Atomic veteran

{{Short description|Soldier exposed to radiation by a nuclear explosion}} {{Nuclear weapons}} An '''atomic veteran''' is a veteran who was exposed to ionizing radiation while present in the site of a nuclear explosion during active duty. The U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs defines an atomic veteran "who, as part of his or her military service: Participated in an above-ground nuclear test, 1945–1962; or was part of the U.S. military occupation forces in/around Hiroshima/Nagasaki before 1946; or was held as a POW in or near Hiroshima or Nagasaki (certain cases)."<ref>[https://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/radiation/atomic-veteran-brochure.pdf Are YOU An Atomic Veteran?]</ref>

Atomic veterans also include service personnel from other nations, including the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, France, China, and Russia, who were similarly exposed during their active service.

== United States ==

=== Recognition === On July 15, 2021, President Joe Biden issued a presidential proclamation declaring July 16, 2021, the 76th anniversary of the Trinity test, as "National Atomic Veterans Day".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/07/15/a-proclamation-on-national-atomic-veterans-day-2021/|title = A Proclamation on National Atomic Veterans Day, 2021|date = 15 July 2021}}</ref>

=== Affected veterans=== The Defense Threat Reduction Agency's Nuclear Test Personnel Review has maintained a database of participants and radiation dose reconstructions since 1978. Dose reconstructions are used by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) to evaluate and decide veterans' claims filed under the provisions of Public Law (PL) 98-542 and implementing regulations in Title 38 of the Code of Federal Regulations, part 3.311.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/radiation/index.asp |title=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Public Health, Radiation |publisher=VA |accessdate=March 22, 2012}}</ref>

John Smitherman was a Navy sailor involved in the 1946 Bikini Atoll nuclear explosions, which resulted in extensive radioactive contamination of the area. Smitherman was diagnosed with lymphatic system cancer, underwent two leg amputations, and later became president of the National Association of Atomic Veterans.<ref>Tom Wicker [https://www.nytimes.com/1983/08/29/obituaries/in-the-nation-serving-his-country.html Serving his country], ''New York Times'', August 29, 1983.</ref> Smitherman was featured in Robert Stone's documentary film ''Radio Bikini'', which was nominated for an Academy Award in 1988.<ref>Leonard Klady, [https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-03-12-ca-636-story.html Radio Bikini: Documentary With Fallout], ''LA Times'', March 12, 1988.</ref>

Multiple veterans unveiled first-hand accounts of above-ground nuclear tests in the short film directed by Morgan Knibbe. The veterans recall the traumatic experience of watching an atomic explosion occur only a few miles from their position. From their recounting of the story, the soldiers had no idea what they were being tested for until the bomb exploded. The group interviewed in the video was sent out in standard military gear, consisting of a utility jacket, helmet, and gas mask.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Atomic Veterans 1946-1962 - Nuclear Museum |url=https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ahf/history/atomic-veterans-1946-1962/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org/ |language=en-US}}</ref> These men were sworn to secrecy or suffer a $10,000 fine or 10 years in prison and suffer from a multitude of health problems that stem from ionizing radiation.<ref name=":0" />

=== Investigation === A formal investigation<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.osti.gov/opennet/servlets/purl/464178/464178.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121009230424/https://www.osti.gov/opennet/servlets/purl/464178/464178.pdf |archive-date=2012-10-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> of the radiation exposure these veterans received, as well as radiation experiments conducted on humans, was initiated in 1994 by former President Bill Clinton, who apologized for their treatment in 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/vincent-intondi/justice-for-the-atomic-veterans_b_4582004.html |title=Apology by Bill Clinton to Atomic Veterans |website=HuffPost |date=13 January 2014 |accessdate=February 14, 2014}}</ref> "In 1996, the U.S. Congress repealed the Nuclear Radiation Secrecy Agreement Act, which rescinded the Atomic Veteran "oath-of-secrecy",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/radiation/atomic-veteran-brochure.pdf |title=Radiation data |publisher=publichealth.va.gov |date= |accessdate=2019-10-27}}</ref> thus allowing Atomic-Veterans the opportunity to recount stories of their participation in nuclear weapon testing and post-test event activities, without legal penalty.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.publichealth.va.gov/docs/radiation/atomic-veteran-brochure.pdf |title=Atomic Veteran Brochure | accessdate=February 14, 2014}}</ref> By this time, however, many thousands of Atomic Veterans, the majority of whom were afflicted with a host of radiation-induced health issues, such as cancer, had taken that "secret"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aarp.org/health/conditions-treatments/info-11-2011/atomic-veterans-special-benefits-radiation-exposure.html|title=Special Benefits to Atomic Veterans Exposed to Radiation - AARP Bulletin|first=Judi|last=Hasson|website=AARP}}</ref> with them to their graves.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naav.com/assets/2012_12_28_Claims-Pack-5.pdf |title=National Association of Atomic Veterans |accessdate=February 14, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131025184735/http://naav.com/assets/2012_12_28_Claims-Pack-5.pdf |archivedate=October 25, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aarp.org/health/conditions-treatments/info-11-2011/atomic-veterans-special-benefits-radiation-exposure.html |title=AARP Notification to Atomic Veterans|accessdate=February 14, 2014}}</ref>

The remaining atomic veterans may receive special priority enrollment for health care services from the VA for radiation-related conditions. In addition, atomic veterans are eligible to participate in an ionizing radiation registry examination program operated by the VA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/radiation/index.asp |title=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Public Health, Radiation |publisher=VA |accessdate=March 22, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.va.gov/healthbenefits/ |title=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration, Benefits |publisher=VA |accessdate=March 22, 2012}}</ref>

The only copies of service and medical records for many of these veterans were lost in a fire at the National Archives in 1973.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.archives.gov/st-louis/military-personnel/fire-1973.html |title=National Archives Fire of 1973|accessdate=February 14, 2014}}</ref> Veterans, or families of deceased veterans, whose records were lost in the fire, were denied these services and must go through an extensive reconstruction process to establish their presence during the time of atmospheric tests.

=== Compensation === The United States Department of Justice (DOJ) has a different compensation program established by the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act (RECA), which the United States Congress passed on October 5, 1990, and signed into law by President George H. W. Bush on October 15.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=18930#axzz2jQ7LPH3b|title=George Bush XLI President of the United States: 1989-1993 - Statement on Signing the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act|publisher=The American Presidency Project}}</ref> Atomic veterans who participated in atmospheric nuclear tests may be eligible.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/civil/common/reca.html|title=U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Division, Compensation Programs|publisher=DOJ|accessdate=March 22, 2012}}</ref> Through RECA, atomic veterans are labelled "Onsite Participants" and can qualify for up to $75,000 in compensation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-10-20 |title=Civil Division {{!}} Radiation Exposure Compensation Act |url=https://www.justice.gov/civil/common/reca |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=www.justice.gov |language=en}}</ref>

The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act was amended in 2013 and enlarged the geographic exposure area and the amount of compensation payable to Atomic Veterans and people living downwind of the tests. Other compensation may also be available from the United States Department of Labor under section SEC of the Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation Program.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dol.gov/agencies/owcp/energy/regs/compliance/progbenefits|title=Division of Energy Employees Occupational Illness Compensation|access-date=February 14, 2014}}</ref>

Epidemiological studies of atomic veterans have shown exposure to radiation to be associated with several disorders including leukemia, various cancers and cataracts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/radiation/diseases.asp|title=U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Office of Public Health, Diseases Associated with Ionizing Radiation Exposure|publisher=VA|accessdate=March 22, 2012}}</ref> It has been determined that studies on the children of atomic veterans, however, face "insurmountable" difficulties.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://nationalacademies.org/hmd/reports/1995/adverse-reproductive-outcomes-in-families-of-atomic-veterans-the-feasibility-of-epidemiologic-studies-1995.aspx|title=Adverse Reproductive Outcomes in Families of Atomic Veterans: The Feasibility of Epidemiologic Studies (1995) : Health and Medicine Division|website=nationalacademies.org|year=1995|publisher=National Academies Press |doi=10.17226/4992|pmid=25121308|isbn=978-0-309-05340-2|language=en|access-date=2017-08-19}}</ref>

== France ==

A cohort of workers who were exposed during the French nuclear weapons test program at Moruroa Atoll from 1966 to 1996 are represented by Mururoa e Tatou. The organization has been critical of the French government's initial denial of harm and limited commitment to compensation, valued at $13.5 million. The president of the organization estimates that between 15,000 and 30,000 people worked on the test program, but the official number remains a national secret.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/radio/onairhighlights/nuclear-workers-union-unhappy-with-offer-of-french-compensation|title=Nuclear workers union unhappy with offer of French compensation {{!}} Pacific Beat|website=www.radioaustralia.net.au|access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref>

== Australia == Australian servicemen supported British nuclear weapons test programs at Emu Field, Maralinga, the Montebello Islands and Kiritimati (then called Christmas Island) from 1952 to 1963. Associations representing Australian atomic veterans include the Australian Nuclear Veterans Association<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anva.org.au/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=55&catid=34|title=AUSTRALIAN NUCLEAR VETERANS ASSOCIATION - from the beginning|last=Martin|first=Mike|website=anva.org.au|access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref> and the Australian Ex-Servicemen Atomic Survivors Association.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-18/60-years-after-montebello-australian-diggers-await-recognition/7522826|title=Servicemen seek recognition for atomic survivors|date=2016-06-18|newspaper=ABC News|language=en-AU|access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref>

=== Compensation === The Clarke Review of Veterans Entitlements considered the compensation of Australian atomic veterans in 2003.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dva.gov.au/consultation-and-grants/reviews/clarke-review|title=Clarke Review|last=|first=|date=2014-09-18|website=www.dva.gov.au|publisher=Australian Government Department of Veterans Affairs|access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref> Since 2010, Australian Defence Force personnel who participated in the British nuclear tests have been eligible for compensation and health care benefits for medical conditions related to their service. Widows and widowers of deceased servicemen and women are also eligible for benefits if their partner's death is related to that service. A 'reasonable hypothesis' standard of proof is applied to all claims lodged.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dva.gov.au/benefits-and-payments/british-nuclear-tests|title=British Nuclear Tests|last=|first=|date=2016-08-10|website=www.dva.gov.au|publisher=Australian Government Department of Veterans Affairs|access-date=2017-01-06}}</ref>

== China == More than 100,000 Chinese troops were sent into the deserts of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region to provide construction labor for the Lop Nur Nuclear Test Base, where China's first atomic bombs were tested. A number of these troops later developed serious medical problems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/271274|title=China's nuclear tests allegedly caused 190k deaths|date=April 20, 2009|website=www.digitaljournal.com}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist}}

== External links == * [http://www.naav.com/ National Association of Atomic Veterans] * [http://www.vbdr.org/ Veterans Advisory Board on Dose Reconstruction] * [http://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/radiation/index.asp Office of Public Health: Military Exposures, Radiation - U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs] * [https://archive.org/details/WhereTheBoysWere A collection of facts and stories from Atomic Veterans relating their experiences in 1958 during Operation Hardtack 1.] * [https://archive.today/20140903175253/http://dl.tufts.edu/catalog/ead/tufts:UA069.001.DO.MS005 Atomic Veterans records, 1947-89], a collection held by Tufts Digital Collections and Archives * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569578|name=Big Picture: The Atom Soldier}} * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.2569664|name=Big Picture: Atomic Battlefield}} * [https://www.revealnews.org/article/us-veterans-in-secretive-nuclear-tests-still-fighting-for-recognition/ America's Atomic Vets] by Jennifer LaFleur with Reveal from [https://www.revealnews.org/ The Center for Investigative Reporting] * [http://www.retroreport.org/video/atomic-vets/ Atomic Vets] a short documentary by Retro Report.

Category:Nuclear weapon safety Category:Veterans' affairs in Australia Category:Veterans' affairs in France Category:Veterans' affairs in Russia Category:Veterans' affairs in the United Kingdom Category:Veterans' affairs in the United States