Immigration

{{Short description|Movement of people into another country or region to which they are not native }} {{About||the practice of checking travellers' documents when entering a country|border control|the album by Show-Ya|Immigration (album)}} {{Distinguish|emigration|Migration (disambiguation){{!}}migration}} {{Redirect|Immigrant}} {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}}

[[File:Net Migration Rate, Population Reference Bureau, Current.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|[[Net migration rate]]s per 1,000 people in 2023. On net people travel from redder countries to bluer countries.]] {{legal status of persons}} {{Immigration sidebar}} '''Immigration''' is the international movement of people to a destination [[country]] of which they are not usual residents or where they do not possess [[nationality]] in order to settle as [[Permanent residency|permanent residents]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/immigration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105204641/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/immigration|archive-date=5 November 2013|title=immigration|publisher=Oxford University Press|website=OxfordDictionaries.com|access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/immigration| title=immigrate|publisher=Merriam-Webster, In.|website=Merriam-Webster.com|access-date=27 March 2014}}</ref><ref name="RCUK">{{cite web|title=Who's who: Definitions|url=http://www.refugeecouncil.org.uk/policy_research/the_truth_about_asylum/the_facts_about_asylum |publisher=Refugee Council|location=London, England|year=2016|access-date= 7 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=19 June 2019 |title=International Migration Law No. 34 – Glossary on Migration |url=https://publications.iom.int/books/international-migration-law-ndeg34-glossary-migration |journal=[[International Organization for Migration]] |language=en |pages= |issn=1813-2278}}</ref> [[Commuting|Commuters]], [[Tourism|tourists]], and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration—though an individual could overstay a [[travel visa]] and become an immigrant or permanent resident—[[Seasonal industry|seasonal labour]] is sometimes included in the definition of immigration.

Economically, research suggests that migration can be beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries.<ref name="How to Achieve Inclusive Growth">{{Citation|last1=Koczan|first1=Zsoka|chapter=Migration|date=2021|title=How to Achieve Inclusive Growth|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-284693-8|last2=Peri|first2=Giovanni|last3=Pinat|first3=Magali|last4=Rozhkov|first4=Dmitriy |editor=Valerie Cerra |editor2=Barry Eichengreen |editor3=Asmaa El-Ganainy |editor4=Martin Schindler |doi=10.1093/oso/9780192846938.003.0009|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780192846938.001.0001/oso-9780192846938-chapter-9|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="di GiovanniLevchenko2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = di Giovanni | first1 = Julian|last2=Levchenko|first2=Andrei A.|last3=Ortega|first3=Francesc|date=1 February 2015|title=A Global View of Cross-Border Migration|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association|volume=13|issue=1|pages=168–202|doi=10.1111/jeea.12110|issn=1542-4774|hdl=10230/22196| s2cid = 3465938| url = https://econ-papers.upf.edu/papers/1414.pdf}}</ref><ref name="WorldBank2016">{{Cite web | last1 = Willenbockel | first1 = Dirk Andreas |last2=Go|first2=Delfin Sia|last3=Ahmed|first3=S. Amer|date=11 April 2016|title=Global migration revisited: short-term pains, long-term gains, and the potential of south-south migration |website=The World Bank |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2016/04/26208170/global-migration-revisited-short-term-pains-long-term-gains-potential-south-south-migration|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503090538/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2016/04/26208170/global-migration-revisited-short-term-pains-long-term-gains-potential-south-south-migration|archive-date=3 May 2016}}</ref> The academic literature provides mixed findings for the relationship between [[immigration and crime]] worldwide.<ref name="NASEM-2015">{{Cite book |date=2015|title=The Integration of Immigrants into American Society|url=https://www.nap.edu/read/21746/chapter/9#326|language=en|publisher=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|doi=10.17226/21746|bibcode=2015nap..book21746N |quote=Americans have long believed that immigrants are more likely than natives to commit crimes and that rising immigration leads to rising crime... This belief is remarkably resilient to the contrary evidence that immigrants are in fact much less likely than natives to commit crimes.|isbn=978-0-309-37398-2}}</ref><ref name="Lee-2009">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WtYEoD4u9RYC|title=Immigration, Crime and Justice|author1=Lee, Matthew T.|author2=Martinez Jr., Ramiro|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1-84855-438-2|pages=3–16|chapter=Immigration reduces crime: an emerging scholarly consensus}}</ref> Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation, but that there is considerable assimilation overall for both first- and second-generation immigrants.<ref name="VillarrealTamborini2018">{{Cite journal|title=Immigrants' Economic Assimilation: Evidence from Longitudinal Earnings Records|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=83|issue=4|pages=686–715|doi=10.1177/0003122418780366|pmid=30555169|pmc=6290669|year=2018|last1=Villarreal|first1=Andrés|last2=Tamborini|first2=Christopher R.}}</ref><ref name="Blau2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = Blau | first1 = Francine D.|date=2015|title=Immigrants and Gender Roles: Assimilation vs. Culture|journal=IZA Journal of Migration|volume=4|issue=1|pages=1–21| article-number = 23|doi=10.1186/s40176-015-0048-5 | s2cid = 53414354|url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/amm2014/blau_f340.pdf |access-date=13 October 2018| doi-access = free}}</ref>

[[Discrimination based on nationality]] is legal in most countries.<ref name="Fennelly">{{Cite journal |last1=Fennelly |first1=David |title=Racial Discrimination and Nationality and Migration Exceptions: Reconciling CERD and the Race Equality Directive |last2=Murphy |first2=Clíodhna |date=2021 |journal=Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights |volume=39 |pages=308–328 |doi=10.1177/09240519211055648 |issue=4|s2cid=243839359 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Extensive evidence of [[discrimination]] against foreign-born persons in criminal justice, business, the economy, housing, health care, media, and politics has been found.<ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Zschirnt | first1 = Eva|last2=Ruedin|first2=Didier|date=27 May 2016|title=Ethnic discrimination in hiring decisions: a meta-analysis of correspondence tests 1990–2015|journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies|volume=42|issue=7|pages=1115–1134|doi=10.1080/1369183X.2015.1133279|issn=1369-183X|hdl=10419/142176| s2cid = 10261744| url = https://zenodo.org/record/3559839}}</ref><ref name="Rich2014">{{cite journal |last1=Rich |first1=Judy |title=What Do Field Experiments of Discrimination in Markets Tell Us? A Meta Analysis of Studies Conducted since 2000 |journal=IZA Discussion Papers |date= October 2014 |issue= 8584 |url= http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/viewAbstract?dp_id=8584 |access-date=24 April 2016 |language=en |ssrn=2517887}}</ref><ref name="RehaviStarr2014">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rehavi | first1 = M. Marit|last2=Starr|first2=Sonja B.|date=2014|title=Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences|journal=Journal of Political Economy|language=en|volume=122|issue=6|pages=1320–1354|doi=10.1086/677255| s2cid = 3348344|issn=0022-3808| url = https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/1414}}</ref><ref name="Enos2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Enos | first1 = Ryan D.|date=1 January 2016|title=What the Demolition of Public Housing Teaches Us about the Impact of Racial Threat on Political Behavior|journal=American Journal of Political Science|language=en|volume=60|issue=1|pages=123–142|doi=10.1111/ajps.12156| s2cid = 51895998}}</ref>

== History == The term ''immigration'' was coined in the 17th century, referring to non-warlike population movements between the emerging [[nation state]]s. When people cross [[Border|national borders]] during their migration, they are called ''migrants'' or ''immigrants'' from the perspective of the destination country. In contrast, from the perspective of the country from which they leave, they are called ''[[Emigration|emigrants]]'' or ''outmigrants''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/outmigrant|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718140923/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/outmigrant|archive-date=18 July 2012|title=outmigrant|website=OxfordDictionaries.com|publisher=Oxford University Press|access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref> {{Excerpt|History of human migration}}

== Statistics == {{See also|List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|List of sovereign states by net migration rate}} [[File:UN Stats.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|The global population of immigrants has grown since 1990 but has remained constant at around 3% of the world's population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/data/estimates2/estimates15.asp|title=United Nations Population Division {{!}} Department of Economic and Social Affairs|website=www.un.org|language=EN|access-date=28 August 2019}}</ref>]] {{As of|2015}}, the number of international migrants has reached 244 million worldwide, which reflects a 41% increase since 2000. The largest number of international migrants live in the [[Immigration to the United States|United States]], with 19% of the world's total. One third of the world's international migrants are living in just 20 countries. [[Immigration to Germany|Germany]] and Russia host 12 million migrants each, taking the second and third place in countries with the most migrants worldwide. Saudi Arabia hosts 10 million migrants, followed by the [[Modern immigration to the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] (9 million) and the United Arab Emirates (8 million).<ref name="UN.org-2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/populationfacts/docs/MigrationPopFacts20154.pdf|title=Trends in international migration, 2015 |date=December 2015|website=UN.org|publisher=[[United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs]], Population Division|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref> In most parts of the world, migration occurs between countries that are located within the same major area. Between 2000 and 2015, Asia added more international migrants than any other major area in the world, gaining 26 million. Europe added the second largest with about 20 million.<ref name="UN.org-2015" />

In 2015, the number of international migrants below the age of 20 reached 37 million, while 177 million are between the ages of 20 and 64. International migrants living in Africa were the youngest, with a median age of 29, followed by Asia (35 years), and Latin America/Caribbean (36 years), while migrants were older in Northern America (42 years), Europe (43 years), and Oceania (44 years).<ref name="UN.org-2015" />

Nearly half (43%) of all international migrants originate in Asia, and Europe was the birthplace of the second largest number of migrants (25%), followed by Latin America (15%). [[Indian diaspora|India]] has the largest diaspora in the world (16 million people), followed by [[Mexican diaspora|Mexico]] (12 million) and [[Russian diaspora|Russia]] (11 million).<ref name="UN.org-2015" />

<div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/Migrant stock total#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:Migrant stock total, World, 2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|[[List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|The number of migrants and migrant workers per country]]]] |startingView = World }} </div> <div style="display:inline-table; vertical-align:top;"> {{owidslider |start = 2024 |list = Template:OWID/migrant stock share#gallery |location = commons |caption = |title = |language = |file = [[File:migrant-stock-share,World,2024 (cropped).svg|link=|thumb|upright=1.6|right|The share of migrants and migrant workers per country]] |startingView = World }}

</div>

=== 2012 survey === A 2012 survey by [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] found that given the opportunity, 640 million adults would migrate to another country, with 23% of these would-be immigrant choosing the [[United States]] as their desired future residence, while 7% of respondents, representing 45 million people, would choose the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Australia]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Italy]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] made up the rest of the top ten desired destination countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/153992/150-Million-Adults-Worldwide-Migrate.aspx |title=150 Million Adults Worldwide Would Migrate to the U.S |publisher=Gallup.com |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=14 May 2014}}</ref>

=== Current === [[File:1990- Growth in share of population that is foreign-born - by country.svg|upright=1.3|thumb |In recent decades, immigration to nearly every Western country has risen sharply.<ref name=NYTimes_20240612>{{cite news |last1=Leonhardt |first1=David |title=The Force Shaping Western Politics |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/12/briefing/immigration-european-us-elections.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=12 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612124539/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/12/briefing/immigration-european-us-elections.html |archive-date=12 June 2024 |url-status=live }}</ref> The slopes of the tops of the differently-colored columns show the rate of percent increase in foreign-born people living in the respective countries.]] In USA there were in 2023 1,197,254 immigration applications initial receipts, 523,477 immigration cases completed, and 2,464,021 immigration cases pending according to the U.S. Department of Justice.<ref>[https://www.justice.gov/d9/pages/attachments/2020/01/31/1_pending_new_receipts_and_total_completions.pdf Pending Cases, New Cases and Total Completions, Executive Office For Immigration Review, Adjuction Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice]</ref>

== Environmental migration == {{excerpt|Environmental migrant}}

== Economic migrant == [[File:Indo-Bangladeshi Barrier.JPG|right|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Bangladesh–India border|Indo-Bangladeshi barrier]] in 2007. [[India]] is building a [[separation barrier]] along the {{convert|4,000|km|adj=on}} border with Bangladesh to prevent illegal immigration.]]

The term economic migrant refers to someone who has travelled from one region to another region for the purposes of seeking employment and an improvement in quality of life and access to resources. An economic migrant is distinct from someone who is a [[refugee]] fleeing persecution.

Many countries have immigration and visa restrictions that prohibit a person entering the country for the purposes of gaining work without a valid work visa. As a violation of a [[State (polity)|State's]] immigration laws a person who is declared to be an economic migrant can be refused entry into a country.

The [[World Bank]] estimates that [[remittance]]s totaled $420 billion in 2009, of which $317 billion went to developing countries.<ref name="worldbank" />

== Economic effects == {{main|Economic effects of immigration|Global labor arbitrage}}

Research suggests that immigration can be beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries.<ref name="How to Achieve Inclusive Growth"/><ref name="di GiovanniLevchenko2015"/><ref name="WorldBank2016" /> Immigration can have positive economic effects on the native population,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-07-21 |title=The Positive Economic Impact Of Immigration |url=https://www.fwd.us/news/immigration-facts-the-positive-economic-impact-of-immigration/ |access-date=2025-10-02 |website=FWD.us |language=en}}</ref> mixed effects where low-skilled immigration adversely affects underprivileged natives,<ref name="CardDustmann2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Card | first1 = David|last2=Dustmann|first2=Christian|last3=Preston|first3=Ian|date=1 February 2012|title=Immigration, Wages, and Compositional Amenities|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association|volume=10|issue=1|pages=78–119|doi=10.1111/j.1542-4774.2011.01051.x| s2cid = 154303869|issn=1542-4774| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w15521.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The economics of immigration: theory and policy | last1 = Bodvarsson | first1 = Örn B|last2=Van den Berg|first2=Hendrik|year=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4614-2115-3|location=New York; Heidelberg [u.a.]|page=157|oclc = 852632755}}</ref><ref name="IGM Forum">{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/surveys/migration-within-europe|title=Migration Within Europe {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=7 December 2016}}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0JtSLKwzqNSfrAF|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=19 September 2015|archive-date=5 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905120022/http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_0JtSLKwzqNSfrAF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_5vuNnqkBeAMAfHv|title=Poll Results {{!}} IGM Forum|website=www.igmchicago.org|access-date=19 September 2015|archive-date=29 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029232825/http://www.igmchicago.org/igm-economic-experts-panel/poll-results?SurveyID=SV_5vuNnqkBeAMAfHv}}</ref> reduce wages due to [[Frisch elasticity of labor supply|elasticity of labor supply]],<ref name="g315">{{cite journal | last1=Borjas | first1=George J. | last2=Freeman | first2=Richard B. | last3=Katz | first3=Lawrence F. | last4=DiNardo | first4=John | last5=Abowd | first5=John M. | title=How Much Do Immigration and Trade Affect Labor Market Outcomes? | journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity | publisher=Brookings Institution Press | volume=1997 | issue=1 | year=1997 | issn=0007-2303 | jstor=2534701 | pages=1–90 | doi=10.2307/2534701 }}</ref> or achieve negative projected economic [[life-cycle assessment|life-cycle impacts]].<ref name="i933">{{cite book | title=Projecting the net fiscal impact of immigration in the EU. | date=2020 | publisher=Publications Office | doi=10.2760/582639 | url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/582639 | access-date=3 May 2025 | page= | author1=European Commission. Joint Research Centre. | isbn=978-92-76-23423-4 }}</ref> Studies suggest that the elimination of barriers to migration would have profound effects on world [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], with estimates of gains ranging between 67 and 147 percent for the scenarios in which 37 to 53 percent of the developing countries' workers migrate to the developed countries.<ref name="Iregui2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Iregui | first1 = Ana Maria|date=1 January 2003|title=Efficiency Gains from the Elimination of Global Restrictions on Labour Mobility: An Analysis using a Multiregional CGE Model |journal=Wider Working Paper Series |url=https://ideas.repec.org/p/unu/wpaper/dp2003-27.html}}</ref><ref name="Clemens2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Clemens | first1 = Michael A|date=1 August 2011|title=Economics and Emigration: Trillion-Dollar Bills on the Sidewalk?|journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives|volume=25|issue=3|pages=83–106|doi=10.1257/jep.25.3.83 |doi-access=free| s2cid = 59507836|issn=0895-3309| url = https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1912544_code794896.pdf?abstractid=1912544&mirid=1}}</ref><ref name="HamiltonWhalley1984">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hamilton | first1 = B.|last2=Whalley|first2=J.|date=1 February 1984|title=Efficiency and distributional implications of global restrictions on labour mobility: calculations and policy implications|journal=Journal of Development Economics|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=61–75|doi=10.1016/0304-3878(84)90043-9|issn=0304-3878|pmid=12266702}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dustmann|first1=Christian|last2=Preston|first2=Ian P.|date=2 August 2019|title=Free Movement, Open Borders, and the Global Gains from Labor Mobility|journal=Annual Review of Economics|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=783–808|doi=10.1146/annurev-economics-080218-025843|issn=1941-1383|doi-access=free}}</ref> Some [[Development economics|development economists]] argue that reducing barriers to labor mobility or trade between developing countries and developed countries would be one of the most efficient tools of poverty reduction.<ref name="Milanovic2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = Milanovic | first1 = Branko|date=7 January 2014|title=Global Inequality of Opportunity: How Much of Our Income Is Determined by Where We Live?|journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=97|issue=2|pages=452–460|doi=10.1162/REST_a_00432|issn=0034-6535| hdl = 10986/21484| s2cid = 11046799|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Mishra2014">{{Cite book |last1=Mishra|first1=Prachi |chapter=Emigration and wages in source countries: A survey of the empirical literature |title= International Handbook on Migration and Economic Development |pages=241–266|doi=10.4337/9781782548072.00013 |isbn=978-1-78254-807-2|date=2014|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|s2cid=143429722}}</ref><ref name="Clemens-2019">{{cite journal|last1=Clemens|first1=Michael A.|last2=Pritchett|first2=Lant|date=2019|title=The New Economic Case for Migration Restrictions: An Assessment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0304387818306382|journal=Journal of Development Economics|volume=138|language=en|issue=9730|pages=153–164|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2018.12.003|s2cid=204418677| issn = 0304-3878|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Pritchett|first1=Lant|last2=Hani|first2=Farah|date=30 July 2020|title=The Economics of International Wage Differentials and Migration|url=https://oxfordre.com/economics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.001.0001/acrefore-9780190625979-e-353|access-date=11 August 2020|series=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190625979.013.353|isbn=978-0-19-062597-9}}</ref> [[Work permit]]s can [[Crowding out (economics)|crowd out]] citizens.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doran |first1=Kirk |last2=Gelber |first2=Alexander |last3=Isen |first3=Adam |date=2022 |title=The Effects of High-Skilled Immigration Policy on Firms: Evidence from Visa Lotteries |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/720467 |journal=Journal of Political Economy |volume=130 |issue=10 |pages=2501–2533 |doi=10.1086/720467 |issn=0022-3808|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Due to the compositional effect immigrants with below [[median income]] decrease and immigrants with above median income increase the median income of the whole population of a country.<ref name="g327">{{cite journal | last1=Dustmann | first1=Christian | last2=Kastis | first2=Yannis | last3=Preston | first3=Ian | title=Inequality and immigration | journal=Oxford Open Economics | volume=3 | issue=Supplement_1 | date=2024 | issn=2752-5074 | doi=10.1093/ooec/odad052 | pages=i453–i473 | url=https://academic.oup.com/ooec/article/3/Supplement_1/i453/7708103 | access-date=2026-05-23}}</ref>

== Quality of institutions == A 2015 study finds "some evidence that larger immigrant population shares (or inflows) yield positive impacts on institutional quality. At a minimum, our results indicate that no negative impact on economic freedom is associated with more immigration."<ref name="ClarkLawson2015">{{cite journal |last2=Lawson|first2=Robert|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex|last4=Powell|first4=Benjamin|last5=Murphy|first5=Ryan|date=June 2015|title=Does immigration impact institutions? |journal=[[Public Choice (journal)|Public Choice]]|volume=163|issue=3|pages=321–335|doi=10.1007/s11127-015-0254-y|last1=Clark|first1=J.R.|s2cid=55968273|url=https://issuelab.org/resources/31059/31059.pdf }}</ref> Another study, looking at the increase in Israel's population in the 1990s due to the unrestricted immigration of Jews from the Soviet Union, finds that the mass immigration did not undermine political institutions, and substantially increased the quality of economic institutions.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1 September 2017|title=Does mass immigration destroy institutions? 1990s Israel as a natural experiment|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016726811730166X|journal=Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization|language=en|volume=141|pages=83–95|doi=10.1016/j.jebo.2017.06.008|issn=0167-2681|last1=Powell|first1=Benjamin|last2=Clark|first2=J.R.|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A 2017 study in the ''[[British Journal of Political Science]]'' argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions in order to attract migrant workers to their colonies.<ref name="Nikolova2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = Nikolova | first1 = Elena|date=1 January 2017|title=Destined for Democracy? Labour Markets and Political Change in Colonial British America |journal=British Journal of Political Science|volume=47|issue=1|pages=19–45|doi=10.1017/S0007123415000101| s2cid = 17112994|issn=0007-1234| url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1573632/}}</ref><ref name="NikolovaNikolova2017">{{Cite journal | last1 = Nikolova | first1 = Elena|last2=Nikolova|first2=Milena|date=1 September 2017|title=Suffrage, labour markets and coalitions in colonial Virginia |journal=European Journal of Political Economy|volume=49|pages=108–122|doi=10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2017.01.002|hdl=10419/147912| s2cid = 157369080| url = http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1573630/}}</ref> A 2018 study fails to find evidence that immigration to the United States weakens economic freedom.<ref name="PadillaCachanosky2018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Padilla | first1 = Alexandre|last2=Cachanosky|first2=Nicolás|date=5 February 2018|title=The Grecian horse: does immigration lead to the deterioration of American institutions? |journal=Public Choice|volume=174|issue=3–4|language=en|pages=351–405|doi=10.1007/s11127-018-0509-5| s2cid = 157264613|issn=0048-5829}}</ref> A 2019 study of Jordan found that the massive influx of refugees into Jordan during the Gulf War had long-lasting positive effects on Jordanian economic institutions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Blondin|first1=Cole|last2=Forrester|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Nowrasteh|first3=Alex|title=How Mass Immigration Affects Countries with Weak Economic Institutions: A Natural Experiment in Jordan|journal=The World Bank Economic Review|language=en|doi=10.1093/wber/lhy032|year=2019|volume=34|issue=2|pages=533–549|hdl=10986/31559|url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/944551555006432470/pdf/How-Mass-Immigration-Affects-Countries-with-Weak-Economic-Institutions-A-Natural-Experiment-in-Jordan.pdf}}</ref>

== Education == A 2016 study found that immigration in the period 1940–2010 in the United States increased the high school completion of natives: "An increase of one percentage point in the share of immigrants in the population aged 11–64 increases the probability that natives aged 11–17 eventually complete 12 years of schooling by 0.3 percentage point."<ref name="Hunt2017">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hunt | first1 = Jennifer|date=2 September 2016|title=The Impact of Immigration on the Educational Attainment of Natives|url=http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2016/08/31/jhr.52.4.0115-6913R1|journal=Journal of Human Resources|language=en|pages=0115–6913R1|doi=10.3368/jhr.52.4.0115-6913R1|issn=0022-166X|volume=52|issue=4|hdl=10419/67241|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A 2019 NBER paper found little evidence that exposure to foreign-born students had an effect on US-born students.<ref>{{Cite report |last1=Fletcher|first1=Jason|last2=Kim|first2=Jinho|last3=Nobles|first3=Jenna|last4=Ross|first4=Stephen|last5=Shaorshadze|first5=Irina|date=2019|title=The Effects of Foreign-Born Peers in US High Schools and Middle Schools |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w26491 |doi-access=free |s2cid=213323363}}</ref>

Studies have found that non-native speakers of English in the UK have no causal effect on the performance of other pupils,<ref name="GeayMcNally2013">{{Cite journal|title = Non-native Speakers of English in the Classroom: What Are the Effects on Pupil Performance?|journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 August 2013|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F281–F307|volume = 123|issue = 570|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12054|first1 = Charlotte|last1 = Geay|first2 = Sandra|last2 = McNally|first3 = Shqiponja|last3 = Telhaj|s2cid = 14306752|url = http://cee.lse.ac.uk/ceedps/ceedp137.pdf|access-date = 23 July 2019|archive-date = 17 October 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191017194205/http://cee.lse.ac.uk/ceedps/ceedp137.pdf}}</ref> immigrant children have no significant effect on the test scores of Dutch children,<ref name="OhinataVan Ours2013">{{Cite journal|title = How Immigrant Children Affect the Academic Achievement of Native Dutch Children |journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 August 2013|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F308–F331|volume = 123|issue = 570|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12052|language = en | first1 = Asako | last1 = Ohinata|first2 = Jan C.|last2 = van Ours|s2cid = 29570106|url = http://www.norface-migration.org/publ_uploads/NDP_12_12.pdf}}</ref> no effect on grade repetition among native students exposed to migrant students in Austrian schools,<ref name="Schneeweis2015">{{Cite journal|title = Immigrant concentration in schools: Consequences for native and migrant students |journal = Labour Economics|date = 1 August 2015|pages = 63–76|volume = 35|doi = 10.1016/j.labeco.2015.03.004 | first1 = Nicole | last1 = Schneeweis|hdl = 10419/115095|s2cid = 74494602|url = http://www.econ.jku.at/papers/2013/wp1303.pdf|hdl-access = free}}</ref> that the presence of Latin American children in schools had no significant negative effects on peers, but that students with limited English skills had slight negative effects on peers,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diette |first1=Timothy M. |last2=Uwaifo Oyelere |first2=Ruth|title=Gender and Racial Differences in Peer Effects of Limited English Students: A Story of Language or Ethnicity?|journal=IZA Discussion Papers |date=January 2016 |issue=9661|url=http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/viewAbstract?dp_id=9661 |access-date= 21 January 2016|language=en }}</ref> and that the influx of Haitians to Florida public schools after the [[2010 Haiti earthquake]] had no effects on the educational outcomes of incumbent students.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Unwelcome Guests? The Effects of Refugees on the Educational Outcomes of Incumbent Students|journal = Journal of Labor Economics|volume = 37|issue = 4|pages = 1061–1096|date=2019|doi=10.1086/703116|last1 = Figlio|first1 = David|last2 = Özek|first2 = Umut|s2cid = 158575753|url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w23661.pdf}}</ref>

A 2018 study found that the "presence of immigrant students who have been in the country for some time is found to have no effect on natives. However, a small negative effect of recent immigrants on natives' language scores is reported."<ref name="Bossavie2018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bossavie | first1 = Laurent|date=5 September 2018|title=The Effect of Immigration on Natives' School Performance: Does Length of Stay in the Host Country Matter?|url=http://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2018/09/04/jhr.55.3.1017-9151R2|journal=Journal of Human Resources|language=en|pages=1017–9151R2|doi=10.3368/jhr.55.3.1017-9151R2| s2cid = 159010723|issn=0022-166X|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Another 2018 study found that the presence of immigrant students to Italy was associated with "small negative average effects on maths test scores that are larger for low ability native students, strongly non-linear and only observable in classes with a high (top 20%) immigrant concentration. These outcomes are driven by classes with a high average linguistic distance between immigrants and natives, with no apparent additional role played by ethnic diversity."<ref>{{Cite journal|date=25 December 2018|title=The effect of immigrant peers in vocational schools#|url=http://dagliano.unimi.it/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/WP2017_430.pdf|journal=European Economic Review|volume=113|pages=1–22|language=en|doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2018.12.005|issn=0014-2921|last1=Frattini|first1=Tommaso|last2=Meschi|first2=Elena|hdl=2434/608118|s2cid=85504429}}</ref>

After immigrant children's scores were included in [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA) 15-year-old school pupils' educational evaluations in Sweden the Swedish PISA scores significantly decreased.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.expressen.se/nyheter/qs/sveriges-pisa-framgang-bygger-pa-falska-siffror/|title=Sveriges PISA-framgång bygger på falska siffror|date=2 June 2020 }}</ref>

== Social capital == There is some research that suggests that immigration adversely affects [[social capital]].<ref name="AlganHémet2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Algan | first1 = Yann|last2=Hémet|first2=Camille|last3=Laitin|first3=David D.|date=4 May 2016|title=The Social Effects of Ethnic Diversity at the Local Level: A Natural Experiment with Exogenous Residential Allocation |journal=Journal of Political Economy|page=000|doi=10.1086/686010|issn=0022-3808|volume=124|issue=3| s2cid = 15590490| url = http://spire.sciencespo.fr/hdl:/2441/30a25e1csn8pqrmbq8oije0o6j}}</ref> One study, for instance, found that "larger increases in US states' Mexican population shares correspond to larger decreases in social capital over the period" 1986–2004.<ref name="Levy2018">{{Cite journal|title = The Effect of Immigration from Mexico on Social Capital in the United States |journal = International Migration Review|volume = 51|issue = 3|date = 1 December 2015|issn = 1747-7379|pages = 757–788|doi = 10.1111/imre.12231 | first1 = Morris | last1 = Levy|s2cid = 155253270}}</ref> A 2017 study in the ''[[Journal of Comparative Economics]]'' found that "individuals whose ancestors migrated from countries with higher autocracy levels are less likely to trust others and to vote in presidential elections in the U.S. The impact of autocratic culture on trust can last for at least three generations while the impact on voting disappears after one generation. These impacts on trust and voting are also significant across Europe."<ref name="XuJin2018">{{Cite journal |title=The autocratic roots of social distrust| doi=10.1016/j.jce.2017.12.002|year=2018|journal=Journal of Comparative Economics |volume=46|issue=1 |pages=362–380 | last1 = Xu | first1 = Xu | last2 = Jin | first2 = Xin| s2cid=157751513|issn=0147-5967}}</ref> A 2019 study found that "humans are inclined to react negatively to threats to homogeneity... in the short term. However, these negative outcomes are compensated in the long term by the beneficial influence of intergroup contact, which alleviates initial negative influences."<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hewstone|first1=Miles|last2=Massey|first2=Douglas S.|last3=Bennett|first3=Matthew R.|last4=Ramos|first4=Miguel R.|date=9 May 2019|title=Humans adapt to social diversity over time|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=116|issue=25|language=en|pages=12244–12249|doi=10.1073/pnas.1818884116|issn=0027-8424|pmid=31072924|pmc=6589669|bibcode=2019PNAS..11612244R |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Health == {{See also|Mental health and immigration detention}} Research suggests that immigration has positive effects on native workers' health.<ref name="Giuntella-2019">{{Cite journal|last1=Giuntella|first1=Osea|last2=Mazzonna|first2=Fabrizio|last3=Nicodemo|first3=Catia|last4=Vargas-Silva|first4=Carlos|date=1 July 2019|title=Immigration and the reallocation of work health risks|journal=Journal of Population Economics|language=en|volume=32|issue=3|pages=1009–1042|doi=10.1007/s00148-018-0710-3|issn=1432-1475|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Gunadi-2020">{{Cite journal|last=Gunadi|first=Christian|title=Immigration and the Health of U.S. Natives|journal=Southern Economic Journal|year=2020|volume=86|issue=4|language=en|pages=1278–1306|doi=10.1002/soej.12425|s2cid=214313284|issn=2325-8012}}</ref> As immigration rises, native workers are pushed into less demanding jobs, which improves native workers' health outcomes.<ref name="Giuntella-2019" /><ref name="Gunadi-2020" />

A 2018 study found that immigration to the United Kingdom "reduced waiting times for outpatient referrals and did not have significant effects on waiting times in accident and emergency departments (A&E) and elective care."<ref name="GiuntellaNicodemo2018">{{Cite journal|date=1 March 2018|title=The effects of immigration on NHS waiting times|journal=Journal of Health Economics|language=en|volume=58|pages=123–143|doi=10.1016/j.jhealeco.2018.02.001|pmid=29477952|issn=0167-6296|last1=Giuntella|first1=Osea|last2=Nicodemo|first2=Catia|last3=Vargas-Silva|first3=Carlos|doi-access=free}}</ref> The study also found "evidence that immigration increased waiting times for outpatient referrals in more deprived areas outside of London" but that this increase disappears after 3 to 4 years.<ref name="GiuntellaNicodemo2018" />

A 2018 systemic review and meta-analysis in ''The Lancet'' found that migrants generally have better health than the general population.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abubakar|first1=Ibrahim|last2=Friedland|first2=Jon S.|last3=Tollman|first3=Stephen|last4=Miranda|first4=J. Jaime|last5=Hargreaves|first5=Sally|last6=Burns|first6=Rachel|last7=Patel|first7=Parth|last8=Barr|first8=Anna Louise|last9=Bartlett|first9=Sean|date=5 December 2018|title=Global patterns of mortality in international migrants: a systematic review and meta-analysis|url= |journal=The Lancet|volume=392|language=en|issue=10164|pages=2553–2566|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(18)32781-8|pmid=30528484|pmc=6294735|issn=1474-547X}}</ref>

In the EU, the use of [[personal health record]]s for migrants is being tested in the new REHEALTH 2 project.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/personal-health-records-migrants|title=PHR for migrants|date=4 September 2017 }}</ref>

High immigration can cause higher stress on highly regulated sectors such as healthcare, education, and housing, leading to negative effects.<ref>[https://clef.uwaterloo.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/CLEF-058-2023.pdf Doyle, Matthew, Mikal Skuterud, and Christopher Worswick. The economics of Canadian immigration levels. No. 58. Working Paper Series, 2023.]</ref>

== Housing == Immigration tends to increase both local rents and house prices,<ref name="Sá2015" /> but this dependency varies depending on factors including [[price elasticity of supply|price elasticity of new housing supply]],<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://repec.its.waikato.ac.nz/wai/econwp/1907.pdf | doi=10.1007/978-3-030-48291-6_12 | chapter=Effects of Immigration on Local Housing Markets | title=The Economic Geography of Cross-Border Migration | series=Footprints of Regional Science | date=2021 | last1=Cochrane | first1=William | last2=Poot | first2=Jacques | pages=269–292 | isbn=978-3-030-48290-9 }}</ref> [[Socioeconomic status|socioeconomics]] of immigrants, and internal migration of natives.<ref name="Sá2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = Sá | first1 = Filipa|date=1 September 2015|title=Immigration and House Prices in the UK |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=125|issue=587|pages=1393–1424|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12158|issn=1468-0297|hdl=10419/51818| s2cid = 11283393| url = https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp5893|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

== Crime == {{excerpt|Immigration and crime}} [[Employment fraud|Bogus recruitment agencies]] and rogue recruitment agencies make fake promises of better opportunities, education, income, some of the abuses and crimes experienced by immigrants are the followed: * Employees are forced to work in activities that were not included in their contracts, where [[workplace harassment]] is openly allowed, tolerated and even promoted. * Workers are forced to work more than 20 hours a day with low wages or no payment, * Slavery, * [[human trafficking]], * [[Sexual harassment]], [[sexual abuse]], [[sexual assault]], [[sexual exploitation]]. * Offering fake immigrant visas in order to make it impossible for employees to return to their countries.

In many countries there is a lack of prosecution of this crimes, since these countries obtain benefits and taxes paid by these companies that benefit the economies and also because of the current shortage of workers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/forced-labour/lang--en/index.htm|title=Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking (Forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking)|website=www.ilo.org|date=28 January 2024 }}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/SZpyul9JRTE Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20161119181931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZpyul9JRTE Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SZpyul9JRTE| title = Landmark Forced Labour Protocol enters into force | website=[[YouTube]]| date = 10 November 2016 }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |last1=Hill |first1=Angela |title="This Modern Day Slavery": Sex Trafficking and Moral Panic in the United Kingdom |date=2011 |type=PhD dissertation |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2d8113tb |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |language=en}}</ref><ref>[https://www.law.berkeley.edu/files/hiddenslaves_report.pdf Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States] University of California Berkeley, September 2004</ref>

==Human capital flight == Many lower income countries face [[human capital flight]] to higher income countries.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.asriran.com/fa/news/868624/20-%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%80-%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%80-%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%AA-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%86%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85-%DA%A9%D9%88 | title=20 نکته دربارۀ آمار تکان‌دهندۀ مهاجرت ایرانیان/ چمدان‌هایم کو؟! }}</ref> Human capital flight has been critised as a form of exploitative [[neocolonialism]].<ref name="j303">{{cite journal | last1=Dei | first1=George J. Sefa | last2=Asgharzadeh | first2=Alireza | title=What Is to Be Done? A Look at Some Causes and Consequences of the African Brain Drain | journal=African Issues | publisher=Cambridge University Press | volume=30 | issue=1 | year=2002 | issn=1548-4505 | jstor=1167087 | pages=31–36 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/1167087 | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref> Some countries have prohibited emigration advertisements.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=مرکز پژوهش‌های مجلس خواهان «ممنوعیت هرگونه تبلیغات درباره مهاجرت» شد! |url=https://mohabatnews.com/?p=53691 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=محبت نیوز |language=fa-IR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=جوان ایرانی هیچ دلیلی برای ماندن در کشور ندارد / مهاجرت پاشنه آشیل زیست‌بوم نوآوری – تجارت‌نیوز |url=https://tejaratnews.com/startup/%d9%85%d9%87%d8%a7%d8%ac%d8%b1%d8%aa-%d9%85%d9%86%d8%a7%d8%a8%d8%b9-%d8%a7%d9%86%d8%b3%d8%a7%d9%86%db%8c-1402 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=tejaratnews.com |language=fa-IR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=12 June 2023 |title=روزنامه اعتماد: موج مهاجرت از ایران به دانش‌آموزان و کودکان رسیده است |url=https://www.iranintl.com/202306078932 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=ایران اینترنشنال |language=fa}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=n.a. |date=7 June 2023 |title=«کاهش سن مهاجرت» در ایران؛ گزارش‌ها از مهاجرت دانش‌آموزان به کانادا و ترکیه |language=fa |work=رادیو ��ردا |url=https://www.radiofarda.com/a/immigration-iran/32448451.html |url-status=live |access-date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607092933/https://www.radiofarda.com/a/immigration-iran/32448451.html |archive-date=7 June 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Golmakani |first=Sepehr |date=10 June 2023 |title=قوانین جدید برای اینفلوئنسرها: تبلیغ مهاجرت ممنوع! |url=https://sakhtafzarmag.com/مرکز-پژوهش-های-مجلس-به-دنبال-اجرای-قوانین-برای-اینفلوئنسرها/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612165328/https://sakhtafzarmag.com/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B2-%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%85%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%B3-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%AF%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%81%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%87%D8%A7/ |archive-date=12 June 2023 |access-date=12 June 2023 |website=سخت افزار مگ |language=fa-IR}}</ref>

== Integration == {{Main|Integration of immigrants}}

A 2019 review of existing research in the ''[[Annual Review of Sociology]]'' on immigrant assimilation in the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and Spain concluded "we find an overall pattern of intergenerational assimilation in terms of socioeconomic attainment, social relations, and cultural beliefs."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drouhot |first1=Lucas G. |last2=Nee |first2=Victor |date=2019 |title=Assimilation and the Second Generation in Europe and America: Blending and Segregating Social Dynamics Between Immigrants and Natives |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=177–199 |doi=10.1146/annurev-soc-073117-041335 |s2cid=150635159}}</ref>

=== United States === A 2018 study in the ''American Sociological Review'' found that within racial groups, most immigrants to the United States had fully assimilated within a span of 20 years.<ref name="VillarrealTamborini2018" /> Immigrants arriving in the United States after 1994 assimilate more rapidly than immigrants who arrived in previous periods.<ref name="VillarrealTamborini2018" /> Measuring assimilation can be difficult due to "ethnic attrition", which refers to when descendants of migrants cease to self-identify with the nationality or ethnicity of their ancestors. This means that successful cases of assimilation will be underestimated. Research shows that ethnic attrition is sizable in Hispanic and Asian immigrant groups in the United States.<ref name="DuncanTrejo2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Duncan |first1=Brian |last2=Trejo |first2=Stephen J |year=2011 |title=Tracking Intergenerational Progress for Immigrant Groups: The Problem of Ethnic Attrition |journal=American Economic Review |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=603–608 |doi=10.1257/aer.101.3.603 |s2cid=46552371}}</ref><ref name="AlbaIslam2008">{{Cite journal |last1=Alba |first1=Richard |last2=Islam |first2=Tariqul |date=1 January 2009 |title=The Case of the Disappearing Mexican Americans: An Ethnic-Identity Mystery |journal=Population Research and Policy Review |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=109–121 |doi=10.1007/s11113-008-9081-x |jstor=20616620 |s2cid=154929099}}</ref> By taking account of ethnic attrition, the assimilation rate of Hispanics in the United States improves significantly.<ref name="DuncanTrejo2011" /><ref name="DuncanTrejo2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Duncan |first1=Brian |last2=Trejo |first2=Stephen |year=2017 |title=The Complexity of Immigrant Generations: Implications for Assessing the Socioeconomic Integration of Hispanics and Asians |journal=ILR Review |volume=70 |issue=5 |pages=1146–1175 |citeseerx=10.1.1.403.8151 |doi=10.1177/0019793916679613 |pmc=5602570 |pmid=28935997}}</ref> A 2016 paper challenges the view that cultural differences are necessarily an obstacle to long-run economic performance of migrants. It finds that "first generation migrants seem to be less likely to success the more culturally distant they are, but this effect vanishes as time spent in the US increases."<ref>{{cite web |title=Achieving the American Dream: Cultural Distance, Cultural Diversity and Economic Performance {{!}} Oxford Economic and Social History Working Papers {{!}} Working Papers |url=http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Oxford-Economic-and-Social-History-Working-Papers/achieving-the-american-dream-cultural-distance-cultural-diversity-and-economic-performance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807014939/http://www.economics.ox.ac.uk/Oxford-Economic-and-Social-History-Working-Papers/achieving-the-american-dream-cultural-distance-cultural-diversity-and-economic-performance |archive-date=7 August 2016 |access-date=18 May 2016 |website=www.economics.ox.ac.uk}}</ref>

A 2018 study found that Chinese nationals in the United States who received permanent residency permits from the US government amid the Tiananmen Square protests (and subsequent Chinese government clampdown) experienced significant employment and earnings gains relative to similar immigrant groups who did not have the same residency rights.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Orrenius |first1=Pia |last2=Zavodny |first2=Madeline |last3=Kerr |first3=Emily |date=June 2012 |title=Chinese Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Market: Effects of Post-Tiananmen Immigration Policy |journal=International Migration Review |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=456–482 |doi=10.1111/j.1747-7379.2012.00893.x |issn=0197-9183 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10419/58772 |s2cid=145589806|url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp6287 }}</ref>

During the Age of Mass Migration, infant arrivals to the United States had greater economic success over their lifetime than teenage arrivals.<ref name="AlexanderWard2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=Rohan |last2=Ward |first2=Zachary |date=2018 |title=Age at Arrival and Assimilation During the Age of Mass Migration |url=https://www.cbe.anu.edu.au/researchpapers/CEH/WP201803.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |language=en |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=904–937 |doi=10.1017/S0022050718000335 |issn=0022-0507 |s2cid=158352415}}</ref>

=== Europe === A 2015 report by the National Institute of Demographic Studies finds that an overwhelming majority of second-generation immigrants of all origins in France feel French, despite the persistent discrimination in education, housing and employment that many of the minorities face.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Bohlen |first1=Celestine |date=25 January 2016 |title=Study Finds Children of Immigrants Embracing 'Frenchness' |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/26/world/europe/study-finds-children-of-immigrants-embracing-frenchness.html |access-date=19 April 2016 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Research shows that country of origin matters for speed and depth of immigrant assimilation but that there is considerable assimilation overall.<ref name="Blau2015" /> Research finds that first generation immigrants from countries with less egalitarian gender cultures adopt gender values more similar to natives over time.<ref name="RoderMuhlau2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Röder |first1=Antje |last2=Mühlau |first2=Peter |date=1 March 2014 |title=Are They Acculturating? Europe's Immigrants and Gender Egalitarianism |journal=Social Forces |volume=92 |issue=3 |pages=899–928 |doi=10.1093/sf/sot126 |issn=0037-7732 |s2cid=145434097}}</ref><ref name="Spierings2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Spierings |first1=Niels |date=16 April 2015 |title=Gender Equality Attitudes among Turks in Western Europe and Turkey: The Interrelated Impact of Migration and Parents' Attitudes |journal=Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=749–771 |doi=10.1080/1369183X.2014.948394 |issn=1369-183X |s2cid=146326410|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl//bitstream/handle/2066/142448/142448.pdf }}</ref> According to one study, "this acculturation process is almost completed within one generational succession: The gender attitudes of second generation immigrants are difficult to distinguish from the attitudes of members of mainstream society. This holds also for children born to immigrants from very gender traditional cultures and for children born to less well integrated immigrant families."<ref name="RoderMuhlau2014" /> Similar results are found on a study of Turkish migrants to Western Europe.<ref name="Spierings2014" /> The assimilation on gender attitudes has been observed in education, as one study finds "that the female advantage in education observed among the majority population is usually present among second-generation immigrants."<ref name="FleischmannKristen2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Fleischmann |first1=Fenella |last2=Kristen |first2=Cornelia |last3=Contributions |first3=With |last4=Research |first4=Including the Provision of Data and Analyses Instrumental to The |last5=by |last6=Heath |first6=Anthony F. |last7=Brinbaum |first7=Yaël |last8=Deboosere |first8=Patrick |last9=Granato |first9=Nadia |date=1 July 2014 |title=Gender Inequalities in the Education of the Second Generation in Western Countries |journal=Sociology of Education |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=143–170 |doi=10.1177/0038040714537836 |issn=0038-0407 |hdl=1874/301991 |s2cid=59353417|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

A 2017 study of Switzerland found that naturalization strongly improves long-term social integration of immigrants: "The integration returns to naturalization are larger for more marginalized immigrant groups and when naturalization occurs earlier, rather than later in the residency period."<ref name="HainmuellerHangartner2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Hainmueller |first1=Jens |last2=Hangartner |first2=Dominik |last3=Pietrantuono |first3=Giuseppe |date=1 February 2017 |title=Catalyst or Crown: Does Naturalization Promote the Long-Term Social Integration of Immigrants? |url=https://zenodo.org/record/889671 |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=111 |issue=2 |pages=256–276 |doi=10.1017/S0003055416000745 |hdl=20.500.11850/235430 |issn=0003-0554 |s2cid=229169145}}</ref> A separate study of Switzerland found that naturalization improved the economic integration of immigrants: "winning Swiss citizenship in the referendum increased annual earnings by an average of approximately 5,000 U.S. dollars over the subsequent 15 years. This effect is concentrated among more marginalized immigrants."<ref>{{cite web |title=Citizenship Increases the Long-Term Earnings of Marginalized Immigrants |url=https://immigrationlab.org/working-paper-series/citizenship-increases-long-term-earnings-marginalized-immigrants/ |access-date=1 March 2019 |website=Immigration Policy Lab |language=en-US}}</ref>

First-generation immigrants tend to hold less accepting views of homosexuality but opposition weakens with longer stays.<ref name="Röder2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Röder |first1=Antje |date=1 December 2015 |title=Immigrants' Attitudes toward Homosexuality: Socialization, Religion, and Acculturation in European Host Societies |journal=International Migration Review |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=1042–1070 |doi=10.1111/imre.12113 |issn=1747-7379 |s2cid=144531409}}</ref> Second-generation immigrants are overall more accepting of homosexuality, but the acculturation effect is weaker for Muslims and to some extent, Eastern Orthodox migrants.<ref name="Röder2018" />

A study of Bangladeshi migrants in East London found they shifted towards the thinking styles of the wider non-migrant population in just a single generation.<ref name="CaldwellMesoudi2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Mesoudi |first1=Alex |last2=Magid |first2=Kesson |last3=Hussain |first3=Delwar |date=13 January 2016 |title=How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=e0147162 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1147162M |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0147162 |pmc=4711941 |pmid=26760972 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A study on Germany found that foreign-born parents are more likely to integrate if their children are entitled to German citizenship at birth.<ref name="AvitabileClots-Figueras2013">{{Cite journal |last1=Avitabile |first1=Ciro |last2=Clots-Figueras |first2=Irma |last3=Masella |first3=Paolo |date=1 August 2013 |title=The Effect of Birthright Citizenship on Parental Integration Outcomes |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=777–810 |doi=10.1086/673266 |issn=0022-2186 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1814/13410 |s2cid=19012438|url=https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/59330/ }}</ref> A 2017 study found that "faster access to citizenship improves the economic situation of immigrant women, especially their labour market attachment with higher employment rates, longer working hours and more stable jobs. Immigrants also invest more in host country-specific skills like language and vocational training. Faster access to citizenship seems a powerful policy instrument to boost economic integration in countries with traditionally restrictive citizenship policies."<ref name="GathmannKeller2017">{{Cite journal |last1=Gathmann |first1=Christina |last2=Keller |first2=Nicolas |year=2017 |title=Access to Citizenship and the Economic Assimilation of Immigrants |journal=The Economic Journal |language=en |volume=128 |issue=616 |pages=3141–3181 |doi=10.1111/ecoj.12546 |issn=1468-0297 |s2cid=157082274}}</ref> [[Naturalization]] is associated with large and persistent wage gains for the naturalized citizens in most countries.<ref name="Gathmann2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Gathmann |first1=Christina |date=1 February 2015 |title=Naturalization and citizenship: Who benefits? |url=http://wol.iza.org/articles/naturalization-and-citizenship-who-benefits |journal=IZA World of Labor |doi=10.15185/izawol.125 |doi-access=free}}</ref> One study of Denmark found that providing immigrants with voting rights reduced their crime rate.<ref>{{Cite SSRN |title=Democratic Involvement and Immigrants' Compliance with the Law |last1=Slotwinski |first1=Michaela |last2=Stutzer |first2=Alois |date=27 February 2017 |ssrn=2923633 |last3=Gorinas |first3=Cédric}}</ref>

Studies on programs that randomly allocate refugee immigrants across municipalities find that the assignment of neighborhood affects immigrant crime propensity, education, and earnings.<ref name="DammDustmann2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |last2=Dustmann |first2=Christian |year=2014 |title=Does Growing Up in a High Crime Neighborhood Affect Youth Criminal Behavior? |url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10038985/ |journal=American Economic Review |type=Submitted manuscript |volume=104 |issue=6 |pages=1806–1832 |doi=10.1257/aer.104.6.1806|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="ÅslundEdin2011">{{Cite journal |last1=Åslund |first1=Olof |last2=Edin |first2=Per-Anders |last3=Fredriksson |first3=Peter |last4=Grönqvist |first4=Hans |year=2011 |title=Peers, Neighborhoods, and Immigrant Student Achievement: Evidence from a Placement Policy |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=67–95 |doi=10.1257/app.3.2.67 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2445/116663 |s2cid=31236419|url=http://ieb.ub.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/2010-IEB-WorkingPaper-19.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Damm2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |date=1 January 2014 |title=Neighborhood quality and labor market outcomes: Evidence from quasi-random neighborhood assignment of immigrants |url=https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/68523715/E_publication.pdf |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |series=Spatial Dimensions of Labor Markets |volume=79 |pages=139–166 |doi=10.1016/j.jue.2013.08.004}}</ref><ref name="Damm2009">{{Cite journal |last1=Damm |first1=Anna Piil |date=1 April 2009 |title=Ethnic Enclaves and Immigrant Labor Market Outcomes: Quasi-Experimental Evidence |journal=Journal of Labor Economics |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=281–314 |doi=10.1086/599336 |issn=0734-306X |s2cid=17521852}}</ref><ref name="EdinFredriksson2003">{{Cite journal |last1=Edin |first1=Per-Anders |last2=Fredriksson |first2=Peter |last3=Åslund |first3=Olof |date=1 February 2003 |title=Ethnic Enclaves and the Economic Success of Immigrants{{snd}}Evidence from a Natural Experiment |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics |language=en |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=329–357 |doi=10.1162/00335530360535225 |bibcode=2003QJEco.118..329E |issn=0033-5533 |hdl=10419/82170 |s2cid=16520774|url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-2505 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="JonesTeytelboym2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Will |last2=Teytelboym |first2=Alexander |year=2017 |title=The Local Refugee Match: Aligning Refugees' Preferences with the Capacities and Priorities of Localities |journal=Journal of Refugee Studies |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=152–178 |doi=10.1093/jrs/fex022 |s2cid=111381382}}</ref> A 2019 study found that refugees who resettled in areas with many conationals were more likely to be economically integrated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hangartner |first1=Dominik |last2=Hainmueller |first2=Jens |last3=Martén |first3=Linna |date=24 July 2019 |title=Ethnic networks can foster the economic integration of refugees |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=33 |pages=16280–16285 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11616280M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1820345116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6697878 |pmid=31358632 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Research suggests that bilingual schooling reduces barriers between speakers from two different communities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cappellari |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Di Paolo |first2=Antonio |date=October 2015 |title=Bilingual Schooling and Earnings: Evidence from a Language-in-Education Reform |url=http://www.iza.org/en/webcontent/publications/papers/viewAbstract?dp_id=9431 |journal=IZA Discussion Papers |language=en |issue=9431 |access-date=22 March 2016}}</ref>

Research suggests that a vicious cycle of bigotry and isolation could reduce assimilation and increase bigotry towards immigrants in the long-term. For instance, University of California, San Diego political scientist Claire Adida, Stanford University political scientist David Laitin and Sorbonne University economist Marie-Anne Valfort argue "fear-based policies that target groups of people according to their religion or region of origin are counter-productive. Our own research, which explains the failed integration of Muslim immigrants in France, suggests that such policies can feed into a vicious cycle that damages national security. French Islamophobia{{snd}}a response to cultural difference{{snd}}has encouraged Muslim immigrants to withdraw from French society, which then feeds back into French Islamophobia, thus further exacerbating Muslims' alienation, and so on. Indeed, the failure of French security in 2015 was likely due to police tactics that intimidated rather than welcomed the children of immigrants{{snd}}an approach that makes it hard to obtain crucial information from community members about potential threats."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Adida |first1=Claire L. |last2=Laitin |first2=David D. |last3=Valfort |first3=Marie-Anne |date=1 February 2017 |title=The Wrong Way to Stop Terrorism |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2017-02-01/wrong-way-stop-terrorism |journal=Foreign Affairs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=AdidaLaitinValfort2017 ForeignAffairs.pdf |newspaper=Google Docs |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B1XnDFa2nmdhSnJwSVRoSkJqYjQ/view |access-date=4 February 2017}}</ref>

A study which examined [[Catalan nationalism]] examined the Catalan Government's policy towards the integration of immigrants during the start of the 1990s. At this time the Spanish region of Catalonia was experiencing a large influx in the number of immigrants from Northern Africa, Latin America and Asia. The Spanish government paid little attention to this influx of immigrants. However, Catalan politicians began discussing how the increase in immigrants would effect Catalan identity. Members of the Catalan parliament petitioned for a plan to integrate these immigrants into Catalan society. Crucially, the plan did not include policies regarding [[Naturalization|naturalisation]], which were key immigration policies of the Spanish government. The plan of the Catalan parliament aimed to create a shared Catalan identity which included both the native Catalan population and immigrant communities. This meant that immigrants were encouraged to relate as part of the Catalan community but also encouraged to retain their own culture and traditions. In this way assimilation of immigrant cultures in Catalonia was avoided.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coversi |display-authors=etal |date=2017 |title=Despite the crisis: The resilience of intercultural nationalism in Catalonia |journal=International Migration |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=53–67 |doi=10.1111/imig.12323 |s2cid=151628467}}</ref>

A 2018 study in the ''British Journal of Political Science'' found that immigrants in Norway became more politically engaged the earlier that they were given voting rights.<ref name="FerwerdaFinseraas2018">{{Cite journal |last1=Ferwerda |first1=Jeremy |last2=Finseraas |first2=Henning |last3=Bergh |first3=Johannes |date=2018 |title=Voting Rights and Immigrant Incorporation: Evidence from Norway |journal=British Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=713–730 |doi=10.1017/S0007123417000643 |issn=0007-1234 |s2cid=158137269}}</ref>

A 2019 study in the ''European Economic Review'' found that language training improved the economic assimilation of immigrants in France.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Alexia Lochmann |author2=Hillel Rapoport |author3=Biagio Speciale |date=April 2019 |title=The effect of language training on immigrants' economic integration: Empirical evidence from France |url=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp11331 |journal=European Economic Review |volume=113 |pages=265–296 |doi=10.1016/j.euroecorev.2019.01.008 |s2cid=149045384}} * {{cite web |date=March 2019 |title=The effect of language training on immigrants' economic integration: Empirical evidence from France |url=https://www.parisschoolofeconomics.eu/en/economics-for-everyone/for-a-wider-audience/5-papers-in-5-minutes/march-2019/the-effect-of-language-training-on-immigrants-economic-integration-empirical-evidence-from-france/ |website=Paris School of Economics}}</ref>

A 2020 study using data from large-scale comparative surveys in Germany, France, and United Kingdom found that sampled households with a [[language barrier]] tend to have poor living conditions and are migrants. Inferences about their demographic, attitudinal, or behavioral traits cannot be made because the ability to speak the [[official language]](s) of the country is one of the criteria for survey participation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Heck-Grossek |first1=Nicholas |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Void of the voiceless: An analysis of residents with a language barrier in Germany, France, and the United Kingdom (Chapter 6) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |last2=Dardha |first2=Sonia |date=30 April 2020 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=117–126 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004}}</ref>

A 2020 paper on reforms of refugee policy in Denmark found that language training boosted the economic and social integration of refugees, whereas cuts to refugees' welfare benefits had no effect, except to temporarily increase property crimes.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Integrating Refugees: Language Training or Work-First Incentives? |last1=Arendt |first1=Jacob Nielsen |last2=Bolvig |first2=Iben |date=2020 |doi=10.3386/w26834 |last3=Foged |first3=Mette |last4=Hasager |first4=Linea |last5=Peri |first5=Giovanni |doi-access=free |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |s2cid=216251239}}</ref>

== Discrimination == {{Main|Discrimination based on nationality}}

{{Distinguish|Racism}}

=== Europe === Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects in Sweden, Italy, and England and Wales.<ref name="Martens-2008">{{cite web|url=https://www.bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|title=Diskriminering i rättsprocessen – Brå|website=www.bra.se|language=sv|access-date=26 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170317221242/http://bra.se/bra/publikationer/arkiv/publikationer/2008-02-21-diskriminering-i-rattsprocessen.html|archive-date=17 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="HallstenSzulkin2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hällsten | first1 = Martin|last2=Szulkin|first2=Ryszard|last3=Sarnecki|first3=Jerzy|date=1 May 2013|title=Crime as a Price of Inequality? The Gap in Registered Crime between Childhood Immigrants, Children of Immigrants and Children of Native Swedes |journal=British Journal of Criminology|volume=53|issue=3|pages=456–481|doi=10.1093/bjc/azt005|issn=0007-0955}}</ref><ref name="Crocitti2013">{{Cite book |title=Immigration, Crime, and Criminalization in Italy |publisher=Oxford Handbooks | last1 = Crocitti | first1 = Stefania|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.029|year=2013}}</ref><ref name="Colombo-2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Colombo | first1 = Asher|date=1 November 2013|title=Foreigners and immigrants in Italy's penal and administrative detention systems |journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=746–759|doi=10.1177/1477370813495128| s2cid = 145099179|issn=1477-3708}}</ref><ref name="Parmar2013">{{Cite journal|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-014|title=Ethnicities, Racism, and Crime in England and Wales – Oxford Handbooks|journal=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration|last1=Parmar|first1=Alpa|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.014|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-985901-6|access-date=5 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618001511/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-014|archive-date=18 June 2019}}</ref> Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities in Sweden, the Netherlands, Italy, Germany, Denmark and France.<ref name="Martens-2008" /><ref name="Crocitti2013" /><ref name="Colombo-2013" /><ref name="HolmbergKyvsgaard2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Holmberg | first1 = Lars|last2=Kyvsgaard|first2=Britta|title=Are Immigrants and Their Descendants Discriminated against in the Danish Criminal Justice System?|journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention|volume=4|issue=2|pages=125–142|doi=10.1080/14043850310020027|year=2003| s2cid = 143646955}}</ref><ref name="RochéGordon2013">{{Cite journal|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199859016-e-030|title=Case Study |publisher= Oxford Handbooks |journal=The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration | last1 = Roché | first1 = Sebastian|last2=Gordon|first2=Mirta B.|last3=Depuiset|first3=Marie-Aude|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199859016.013.030|year=2013|isbn=978-0-19-985901-6 }}</ref><ref name="Light2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Light | first1 = Michael T.|date=1 March 2016|title=The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998–2010 |journal=Social Forces|language=en|volume=94|issue=3|pages=1385–1408|doi=10.1093/sf/sov084| s2cid = 155814847|issn=0037-7732}}</ref><ref name="WerminkJohnson2015">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wermink | first1 = Hilde|last2=Johnson|first2=Brian D.|last3=Nieuwbeerta|first3=Paul|last4=Keijser|first4=Jan W. de|date=1 November 2015|title=Expanding the scope of sentencing research: Determinants of juvenile and adult punishment in the Netherlands |journal=European Journal of Criminology|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=739–768|doi=10.1177/1477370815597253| s2cid = 143366742|issn=1477-3708}}</ref> A 2018 study found that the Dutch are less likely to reciprocate in games played with immigrants than the native Dutch.<ref name="CettolinSuetens2018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Cettolin | first1 = Elena|last2=Suetens|first2=Sigrid|date=18 July 2018|title=Return on Trust is Lower for Immigrants|journal=The Economic Journal| volume = 129| issue = 621| pages = 1992–2009|language=en|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12629|issn=0013-0133|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the North-American and European labor markets.<ref name="Rich2014" /><ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" /><ref name="RiachRich2002">{{Cite journal | last1 = Riach | first1 = P. A.|last2=Rich|first2=J.|date=1 November 2002|title=Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=112|issue=483|pages=F480–F518|doi=10.1111/1468-0297.00080|issn=1468-0297|citeseerx=10.1.1.417.9100| s2cid = 19024888}}</ref> A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America.<ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" /> Equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.<ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" />

A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of racial and ethnic discrimination in the housing market of several European countries.<ref name="Rich2014" />

==== United Kingdom ==== Since 2010, the United Kingdom's policies surrounding immigrant detention have come under fire for insufficiently protecting vulnerable groups. In the early 2000s, the United Kingdom adopted the Detention Duty Advice (DDA) scheme in order to provide free, government-funded, legal aid to immigrants. The DDA scheme at face value granted liberty on administrative grounds by considering immigrant merits, nature of their work, their financial means, and other factors that would then determine how much free legal aid detainees were granted. Recent research by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), demonstrates that marginalized groups have been barred from legal assistance in detention centers. The barriers immigrants face in order to access justice through the DDA disproportionately affected underrepresented groups of immigrants, and the language barrier and lack of interpreters led to further hurdles that detainees were unable to jump through.<ref name="Lindley 629–653" />

=== Canada === In Canada immigrant detainees face barriers to justice due to a lack of international enforcement. Canada's immigration detention system has significant legal and normative problems, and the rubric of 'access to justice' that is presented by international law fails to identify these faults. There is a lack of access to legal aid for immigrants in detention, as well as inhumane treatment in detention centers. Research has demonstrated irreparable psychological, physical, and social damage to immigrants, and the international community ignores these injustices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Silverman |first1=Stephanie J. |last2=Molnar |first2=Petra |date=29 February 2016 |title=Everyday Injustices: Barriers to Access to Justice for Immigration Detainees in Canada |journal=Refugee Survey Quarterly |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=109–127 |doi=10.1093/rsq/hdv016 |issn=1020-4067}}</ref>

=== United States ===

==== Business ==== A 2014 meta-analysis of racial discrimination in product markets found extensive evidence of minority applicants being quoted higher prices for products.<ref name="Rich2014" /> A 1995 study found that car dealers "quoted significantly lower prices to white males than to black or female test buyers using identical, scripted bargaining strategies."<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Ayres | first1 = Ian|last2=Siegelman|first2=Peter|date=1 January 1995|title=Race and Gender Discrimination in Bargaining for a New Car|url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/aea/aecrev/v85y1995i3p304-21.html|journal=American Economic Review|volume=85|issue=3|pages=304–21}}</ref> A 2013 study found that eBay sellers of iPods received 21 percent more offers if a white hand held the iPod in the photo than a black hand.<ref name="DoleacStein2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Doleac | first1 = Jennifer L.|last2=Stein|first2=Luke C.D.|date=1 November 2013|title=The Visible Hand: Race and Online Market Outcomes |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=123|issue=572|pages=F469–F492|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12082| s2cid = 154984687|issn=1468-0297}}</ref>

==== Criminal justice system ==== Research suggests that police practices, such as [[racial profiling]], over-policing in areas populated by minorities and in-group bias may result in disproportionately high numbers of racial minorities among crime suspects.<ref name="WarrenTomaskovic-Devey2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Warren | first1 = Patricia Y.|last2=Tomaskovic-Devey|first2=Donald|date=1 May 2009|title=Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior? |journal=Criminology & Public Policy|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=343–369|doi=10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x|issn=1745-9133}}</ref><ref name="MoJ p. 8">''[https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/217822/stats-race-and-the-criminal-justice-system-2008-09c1.pdf Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2008/09]'', p.&nbsp;8., 22</ref><ref name="West-2015">{{cite web|url=https://www.mit.edu/~westj/articles/JeremyWest_RacialBiasPolice.pdf |title=Racial Bias in Police Investigations | last1 = West | first1 = Jeremy |date=November 2015 |website=MIT.edu |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |type=Working paper |access-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307202800/http://www.mit.edu/~westj/articles/JeremyWest_RacialBiasPolice.pdf |archive-date=7 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name="Donohue IIILevitt2001">{{Cite journal | last1 = Donohue III | first1 = John J.|last2=Levitt|first2=Steven D.|date=1 January 2001|title=The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests|jstor=10.1086/322810|journal=The Journal of Law & Economics|volume=44|issue=2|pages=367–394|doi=10.1086/322810| s2cid = 1547854| url = https://digitalcommons.law.yale.edu/fss_papers/37}}</ref> Research also suggests that there may be possible discrimination by the judicial system, which contributes to a higher number of convictions for racial minorities.<ref name="AbramsBertrand2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Abrams | first1 = David S.|last2=Bertrand|first2=Marianne|last3=Mullainathan|first3=Sendhil|date=1 June 2012|title=Do Judges Vary in Their Treatment of Race? |journal=The Journal of Legal Studies|volume=41|issue=2|pages=347–383|doi=10.1086/666006| s2cid = 2338687|issn=0047-2530| url = https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1354&context=faculty_scholarship}}</ref><ref name="Mustard2001">{{Cite journal | last1 = Mustard | first1 = David B.|date=1 April 2001|title=Racial, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities in Sentencing: Evidence from the U.S. Federal Courts |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics|volume=44|issue=1|pages=285–314|doi=10.1086/320276| s2cid = 154533225|issn=0022-2186}}</ref><ref name="AnwarBayer2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Anwar | first1 = Shamena|last2=Bayer|first2=Patrick|last3=Hjalmarsson|first3=Randi|date=1 May 2012|title=The Impact of Jury Race in Criminal Trials |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics|language=en|volume=127|issue=2|pages=1017–1055|doi=10.1093/qje/qjs014|issn=0033-5533|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="DaudistelHosch1999">{{Cite journal | last1 = Daudistel | first1 = Howard C.|last2=Hosch|first2=Harmon M.|last3=Holmes|first3=Malcolm D.|last4=Graves|first4=Joseph B.|date=1 February 1999|title=Effects of Defendant Ethnicity on Juries' Dispositions of Felony Cases |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology|language=en|volume=29|issue=2|pages=317–336|doi=10.1111/j.1559-1816.1999.tb01389.x|issn=1559-1816}}</ref><ref name="DepewEren2017">{{Cite journal | last1 = Depew | first1 = Briggs|last2=Eren|first2=Ozkan|last3=Mocan|first3=Naci |year=2017 |title=Judges, Juveniles, and In-Group Bias |journal=[[Journal of Law and Economics]] |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=209–239 |doi=10.1086/693822 | s2cid = 147631237| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w22003.pdf}}</ref> A 2012 study found that "(i) juries formed from all-white jury pools convict black defendants significantly (16 percentage points) more often than white defendants, and (ii) this gap in conviction rates is entirely eliminated when the jury pool includes at least one black member."<ref name="AnwarBayer2012" /> Research has found evidence of in-group bias, where "black (white) juveniles who are randomly assigned to black (white) judges are more likely to get incarcerated (as opposed to being placed on probation), and they receive longer sentences."<ref name="DepewEren2017" /> In-group bias has also been observed when it comes to traffic citations, as black and white cops are more likely to cite out-groups.<ref name="West-2015" />

==== Education ==== A 2015 study using correspondence tests "found that when considering requests from prospective students seeking mentoring in the future, faculty were significantly more responsive to White males than to all other categories of students, collectively, particularly in higher-paying disciplines and private institutions."<ref name="MilkmanAkinola2015">{{Cite journal|last1=Milkman|first1=Katherine L.|author-link=Katy Milkman|last2=Akinola|first2=Modupe|author-link2=Modupe Akinola|last3=Chugh|first3=Dolly|date=1 November 2015|title=What happens before? A field experiment exploring how pay and representation differentially shape bias on the pathway into organizations|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/fnce_papers/61|journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=100|issue=6|pages=1678–1712|doi=10.1037/apl0000022|issn=1939-1854|pmid=25867167 |bibcode=2015JApPs.100.1678M }}</ref>

According to an analysis of the National Study of College Experience, elite colleges may favor minority applicants due to affirmative action policies.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/9072.html|title=Espenshade, T.J. and Radford, A.W.: No Longer Separate, Not Yet Equal: Race and Class in Elite College Admission and Campus Life. (eBook, Paperback and Hardcover)|access-date=24 April 2016|isbn=978-0-691-14160-2|year=2009|last1=Espenshade|first1=Thomas J.|last2=Radford|first2=Alexandria Walton|publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref>

A 2018 National Bureau of Economic Research paper found that math teachers discriminate against the children of immigrants. When the teachers were informed about negative stereotypes towards the children of immigrants, they gave higher grades to the children of immigrants.<ref>{{Cite report |last1=Alesina|first1=Alberto|last2=Carlana|first2=Michela|last3=Ferrara|first3=Eliana La|last4=Pinotti|first4=Paolo|date=2018|title=Revealing Stereotypes: Evidence from Immigrants in Schools |website=National Bureau of Economic Research |doi=10.3386/w25333|s2cid=145030825|doi-access=free}}</ref>

As of 2020, 2 percent of all students enrolled in U.S. higher education. That comes out to about 454,000 students. Fewer than half of illegal immigrants are eligible for the [[Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals|DACA]] program.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report estimates that more than 450,000 undocumented immigrants are enrolled in higher ed|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2020/04/17/report-estimates-more-450000-undocumented-immigrants-are-enrolled-higher-ed|access-date=1 November 2021|website=www.insidehighered.com|date=17 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

==== Housing ==== A 2014 meta-analysis found extensive evidence of [[Housing discrimination in the United States|racial discrimination in the American housing market]].<ref name="Rich2014" /> Minority applicants for housing needed to make many more enquiries to view properties.<ref name="Rich2014" /> Geographical steering of African-Americans in US housing remained significant.<ref name="Rich2014" /> A 2003 study finds "evidence that agents interpret an initial housing request as an indication of a customer's preferences, but also are more likely to withhold a house from all customers when it is in an integrated suburban neighborhood ([[redlining]]). Moreover, agents' marketing efforts increase with asking price for white, but not for black, customers; blacks are more likely than whites to see houses in suburban, integrated areas ([[Racial steering|steering]]); and the houses agents show are more likely to deviate from the initial request when the customer is black than when the customer is white. These three findings are consistent with the possibility that agents act upon the belief that some types of transactions are relatively unlikely for black customers (statistical discrimination)."<ref name="OndrichRoss2003">{{Cite journal | last1 = Ondrich | first1 = Jan|last2=Ross|first2=Stephen|last3=Yinger|first3=John|date=1 November 2003|title=Now You See It, Now You Don't: Why Do Real Estate Agents Withhold Available Houses from Black Customers? |journal=Review of Economics and Statistics|volume=85|issue=4|pages=854–873|doi=10.1162/003465303772815772| s2cid = 8524510|issn=0034-6535| url = http://web2.uconn.edu/economics/working/2001-01.pdf}}</ref>

A report by the federal [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|Department of Housing and Urban Development]] where the department sent African-Americans and whites to look at apartments found that African-Americans were shown fewer apartments to rent and houses for sale.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urban.org/research/publication/housing-discrimination-against-racial-and-ethnic-minorities-2012-full-report|title=Housing Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic Minorities 2012: Full Report|website=www.urban.org|access-date=23 April 2016|date=4 June 2016}}</ref>

==== Labor market ==== Several meta-analyses find extensive evidence of ethnic and racial discrimination in hiring in the American labor market.<ref name="Rich2014" /><ref name="RiachRich2002" /><ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" /> A 2016 meta-analysis of 738 correspondence tests{{snd}}tests where identical CVs for stereotypically black and white names were sent to employers{{snd}}in 43 separate studies conducted in OECD countries between 1990 and 2015 finds that there is extensive racial discrimination in hiring decisions in Europe and North-America.<ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" /> These correspondence tests showed that equivalent minority candidates need to send around 50% more applications to be invited for an interview than majority candidates.<ref name="ZschirntRuedin2016" /><ref name="BertrandMullainathan2004">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bertrand | first1 = Marianne|last2=Mullainathan|first2=Sendhil|title=Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination |journal=American Economic Review|volume=94|issue=4|pages=991–1013|doi=10.1257/0002828042002561|year=2004|citeseerx=10.1.1.321.8621}}</ref> A study that examine the job applications of actual people provided with identical résumés and similar interview training showed that African-American applicants with no criminal record were offered jobs at a rate as low as white applicants who had criminal records.<ref name="PagerBonikowski2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Pager | first1 = Devah|last2=Western|first2=Bruce|last3=Bonikowski|first3=Bart|date=1 October 2009|title=Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market A Field Experiment |journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=74|issue=5|pages=777–799|doi=10.1177/000312240907400505|issn=0003-1224|pmc=2915472|pmid=20689685}}</ref>

== Push and pull factors == [[File:Multilingual Pisnice 1858.JPG|thumb|The largest [[Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic|Vietnamese]] market in [[Prague]], also known as "Little Hanoi". In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese in the [[Czech Republic]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/05/world/europe/05iht-viet.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1 |title=Crisis Strands Vietnamese Workers in a Czech Limbo|work=The New York Times|date= 5 June 2009|access-date= 11 May 2016|last1=Bilefsky|first1=Dan}}</ref>]] [[File:Ridley road market dalston 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[London]] has become multiethnic as a result of immigration.<ref name="FT1">"[https://www.ft.com/content/4bd95562-4379-11e2-a48c-00144feabdc0 White ethnic Britons in minority in London]". ''[[Financial Times]]''. 11 December 2012.</ref> In London in 2008, [[Black British]] and [[British Asian]] children outnumbered white British children by about 3 to 2 in government-run schools.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |title=One fifth of children from ethnic minorities |author=Graeme Paton |date=1 October 2007 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=7 June 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206094854/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1564365/One-fifth-of-children-from-ethnic-minorities.html |archive-date=6 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

One theory of immigration distinguishes between ''[[push and pull factors]]'', referring to the economic, political, and social influences by which people migrate from or to specific countries.<ref name="knaw" /> Immigrants are motivated to leave their former countries of citizenship, or habitual residence, for a variety of reasons, including: a lack of local access to [[resources]], a desire for economic [[prosperity]], to find or engage in paid work, to better their [[standard of living]], [[family reunification]], [[retirement]], [[Environmental migrant|climate or environmentally induced]] migration, [[exile]], escape from [[prejudice]], conflict or natural disaster, or simply the wish to change one's [[quality of life]]. [[Commuting|Commuters]], [[Tourism|tourists]], and other short-term stays in a destination country do not fall under the definition of immigration or migration; [[Seasonal industry|seasonal labour]] immigration is sometimes included, however.

'''Push factors''' (or determinant factors) refer primarily to the motive for leaving one's country of origin (either [[Human migration#Voluntary migration|voluntarily or involuntarily]]), whereas '''pull factors''' (or attraction factors) refer to one's motivations behind or the encouragement towards immigrating to a particular country.

In the case of economic migration (usually labor migration), differentials in [[wage rate]]s are common. If the value of wages in the new country surpasses the value of wages in one's native country, he or she may choose to migrate, as long as the costs are not too high. Particularly in the 19th century, economic expansion of the US increased immigrant flow, and nearly 15% of the population was [[foreign-born]],<ref>{{cite web|url = https://immigrationlawnj.com/how-many-people-are-immigrants/|title = How Many People are Immigrants?|date = 4 July 2015|access-date = 30 July 2015|website = Harlan York and Associates|last1 = York|first1 = Harlan|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150909231007/https://immigrationlawnj.com/how-many-people-are-immigrants/|archive-date = 9 September 2015}}</ref> thus making up a significant amount of the labor force.

As transportation technology improved, travel time, and costs decreased dramatically between the 18th and early 20th century. Travel across the Atlantic used to take up to 5 weeks in the 18th century, but around the time of the 20th century it took a mere 8 days.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> When the [[opportunity cost]] is lower, the immigration rates tend to be higher.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> Escape from [[poverty]] (personal or for relatives staying behind) is a traditional push factor, and the availability of [[employment|jobs]] is the related pull factor. [[Natural disasters]] can amplify poverty-driven migration flows. Research shows that for middle-income countries, higher temperatures increase emigration rates to urban areas and to other countries. For low-income countries, higher temperatures reduce emigration.<ref name="CattaneoPeri2016">{{Cite journal|title = The Migration Response to Increasing Temperatures | first1 = Cristina | last1 = Cattaneo|first2 = Giovanni|last2 = Peri |year=2016 |journal=[[Journal of Development Economics]] |volume=122 |issue=C |pages=127–146 |doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2016.05.004 | bibcode = 2016JDevE.122..127C |hdl = 10419/130264| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w21622.pdf }}</ref>

A study checking the push and pull factors for emigration from [[Guatemala]] found that environmental factors played even bigger role in comparison to economic. When they directly asked people to compare it, they got the next results:<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate-Change Vulnerability and Climate Migration: Evidence from Guatemala |url=https://www.american.edu/spa/news/climate-change-vulnerability-08082025.cfm |website=American University |date=8 August 2025 |access-date=12 August 2025}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Answer !! Prevalence |- | Prefer lower wage with less climate risk || 68% |- | Prefer higher wage with more climate risk || 32% |}

Emigration and immigration are sometimes mandatory in a contract of employment: religious [[Missionary|missionaries]] and employees of [[transnational corporations]], international [[non-governmental organizations]], and the [[diplomatic service]] expect, by definition, to work "overseas". They are often referred to as "[[expatriates]]", and their conditions of employment are typically equal to or better than those applying in the host country (for similar work).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dowling |first1=Peter J. |last2=Festing |first2=Marion |last3=Engle |first3=Allen D. |title=International Human Resource Management |edition=7th |year=2017 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-4737-1903-3 |pages=211-241 |chapter=International Compensation}}</ref>

Non-economic push factors include [[persecution]] (religious and otherwise), frequent abuse, [[bullying]], [[oppression]], [[ethnic cleansing]], [[genocide]], risks to civilians during [[war]], and social marginalization.<ref>{{cite journal|ssrn=224241|title=The Earnings of Male Hispanic Immigrants in the United States | last1 = Chiswick | first1 = Barry|date=March 2000|website=Social Science Research Network|publisher=[[University of Illinois at Chicago]] Institute for the Study of Labor|type=Working paper}}</ref> Political motives traditionally motivate refugee flows; for instance, people may emigrate in order to escape a [[dictatorship]].<ref name="Borjas2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Borjas | first1 = George J.|date=1 April 1982|title=The Earnings of Male Hispanic Immigrants in the United States |journal=Industrial & Labor Relations Review|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=343–353|doi=10.1177/001979398203500304| s2cid = 36445207|issn=0019-7939}}</ref>

Some migration is for personal reasons, based on a [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]] (e.g. to be with family or a partner), such as in [[family reunification]] or [[transnational marriage]] (especially in the instance of a [[gender imbalance]]) or [[same-sex relationship]]. Others migrate for safer opportunities to express [[Gender identity|gender identities]] and access to gender-affirming care.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Cerezo |first1=Alison |last2=Morales |first2=Alejandro |last3=Quintero |first3=Danielle |last4=Rothman |first4=Stephanie |date=2014 |title=Trans migrations: Exploring life at the intersection of transgender identity and immigration. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/sgd0000031 |journal=Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=170–180 |doi=10.1037/sgd0000031 |issn=2329-0390|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Recent research has found gender, age, and cross-cultural differences in the ownership of the idea to immigrate.<ref name="Rubin2013">{{cite journal |last1= Rubin|first1=Mark|title="It Wasn't My Idea to Come Here!": Young Women Lack Ownership of the Idea to Immigrate – Mark Rubin's Social Psychology Research|journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations|date=July 2013|volume=37|issue=4|pages=497–501|issn=0147-1767|doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2013.02.001 |hdl=1959.13/940579 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/markrubinsocialpsychresearch/-it-wasn-t-my-idea-to-come-here-young-women-lack-ownership-of-the-idea-to-immigrate |access-date=3 October 2018 |ref=Rubin2013}}</ref> In a few cases, an individual may wish to immigrate to a new country in a form of transferred [[patriotism]]. Evasion of [[criminal justice]] (e.g., avoiding [[arrest]]) is a personal motivation. This type of emigration and immigration is not normally legal, if a crime is internationally recognized, although criminals may disguise their identities or find other loopholes to evade detection. For example, there have been reports of [[war criminals]] disguising themselves as victims of war or conflict and then pursuing asylum in a different country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://euobserver.com/opinion/125664|title=EU asylum and war criminals: No place to hide | last1 = Haskell | first1 = Leslie|date=18 September 2014|website=EUobserver.com|publisher=EUobserver|access-date=13 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/refugees-in-germany-reporting-dozens-of-war-crimes/a-19179291|title=Refugees in Germany reporting dozens of war crimes | last1 = Knight | first1 = Ben|date=11 April 2016|website=Deutsche Welle|access-date=13 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/sweden-syrian-asylum-seeker-suspected-war-crimes-under-assad-regime-arrested-stockholm-1546149|title=Sweden: Syrian asylum seeker suspected of war crimes under Assad regime arrested in Stockholm | last1 = Porter | first1 = Tom|date=26 February 2016|work=International Business Times|access-date=13 May 2016}}</ref>

Barriers to immigration come not only in legal form or political form; natural and social barriers to immigration can also be very powerful. Immigrants when leaving their country also leave everything familiar: their family, friends, support network, and culture. They also need to liquidate their assets, and they incur the expense of moving. When they arrive in a new country, this is often with many uncertainties including finding work,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/lack-of-network-hurting-migrant-workers-20120603-1zq3u.html|title=Lack of network hurting migrant workers | last1 = May | first1 = Julia|newspaper=The Sydney Morning Herald|language=en-US|access-date=2 January 2017}}</ref> where to live, new laws, new cultural norms, language or accent issues, possible [[racism]], and other exclusionary behavior towards them and their family.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/the-7-biggest-challenges-facing-refugees-and-immig/|title=The 7 biggest challenges facing refugees and immigrants in the US | last1 = Nunez | first1 = Christina|date=12 December 2014|website=Global Citizen|publisher=Global Poverty Project|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Charles Rodriguez |first1=U. |last2=Venegas de la Torre |first2=M. D. L. P. |last3=Hecker |first3=V. |last4=Laing |first4=R. A. |last5=Larouche |first5=R. |date=2022 |title=The Relationship Between Nature and Immigrants' Integration, Wellbeing and Physical Activity: A Scoping Review |journal=Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health |volume= 25|issue=1 |pages=190–218 | pmid=35201532 | doi=10.1007/s10903-022-01339-3|s2cid=247060104 }}</ref><ref name="Djajić2013">{{Cite journal | last1 = Djajić | first1 = Slobodan|date=1 September 2013|title=Barriers to immigration and the dynamics of emigration |journal=Journal of Macroeconomics|volume=37|pages=41–52|doi=10.1016/j.jmacro.2013.06.001}}</ref>

[[File:Čížov (Zaisa) - preserved part of Iron curtain.JPG|thumb|upright=1.25|The [[Iron Curtain]] in Europe was designed as a means of [[Eastern Bloc emigration and defection|preventing emigration]]. "It is one of the ironies of post-war European history that, once the freedom to travel for Europeans living under communist regimes, which had long been demanded by the West, was finally granted in 1989/90, travel was very soon afterwards made much more difficult by the West itself, and new barriers were erected to replace the Iron Curtain." —Anita Böcker<ref>Anita Böcker (1998) [https://books.google.com/books?id=ejOg0L5pbHUC ''Regulation of migration: international experiences'']. Het Spinhuis. p. 218. {{ISBN|90-5589-095-2}}</ref>]]

Discrimination and punishment based on [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]] are legally sanctioned in numerous nations, with some imposing the [[death penalty]] for [[Same-sex relationship|same-sex]] acts. This pattern of discrimination manifests in immigration policies, where laws can restrict access to services and safe asylums for [[Social exclusion|marginalized groups]], including [[Person of color|people of colour]] and members of the [[LGBTQ community]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Seuffert |first=Nan |date=2009-01-01 |title=Reflections on Transgender Immigration |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10383441.2009.10854649 |journal=Griffith Law Review |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=428–452 |doi=10.1080/10383441.2009.10854649 |issn=1038-3441|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The countries where [[Asylum seeker|asylum]] is sought are also not entirely free from discrimination, complicating efforts to achieve safety.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Redcay |first1=Alex |last2=Luquet |first2=Wade |last3=Huggin |first3=McKenzie E. |date=2019-12-01 |title=Immigration and Asylum for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Individuals |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s41134-019-00092-2 |journal=Journal of Human Rights and Social Work |language=en |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=248–256 |doi=10.1007/s41134-019-00092-2 |issn=2365-1792|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Foreign involvement === Several countries have been accused of encouraging immigration to other countries in order to create divisions.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35706238 Migrant crisis: Russia and Syria 'weaponising' migration, BBC, 2016]</ref>

== Politics of immigration == [[Business]]es tend to lobby in favor of more immigration, while [[Labour movement|labor movements]] tend to oppose immigration according to a 2011 study.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Do interest groups affect US immigration policy?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022199611000560|journal=Journal of International Economics|date=2011|issn=0022-1996|pages=114–128|volume=85|issue=1|doi=10.1016/j.jinteco.2011.05.006|first=Giovanni|last=Facchini|first2=Anna Maria|last2=Mayda|first3=Prachi|last3=Mishra}}</ref> A 2010 European study suggested that "employers are more likely to be pro-immigration than employees, provided that immigrants are thought to compete with employees who are already in the country. Or else, when immigrants are thought to compete with employers rather than employees, employers are more likely to be anti-immigration than employees."<ref name="Tamura2010" /> A 2011 study examining the voting of US representatives on migration policy suggests that "representatives from more skilled labor abundant districts are more likely to support an open immigration policy towards the unskilled, whereas the opposite is true for representatives from more unskilled labor abundant districts."<ref name="FacchiniSteinhardt2011" /> Studies have suggested that some [[special interest group]]s [[Lobbying|lobby]] for less immigration for their own group and more immigration for other groups since they see effects of immigration, such as increased labor competition, as detrimental when affecting their own group but beneficial when affecting other groups.

The politics of immigration have become increasingly associated with other issues, such as [[national security]] and [[terrorism]], with the presence of [[Islam]] as a new major religion. Those with security concerns cite the [[2005 French riots]] and point to the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]] as examples of the value conflicts arising from immigration of [[Muslims in Western Europe]]. Because of all these associations, immigration has become an emotional political issue in many European nations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euranetplus-inside.eu/migration-refugees-europe-waves-of-emotion/|title=Migration, refugees, Europe – waves of emotion|date=7 May 2015|website=Euranet Plus inside|publisher=Euranet Plus Network|language=en-GB|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.azcentral.com/news/articles/global-immigration-germany-integration.html|title=Europe learns integration can become emotional|last1=Nowicki|first1=Dan|website=AZCentral.com|access-date=16 May 2016}}{{Dead link|date=April 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

Another contributing factor may be lobbying by earlier immigrants. The chairman for the US Irish Lobby for Immigration Reform{{snd}}which lobby for more permissive rules for immigrants, as well as special arrangements just for Irish people{{snd}}has stated that "the Irish Lobby will push for any special arrangement it can get{{snd}}'as will every other ethnic group in the country.{{'"}}<ref name="irishlobbyusa" /><ref name="nclr" />

Some research has found that as immigration and ethnic heterogeneity increase, government funding of [[welfare spending|welfare]] and public support for welfare decrease.<ref>{{Cite book| last1=Alesina | first1=Alberto | last2=Glaeser | first2=Edward |title = Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference|url = http://scholar.harvard.edu/alesina/publications/fighting-poverty-us-and-europe-world-difference|access-date = 14 January 2016|year = 2004|publisher = Oxford University Press|archive-date = 4 October 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181004104052/https://scholar.harvard.edu/alesina/publications/fighting-poverty-us-and-europe-world-difference}}</ref><ref name="Schmidt-CatranSpies2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Schmidt-Catran | first1 = Alexander W.|last2=Spies|first2=Dennis C.|date=4 March 2016|title=Immigration and Welfare Support in Germany |journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|article-number=0003122416633140|doi=10.1177/0003122416633140|issn=0003-1224|volume=81|issue=2| s2cid = 155433506|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = Woojin|last2=Roemer|first2=John E.|date=1 August 2006|title=Racism and redistribution in the United States: A solution to the problem of American exceptionalism |journal=Journal of Public Economics|volume=90|issue=6|pages=1027–1052|doi=10.1016/j.jpubeco.2005.08.008| s2cid = 10965659| url = http://cowles.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/pub/d14/d1462.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fighting Poverty in the US and Europe: A World of Difference |publisher= Oxford Scholarship|language=en|doi=10.1093/0199267669.001.0001|year=2004 | last1 = Alesina | first1 = Alberto | last2 = Glaeser | first2 = Edward|isbn=978-0-19-926766-8|s2cid=156474870}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Habyarimana|first1=James|last2=Humphreys|first2=Macartan|last3=Posner|first3=Daniel N.|last4=Weinstein|first4=Jeremy M.|date=2007|title=Why Does Ethnic Diversity Undermine Public Goods Provision?|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=101|issue=4|pages=709–725|doi=10.1017/S0003055407070499|s2cid=4498060|issn=1537-5943|url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2km4r4dn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/nations-states-and-violence-9780199228232?cc=us&lang=en&|title=Nations, States and Violence|last=Laitin|first=David|date=2007|website=Oxford University Press|publisher=OUP Oxford |access-date=10 November 2019|isbn=978-0-19-922823-2}}</ref> [[Nepotism|Ethnic nepotism]] may be an explanation for this phenomenon. Other possible explanations include theories regarding [[in-group]] and out-group effects and [[reciprocal altruism]].<ref name="Freeman2009" />

Research however also challenges the notion that ethnic heterogeneity reduces public goods provision.<ref name="Wimmer2016">{{Cite journal|title = Is Diversity Detrimental? Ethnic Fractionalization, Public Goods Provision, and the Historical Legacies of Stateness |journal = Comparative Political Studies|volume = 49|issue = 11|date = 28 July 2015|issn = 0010-4140|pages = 1407–1445|doi = 10.1177/0010414015592645 | first1 = Andreas | last1 = Wimmer|s2cid = 7998506}}</ref><ref name=":4b">{{Cite journal|last1=Pardelli|first1=Giuliana|last2=Kustov|first2=Alexander|date=2022|title=When Coethnicity Fails|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/when-coethnicity-fails/25AD2DFBB59F9EADA448C46AE2934B0C|journal=World Politics|volume=74|issue=2|pages=249–284|language=en|doi=10.1017/S0043887121000241|s2cid=246855942|issn=0043-8871|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="KymlickaBanting2011">{{Cite journal|title = Immigration, Multiculturalism, and the Welfare State |journal = Ethics & International Affairs|date = 1 September 2006|issn = 1747-7093|pages = 281–304|volume = 20|issue = 3|doi = 10.1111/j.1747-7093.2006.00027.x | first1 = Will | last1 = Kymlicka|first2 = Keith|last2 = Banting|s2cid = 154547573}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gisselquist|first=Rachel M.|date=29 July 2014|title=Ethnic divisions and public goods provision, revisited|journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies|language=en|volume=37|issue=9|pages=1605–1627|doi=10.1080/01419870.2012.762106|s2cid=145381859|issn=0141-9870|doi-access=free}}</ref> Studies that find a negative relationship between ethnic diversity and public goods provision often fail to take into account that strong states were better at assimilating minorities, thus decreasing diversity in the long run.<ref name="Wimmer2016" /><ref name=":4b" /> Ethnically diverse states today consequently tend to be weaker states.<ref name="Wimmer2016" /> Because most of the evidence on fractionalization comes from sub-Saharan Africa and the United States, the generalizability of the findings is questionable.<ref name="KymlickaBanting2011" /> A 2018 study in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.<ref name="KustovPardelli2018">{{Cite journal | last1 = Kustov | first1 = Alexander|last2=Pardelli|first2=Giuliana|date=2018|title=Ethnoracial Homogeneity and Public Outcomes: The (Non)effects of Diversity|journal=American Political Science Review|language=en|volume=112| issue = 4|pages=1096–1103|doi=10.1017/S0003055418000308| s2cid = 149495272|issn=0003-0554}}</ref>

Research finds that Americans' attitudes towards immigration influence their attitudes towards welfare spending.<ref name="GarandXu2017">{{Cite journal|title = Immigration Attitudes and Support for the Welfare State in the American Mass Public |journal = American Journal of Political Science|volume = 61|date = 1 December 2015|issn = 1540-5907|pages = 146–162|doi = 10.1111/ajps.12233 | first1 = James C. | last1 = Garand|first2 = Ping|last2 = Xu|first3 = Belinda C.|last3 = Davis|url = https://digitalcommons.uri.edu/psc_facpubs/10}}</ref>

Immigrants and [[Immigrant generations#Second generation|second-generation immigrants]] were found on average to vote more for [[left-wing politics]] compared to non-immigrants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moriconi |first1=Simone |last2=Peri |first2=Giovanni |last3=Turati |first3=Riccardo |date=2025 |title=Analyzing political preferences of second-generation immigrants across the rural–urban divide |journal=Journal of Urban Economics |volume=146 |article-number=103740 |doi=10.1016/j.jue.2025.103740 |issn=0094-1190|doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2024 working paper by Borjas and Breznau found that pro-immigration research teams estimated more positive impacts of migration on the public support for welfare, while anti-immigration teams reported more negative estimates; the immigration researchers skewed heavily towards a pro-immigration stance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borjas |first1=George J. |last2=Breznau |first2=Nate |date=December 2024 |title=Ideological Bias in Estimates of the Impact of Immigration |journal=IZA Discussion Papers |issue=17561 |publisher=[[IZA Institute of Labor Economics]] |url=https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/17561}}</ref>

Utilizing migration to achieve a particular objective has been called [[replacement migration]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/unpd-egm_200010_un_2001_replacementmigration.pdf|title=Replacement Migration: Is it a Solution to Declining and Ageing Populations?|last=United Nations Secretariat. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Population Division |date=2001|series=ESA/P/WP|publisher=United Nations|pages=177|access-date=19 April 2023|archive-date=|archive-url=}}</ref> replacement theory,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Irene Montero: "Tras la regularización de inmigrantes, vamos a por la nacionalidad y a que puedan votar"|url=https://www.elmundo.es/elecciones/elecciones-aragon/2026/01/31/697e5143e9cf4a43448b4599.html|website=El Mundo|date=2026-01-31|access-date=2026-02-01|language=es|quote=Ojalá teoría del reemplazo, ojalá podamos barrer de fachas y de racistas este país con gente migrante, con gente trabajadora. Claro que yo quiero que haya reemplazo: reemplazo de fachas, reemplazo de racistas, reemplazo de vividores, y que podamos hacerlo con gente trabajadora tengan el color de piel que tengan.|trans-quote=I hope the replacement theory works, I hope we can rid this country of fascists and racists with migrants, with hard-working people. Of course I want replacement: replacement of fascists, replacement of racists, replacement of freeloaders, and I hope we can do it with hard-working people, whatever their skin color.}}</ref> [[demographic engineering]] or [[settler colonialism]]. Settler colonialism has been described as [[eliminationism]] due to the replacement of a group.<ref name="i446">{{cite journal | last=Wolfe | first=Patrick | title=Settler colonialism and the elimination of the native | journal=Journal of Genocide Research | volume=8 | issue=4 | date=2006 | issn=1462-3528 | doi=10.1080/14623520601056240 | pages=387–409 | url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14623520601056240 | access-date=2026-02-08}}</ref>

===Public support and opposition=== {{See also|Opposition to immigration}} Public support for immigration by country in European Union according to [[Eurobarometer]] 2024:<ref name="i878">{{cite book | title=Public opinion in the European Union: annex : fieldwork: October November 2024. Section QB4.1, QB4.2 | date=2024 | publisher=Publications Office | doi=10.2775/6217228 | url=https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2775/6217228 | access-date=28 March 2025 | page= | author1=European Commission. Directorate General for Communication. | isbn=978-92-68-21830-3 }}</ref> {{Sticky header}} {| class="wikitable sortable sticky-header sticky-header-multi" !rowspan="2" | Country !colspan="2" | Immigration from outside EU !colspan="2" | Immigration from other EU |- class="static-row-header" ! Positive % !! Negative % !! Positive % !! Negative % |- | {{flaglist|Austria}} || 37 || '''58''' || '''60''' || 34 |- | {{flaglist|Belgium}} || 41 || '''54''' || '''60''' || 39 |- | {{flaglist|Bulgaria}} || 25 || '''67''' || '''54''' || 37 |- | {{flaglist|Croatia}} || 43 || '''55''' || '''58''' || 38 |- | {{flaglist|Cyprus}} || 21 || '''78''' || '''61''' || 38 |- | {{flaglist|Czechia}} || 16 || '''82''' || 42 || '''55''' |- | {{flaglist|Denmark}} || 44 || '''51''' || '''80''' || 18 |- | {{flaglist|Estonia}} || 22 || '''70''' || '''59''' || 35 |- | {{flaglist|Finland}} || 45 || 49 || '''84''' || 13 |- | {{flaglist|France}} || 38 || '''56''' || '''59''' || 36 |- | {{flaglist|Germany}} || 34 || '''60''' || '''66''' || 29 |- | {{flaglist|Greece}} || 19 || '''78''' || '''57''' || 41 |- | {{flaglist|Hungary}} || 24 || '''75''' || '''57''' || 41 |- | {{flaglist|Ireland}} || '''62''' || 34 || '''81''' || 16 |- | {{flaglist|Italy}} || 43 || '''54''' || '''62''' || 36 |- | {{flaglist|Latvia}} || 20 || '''75''' || '''56''' || 39 |- | {{flaglist|Lithuania}} || 25 || '''72''' || '''70''' || 28 |- | {{flaglist|Luxembourg}} || '''59''' || 37 || '''87''' || 10 |- | {{flaglist|Malta}} || 22 || '''76''' || '''64''' || 35 |- | {{flaglist|Netherlands}} || 45 || '''52''' || '''71''' || 28 |- | {{flaglist|Poland}} || '''50''' || 47 || '''75''' || 22 |- | {{flaglist|Portugal}} || 47 || 49 || '''64''' || 32 |- | {{flaglist|Romania}} || '''54''' || 41 || '''64''' || 32 |- | {{flaglist|Slovakia}} || 24 || '''71''' || '''55''' || 41 |- | {{flaglist|Slovenia}} || 27 || '''71''' || '''66''' || 32 |- | {{flaglist|Spain}} || '''63''' || 33 || '''78''' || 19 |- | {{flaglist|Sweden}} || '''62''' || 36 || '''89''' || 11 |}

== Immigration law == [[File:South Africa-Xenophobia-001.jpg|thumb|UNHCR tents at a refugee camp following episodes of [[Xenophobia in South Africa|anti-immigrant violence]] in South Africa, 2008]] {{Main|Immigration law}}

Legislation regarding immigrations differs per nation. [[International law]] includes rights, such as [[due process]], suitable conditions, protection from unreasonable punishment and detention. However, nations are sovereign, and the protocols of international law cannot be enforced upon them. Nations have the freedom to handle immigrants as they choose, and to structure how any [[legal aid]] is distributed. Some human rights organizations strongly criticize individual nation-states for their immigration policies and practices.<ref name="Lindley 629–653">{{Cite journal |last=Lindley |first=Anna |date=5 April 2022 |title='Hit and Miss'? Access to Legal Assistance in Immigration Detention |url=https://academic.oup.com/jhrp/article/13/3/629/6546238 |journal=Journal of Human Rights Practice |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=629–653 |doi=10.1093/jhuman/huab045 |issn=1757-9627|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{multiple image|direction=vertical|footer=Entry (top) and Exit (bottom) [[passport stamp]]s issued to a citizen of Germany by Indian immigration authorities at [[Indira Gandhi International Airport|New Delhi airport]].| width=220|image1=India passport entry stamp.jpg|alt1=Entry stamp|image2=India passport stamp.jpg|alt2=Exit stamp }} Treatment of migrants in host countries, both by governments, employers, and original population, is a topic of continual debate and criticism, and the violation of migrant [[human rights]] is ongoing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/amnesty-international-state-of-the-world-2015-2016|title=Amnesty International State of the World 2015–2016|date=23 February 2016|website=AmnestyUSA.org|publisher=Amnesty International USA|access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref> The [[United Nations Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families]], has been ratified by 48 states, most of which are heavy exporters of cheap labor. Major migrant-receiving countries and regions{{snd}}including Western Europe, North America, Pacific Asia, Australia, and the [[Gulf states (Middle East)|Gulf States]]{{snd}}have not ratified the convention, even though they are host to the majority of international migrant workers.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MeueEY0uO6EC|title=Transnational Migration and Human Security: The Migration-Development-Security Nexus | last1 = Truong | first1 = Thanh-Dam|last2=Gasper|first2=Des|year=2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-12757-1|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en|title=International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families|date=18 December 1990|website=Treaties.UN.org|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|access-date=11 May 2016|archive-date=28 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528064049/https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-13&chapter=4&lang=en}}</ref> Although [[freedom of movement]] is often recognized as a [[civil right]] in many documents such as the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (1948) and the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (1966), the freedom only applies to movement within national borders and the ability to return to one's home state.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/|title=The Universal Declaration of Human Rights|date=10 December 1948|website=UN.org|publisher=United Nations|location=Paris|access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/ccpr.aspx|title=International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights|date=16 December 1966|website=OHCHR.org|publisher=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|access-date=11 May 2016}}</ref> Some argue that [[free migration]] is a right, and that the restrictive immigration policies, typical of nation-states, violate this right.<ref name="immigration" /> Such arguments are common among [[libertarian perspectives on immigration]].<ref name=theanarchistlibrary>{{cite web |title=Anarchism and Immigration |date=1 January 2005 |work=theanarchistlibrary |url=http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/scott-of-the-insurgency-culture-collective-anarchism-and-immigration |access-date=26 May 2015 |archive-date=27 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527004746/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/scott-of-the-insurgency-culture-collective-anarchism-and-immigration }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Griswold |first= Dan|title= Nozick, Robert (1938–2002)|author-link=Dan Griswold|editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter= Immigration |chapter-url= https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/libertarianism/n145.xml |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publications]], [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n220 |isbn= 978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc=750831024| lccn = 2008009151 |pages=235–257}}</ref> [[Open border]]s activist [[Jacob M. Appel|Jacob Appel]] has written, "Treating human beings differently, simply because they were born on the opposite side of a national boundary, is hard to justify under any mainstream philosophical, religious or ethical theory."{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Where immigration is permitted, it is typically selective. {{as of|2003}}, [[family reunification]] accounted for approximately two-thirds of legal immigration to the US every year.<ref name="migrationinformation2" /> Ethnic selection, such as the [[White Australia policy]], has generally disappeared, but priority is usually given to the wealthy, educated or [[Skilled worker#Migration|skilled worker migration]]. [[Exploitation of labour|Exploitation of migrant labour]], [[human trafficking]] and [[migrant sex work]] has been criticized.

Immigration policies which selectively grant freedom of movement to targeted individuals are intended to produce a net economic gain for the host country. They can also mean net loss for a poor donor country through [[brain drain]]. This can exacerbate the [[Global justice|global inequality]] in [[standards of living]] that provided the motivation for the individual to migrate in the first place. One example of competition for skilled labour is active recruitment of [[health worker]]s from developing countries by developed countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thewalrus.ca/poaching-foreign-doctors/|title=Poaching Foreign Doctors | last1 = Krotz | first1 = Larry|date=12 September 2012|website=The Walrus|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Stilwell | first1 = Barbara|last2=Diallo|first2=Khassoum|last3=Zurn|first3=Pascal|last4=Vujicic|first4=Marko|last5=Adams|first5=Orvill|last6=Dal Poz|first6=Mario|date=2004|title=Migration of health-care workers from developing countries: strategic approaches to its management|url=https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/82/8/595arabic.pdf|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization|issue=82|pages=595–600|access-date=16 May 2016}}</ref> There may however also be a "brain gain" to emigration, as migration opportunities lead to greater investments in education in developing countries.<ref name="Shrestha2017">{{Cite journal | last1 = Shrestha | first1 = Slesh A.|date=1 April 2016|title=No Man Left Behind: Effects of Emigration Prospects on Educational and Labour Outcomes of Non-migrants |journal=The Economic Journal|volume=127|issue=600|language=en|pages=495–521|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12306| s2cid = 154362034|issn=1468-0297}}</ref><ref name="BeineDocquier2008">{{Cite journal | last1 = Beine | first1 = Michel|last2=Docquier|first2=Fréderic|last3=Rapoport|first3=Hillel|date=1 April 2008|title=Brain Drain and Human Capital Formation in Developing Countries: Winners and Losers |journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=118|issue=528|pages=631–652|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2008.02135.x|issn=1468-0297|hdl=2078.1/5768| s2cid = 28988486| url = http://sites.uclouvain.be/econ/DP/IRES/2006-23.pdf}}</ref><ref name="DinkelmanMariotti2016">{{Cite journal | last1 = Dinkelman | first1 = Taryn|last2=Mariotti|first2=Martine|date=2016|title=The Long Run Effects of Labor Migration on Human Capital Formation in Communities of Origin |journal=American Economic Journal: Applied Economics |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.1257/app.20150405 | s2cid = 5140105| url = http://www.nber.org/papers/w22049.pdf}}</ref><ref name="BatistaLacuesta2012">{{Cite journal | last1 = Batista | first1 = Catia|last2=Lacuesta|first2=Aitor|last3=Vicente|first3=Pedro C.|date=1 January 2012|title=Testing the 'brain gain' hypothesis: Micro evidence from Cape Verde |journal=Journal of Development Economics |volume=97|issue=1|pages=32–45|doi=10.1016/j.jdeveco.2011.01.005|hdl=10419/44193| s2cid = 4489444| url = https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp5048|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Overall, research suggests that migration in some cases can be beneficial both to the receiving and sending countries.<ref name="di GiovanniLevchenko2015" />

Persons who do not meet the immigration law [[return migration|return migrate]] to their country of citizenship in line with the [[right of return]].<ref name="f797">{{cite journal | last=Gmelch | first=George | title=Return Migration | journal=Annual Review of Anthropology | publisher=Annual Reviews | volume=9 | year=1980 | issn=0084-6570 | jstor=2155732 | pages=135–159 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155732 | access-date=2026-03-29}}</ref>

== See also == {{Columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Immigration country]] * [[Immigration minister]] * [[Immigration reform]] * [[International migration]] * [[Internal migration]] * [[Multiculturalism]] * [[People smuggling]] * [[Repatriation]] * [[Non-citizen suffrage]] * [[Non-resident citizen voting]] * [[Skilled worker#Migration]] * [[White genocide conspiracy theory]] * [[Women migrant workers from developing countries]] * [[Xenophobia]] }}

== References == {{reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite book |last1=Boustan |first1=Adain May |title=Fertility and Immigration |date=15 January 2009 |publisher=UCLA }}</ref>

<ref name="immigration">{{cite book |last1=Hayter |first1=Theresa |title=Open Borders: The Case Against Immigration Controls |date=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |location=London }}</ref>

<ref name="irishlobbyusa">{{Cite news|title=An Irish Face on the Cause of Citizenship | first1 = Nina | last1 = Bernstein| date=16 March 2006|work=The New York Times|access-date=11 May 2016|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/16/nyregion/16irish.html?_r=3&}}</ref>

<ref name="FacchiniSteinhardt2011">{{Cite journal | last1 = Facchini | first1 = G. | last2 = Steinhardt | first2 = M. F. | title = What drives U.S. Immigration policy? Evidence from congressional roll call votes | doi = 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.02.008 | journal = Journal of Public Economics | volume = 95 | issue = 7–8 | page = 734 | year = 2011 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.585.3903 | s2cid = 6940099 }}</ref>

<ref name="knaw">See the NIDI/[[Eurostat]] "push and pull study" for details and examples: [http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/web/html/pushpull/index.html] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061209161415/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/web/html/pushpull/index.html |date=9 December 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name="nclr">{{cite web |author1=National Council of La Raza |title=Action on Immigration Reform |url=http://www.nclr.org/index.php/issues_and_programs/immigration/immigration_reform/ |website=National Council of La Raza |access-date=29 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110413063634/http://www.nclr.org/index.php/issues_and_programs/immigration/immigration_reform/ |archive-date=13 April 2011 |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Freeman2009">{{Cite journal | last1 = Freeman | first1 = G. P. | doi = 10.2202/1540-8884.1317 | title = Immigration, Diversity, and Welfare Chauvinism | journal = The Forum | volume = 7 | issue = 3 | year = 2009 | article-number = 0000102202154088841317 | s2cid = 144470028 }}</ref>

<ref name="migrationinformation2">{{cite web |last1=McKay |first1=Ramah |title=Family Reunification |url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus/display.cfm?id=122 |website=migrationpolicy.org |publisher=Migration Policy Institute |language=en |date=1 May 2003}}</ref>

<ref name="Tamura2010">{{cite journal |last1=Tamura |first1=Yuji |title=Do Employers Support Immigration? |journal=Trinity Economics Papers |date=29 July 2010 |issue=1107 |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1021941 |s2cid=55485879 |url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=1021941 |access-date=29 October 2018 |issn=1556-5068}}</ref>

<ref name="worldbank">{{cite web|author=Remittance Prices Worldwide MAKING MARKETS MORE TRANSPARENT |url=http://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/ |title=Remittance Prices Worldwide |publisher=Remittanceprices.worldbank.org |date=28 April 2014 |access-date=14 May 2014}}</ref>

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}}

== Further reading == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book | last1 = Bartram | first1 = David | last2 = Poros | first2 = Maritsa | last3 = Monforte | first3 = Pierre | year = 2014 | title = Key Concepts in Migration | url = https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/key-concepts-in-migration/book235105 | location = London | publisher = Sage | isbn = 978-0-85702-079-6 }} * {{cite book | last=Bauder | first=H. | title=Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-19-020835-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lF5iAwAAQBAJ | access-date=20 May 2023 }} * {{Cite book | last1 = Borjas | first1 = George J. |author-link= George J. Borjas |year= 2014 |title= Immigration Economics |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-674-04977-2 }} * Borjas, George. [https://www.innovations.harvard.edu/increasing-supply-labor-through-immigration-measuring-impact-native-born-workers "Increasing the Supply of Labor Through Immigration"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019215523/https://www.innovations.harvard.edu/increasing-supply-labor-through-immigration-measuring-impact-native-born-workers |date=19 October 2020 }}. Center for Immigration Studies, May 2004. * {{cite web |last1=Burtless |first1=Gary |title=Impact of Immigration on the Distribution of American Well-Being |website=Center for Retirement Research at Boston College |date=1 December 2009 |url=http://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/wp2009-34-508.pdf |access-date=15 October 2018 |language=en |ssrn=1553271 }} * {{cite book | last=Torre | first=Miguel A. De La | title=Trails of Hope and Terror | publisher=Orbis Books | date=2009 | isbn=978-1-57075-798-3}} * Esbenshade, Jill. ''Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances''. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2007. * Ewing, Walter A. ''Border Insecurity: U.S. Border-Enforcement Policies and National Security'', Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Spring 2006. * Fell, Peter and Hayes, Debra. ''What are they Doing Here? A Critical Guide to Asylum and Immigration'', Birmimgham, Venture Press, 2007. * {{Cite book |last1= Fitzgerald | first1 = David Scott |last2= Cook-Martin |first2= David |year= 2014 |title= Culling the Masses: The Democratic Origins of Racist Immigration Policy in the Americas |location= Cambridge, MA |publisher= [[Harvard University Press]] |isbn= 978-0-674-72904-9 }} * Immigration Policy Center. ''Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide''. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, November 2005. * {{cite web |title=Immigration: The Demographic and Economic Facts |url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/pr-immig.html#contents |publisher=[[Cato Institute]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100701013631/http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/pr-immig.html#contents |archive-date=1 July 2010 |date=1995 }} * {{cite journal | last1 = Karakayali | first1 = Nedim | year = 2005 | title = Duality and Diversity in the Lives of Immigrant Children: Rethinking the 'Problem of Second Generation' in Light of Immigrant Autobiographies | journal = Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology | volume = 42 | issue = 3| pages = 325–344 | doi = 10.1111/j.1755-618X.2005.tb00843.x | hdl = 11693/38069 | hdl-access = free }} * {{cite book |last1=Kolb |first1=Eva |title=The Evolution of New York City's Multiculturalism: Melting Pot or Salad Bowl: Immigrants in New York from the 19th Century until the End of the Gilded Age |date=2009 |publisher=Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-8370-9303-2 |edition=1. Aufl}} * {{cite book |last1=Legrain |first1=Philippe |author-link1=Philippe Legrain |title=Immigrants: your country needs them |date=2007 |publisher=Little Brown |isbn=978-0-316-73248-2 |edition=First Princetonition}} * Massey, Douglas S. ''Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration''. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, September 2005. * {{cite book |last1= Massey | first1 = Douglas S. |last2= Arango |first2= Joaquín |last3= Graeme |first3= Hugo |last4= Kouaouci |first4= Ali |last5=Adela |first5= Pellegrino |last6= Taylor |first6= J. Edward |title=Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-928276-0 |year=2005 }} * {{cite book |last1=Meilander |first1=Peter C. |title=Toward a theory of immigration |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-312-24034-9 |edition=1st|year=2001 }} * {{cite book | last=Molina | first=N. | title=Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939 | publisher=University of California Press | series=American Crossroads | year=2006 | isbn=978-0-520-24649-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7bEwDwAAQBAJ | access-date=20 May 2023 }} * {{cite book | last1 = Myers | first1 = Dowell |author-link= Dowell Myers|title=Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America |publisher=Russell Sage Foundation |isbn=978-0-87154-636-4|title-link=Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America |year=2007 }} * Passel, Jeffrey S. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44 ''Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231192402/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=44 |date=31 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2005. * Passel, Jeffrey S. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74 ''Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071228175822/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=74 |date=28 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, March 2007. * Passel, Jeffrey S. and Roberto Suro. [http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53 ''Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231192407/http://pewhispanic.org/reports/report.php?ReportID=53 |date=31 December 2007 }}. Pew Hispanic Center, September 2005. * Pearce, Susan C. ''Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait''. Immigration Policy Center, American Immigration Law Foundation, Summer 2006. * {{cite journal |last1=Portes |first1=Alejandro |last2=Böröcz |first2=József |author2-link=József Böröcz |title=Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation |journal=The International Migration Review |date=1989 |volume=23 |issue=3 (Special Silver Anniversary Issue: International Migration an Assessment for the 90's ) |pages=606–630 |doi=10.2307/2546431 |url=http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jborocz/apbjimr.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216013343/http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~jborocz/apbjimr.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 |access-date=15 October 2018 |jstor=2546431 |pmid=12282796 }} * [[Rumbaut, Ruben]] and Walter Ewing. "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men." The Immigration Policy Center, Spring 2007. * Sintès Pierre, ''La raison du mouvement : territoires et réseaux de migrants albanais en Grèce'', Karthala, Maison Méditerranéenne des sciences de l'homme, Ecole française d'Athènes, Paris – Aix-en-Provence – Athens, 2010. * {{cite book |last1=Sirkeci |first1=Ibrahim |title=The Environment of Insecurity in Turkey and the Emigration of Turkish Kurds to Germany |date=2006 |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7734-5739-3 |url=http://www.mellenpress.com/mellenpress.cfm?bookid=6794&pc=9 |access-date=15 October 2018 }} * {{cite book |last1=Valle |first1=Isabel |title=Fields of Toil: A Migrant Family's Journey |publisher=Washington State University Press |isbn=978-0-87422-101-5 |date=1994 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldsoftoilmigr00vall }} * {{cite book |last1=Zolberg|first1=Aristide R. |title= A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America |publisher= Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02218-8 |year=2006}} {{Refend}}

== External links == {{Wiktionary}} {{Wikiquote}} {{AmCyc Poster|Emigration|Immigration}} * {{commons category-inline|Immigration}}

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[[Category:Immigration| ]] [[Category:Population]] [[Category:Majority–minority relations]]