Reprint. |location=New York}} * {{cite journal |last=Connah |first=Graham |year=1972 |title=Archaeology in Benin |journal=The Journal of African History |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=25–38 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700000244 |s2cid=162976770 |issn=0021-8537}} * {{cite journal |last=Connah |first=Graham |title=New Light on the Benin City Walls |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41856902 |journal=Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria |date=24 September 1967 |publisher=Historical Society of Nigeria |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=593–609 |issn=0018-2540 |jstor=41856902 |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919090106/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856902 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last=Graham |first=James D. |year=1965 |title=The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History |journal=Cahiers d'études africaines |language=fr |publisher=PERSEE Program |volume=5 |issue=18 |pages=317–334 |doi=10.3406/cea.1965.3035 |issn=0008-0055}} * {{cite journal |last=Maduka |first=Chukwugozie |year=2014 |title=Preserving the Benin City Moats: The Interaction of Indigenous and Urban Environmental Values and Aesthetics |journal=Environmental Ethics |publisher=Philosophy Documentation Center |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=83–106 |doi=10.5840/enviroethics20143616 |bibcode=2014EnEth..36...83M |issn=0163-4275}} * {{cite journal |last1=Onwuanyi |first1=Ndubisi |last2=Nwodo |first2=Geoffrey |last3=Chima |first3=Pius |date=2021 |title=The Benin City Moat System: Functional Space Or Urban Void? |url=https://ajer.coou.edu.ng/index.php/journal/article/view/120 |journal=COOU African Journal of Environmental Research |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=21–39 |issn=2714-4461 |access-date=18 September 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919090102/https://ajer.coou.edu.ng/index.php/journal/article/view/120 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Adekola |first1=P. O. |last2=Iyalomhe |first2=F. O. |last3=Paczoski |first3=A. |last4=Abebe |first4=S. T. |last5=Pawłowska |first5=B. |last6=Bąk |first6=M. |last7=Cirella |first7=G. T. |date=11 January 2021 |title=Public perception and awareness of waste management from Benin City |journal=Scientific Reports |publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=306 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79688-y |pmid=33432016 |pmc=7801630 |issn=2045-2322}} * {{cite journal |last=Onokerhoraye |first=Andrew Godwin |year=1975 |title=Urbanism as an organ of traditional African civilization : The example of Benin, Nigeria / L'URBANISME, INSTRUMENT DE LA CIVILISATION AFRICAINE TRADITIONNELLE : L'EXEMPLE DE BENIN, NIGERIA |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/41229293 |journal=Civilisations |publisher=Institut de Sociologie de l'Université de Bruxelles |volume=25 |issue=3/4 |pages=294–306 |issn=0009-8140 |jstor=41229293 |access-date=25 September 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925171353/https://www.jstor.org/stable/41229293 |url-status=live }} * {{cite journal |last1=Nevadomsky |first1=Joseph |last2=Lawson |first2=Natalie |last3=Hazlett |first3=Ken |title=An Ethnographic and Space Syntax Analysis of Benin Kingdom Nobility Architecture |journal=The African Archaeological Review |publisher=Springer |volume=31 |issue=1 |year=2014 |issn=0263-0338 |jstor=43916862 |pages=59–85 |doi=10.1007/s10437-014-9151-x |s2cid=254187721 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/43916862 |access-date=25 September 2023 |archive-date=25 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925173217/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43916862 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} * {{cite web |title=The British Conquest of Benin and the Oba's Return |website=The Art Institute of Chicago |url=https://archive.artic.edu/benin/conquest/ |access-date= |ref=none |archive-date=29 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329133659/https://archive.artic.edu/benin/conquest/ |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last=Pearce |first=Fred |date=11 September 1999 |title=The African queen |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16322035-100-the-african-queen/ |access-date= |website=New Scientist |ref=none |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115200135/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16322035-100-the-african-queen/ |url-status=live }} {{refend}}
{{Archaeological sites in Nigeria}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Archaeological sites in Nigeria Benin Category:Architecture in Africa Category:Fortifications in Africa Category:Prehistoric Africa Category:World Heritage Sites in Nigeria Category:Historic buildings and structures in Nigeria Category:Linear earthworks Category:Archaeological sites of Western Africa