Āśrama (stage)

{{Short description|Ancient Indian concept of human life stages}} {{About|the ancient Indian concept of life stages|spiritual hermitage|Ashram}}

'''''Āśrama''''' ({{langx|sa|आश्रम}}) is a system of stages of life discussed in Hindu texts of the ancient and medieval eras.<ref name=patrick>Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśram System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, {{oclc|466428084}}, pages 1–29, 84–111</ref> The four asramas are: ''Brahmacharya'' (student), ''Gṛhastha'' (householder), ''Vanaprastha'' (forest walker/forest dweller), and ''Sannyasa'' (renunciate).<ref name=rks/>

The ''Asrama'' system is one facet of the ''Dharma'' concept in Hinduism.<ref name=aw2/> It is also a component of the ethical theories in Indian philosophy, where it is combined with four proper goals of human life (''Purushartha''), for fulfilment, happiness and spiritual liberation.<ref name=aw0/> Moreover, since the four asramas can be seen as the framework of an influential life-span model, they are also part of an indigenous developmental psychology which from its ancient beginnings until today has shaped the orientations and goals of many people, especially in India.<ref name="Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005), p. 39" /><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chakkarath|first=Pradeep|title=Indian thoughts on psychological human development. In G. Misra (Ed.), Psychology and Psychoanalysis in India (pp. 167-190).|date=2013|publisher=New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.}}</ref>

==Asrama system== The four asramas system aimed to integrate renunciation into the Brahmanical society around the fourth century BCE. Initially, it offered young adults four lifelong paths post-vedic initiation: ''Brahmacharya'' (student), ''Gṛhastha'' (householder), ''Vanaprastha'' (forest walker/forest dweller), and ''Sannyasa'' (renunciate). Documented in early Dharmasutras (2nd-3rd centuries BCE), it allowed free choice among these paths, which were viewed as permanent vocations. The term asrama was coined to describe these lifestyles, particularly those of exceptional Brahmins dedicated to austerities and rituals.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Blackwell companion to Hinduism |date=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Pub |isbn=978-0-631-21535-6 |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Gavin D. |series=Blackwell companions to religion |location=Malden, MA |pages=277–279}}</ref>

Under the Asrama system, the human lifespan was divided into four periods.<ref name="Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005), p. 39">Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005), pp. 31-54.</ref><ref name="Rama, p. 467">Rama, p. 467.</ref> The goal of each period was the fulfilment and development of the individual. The classical system, in the ''Āśrama Upanishad'', the ''Vaikhanasa Dharmasutra'' and the later ''Dharmashastra'', presents these as sequential stages of human life and recommends ages for entry to each stage, while in the original system presented in the early ''Dharmasutras'' the Asramas were four alternative available ways of life, neither presented as sequential nor with age recommendations.<ref name="patrick" /><ref>Barbara Holdrege (2004), "Dharma", in ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-21527-7}}, page 231</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |- ! Āśrama or stage ! Age (years)<ref name="Walters1998">{{Citation| author=J. Donald Walters | title=The Hindu Way of Awakening: Its Revelation, Its Symbols, an Essential View of Religion | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i7JqVy_Giz0C&pg=PA154 | access-date=12 July 2013 | year=1998 | publisher=Crystal Clarity Publishers | isbn=978-1-56589-745-8 | pages=154–}}</ref> ! Description ! Rituals of transition |- | ''Brahmacharya'' (Student's life) | Birth–25 | ''Brahmacharya'' represented the bachelor student stage of life. This stage focuses on education and included the practice of celibacy.<ref name=rks>RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, {{ISBN|978-8171566655}}, page 28</ref> The student went to a Gurukul (family/clan of the guru) and typically would live with a Guru (mentor), acquiring knowledge of science, philosophy, scriptures and logic, practicing self-discipline, working to earn dakshina to be paid for the ''guru'', learning to live a life of Dharma (righteousness, morals, duties).|| Upanayana at entry.<ref>Vivekjivandas, Sadhu. ''Hinduism: An Introduction – Part 2''. (Swaminarayan Aksharpith: Ahmedabad, 2010) p. 113. {{ISBN|978-81-7526-434-2}}</ref><ref>Brian Smith (1986), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270127 Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214114626/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3270127 |date=14 December 2018 }}, Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65–89</ref> Samavartana at exit.<ref>R Pandey (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (2nd Ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0434-1}}</ref> |- | ''Grihastha'' (household life) | 25–50 | This stage referred to the individual's married life, with the duties of maintaining a household, raising a family, educating one's children, and leading a family-centred and a dharmic social life.<ref name=rks/><ref name=sgn>{{cite book |title=Axiological approach to the Vedas|author=Sahebrao Genu Nigal|year=1986 |publisher=Northern Book Centre|isbn=81-85119-18-X|pages=110–114 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mMZzmB4duPoC&q=vanaprastha&pg=PA112 }}</ref><ref name=mb>{{cite book |title=Social and cultural history of ancient India|author=Manilal Bose|chapter=5. Grihastha Ashrama, Vanprastha and Sanyasa|year=1998|publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn= 81-7022-598-1|pages= 68–79}}</ref> ''Grihastha'' stage was considered as the most important of all stages in sociological context, as human beings in this stage not only pursued a virtuous life, they produced food and wealth that sustained people in other stages of life, as well as the offsprings that continued mankind.<ref name=rks/><ref name=aw0>Alban Widgery (1930), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 The Principles of Hindu Ethics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003160324/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 |date=3 October 2022 }}, International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 232–245</ref> The stage also represented one where the most intense physical, sexual, emotional, occupational, social and material attachments exist in a human being's life.<ref>Mazumdar and Mazumdar (2005), Home in the Context of Religion, in Home and Identity in Late Life: International Perspectives (Editor: Graham D. Rowles et al.), Springer, {{ISBN|978-0826127150}}, pages 81–103</ref>||Hindu wedding at entry. |- | ''Vanaprastha'' (retired life) | 50–75 | The retirement stage, where a person handed over household responsibilities to the next generation, took an advisory role, and gradually withdrew from the world.<ref name=alnu/><ref>Ralph Tench and William Sun (2014), Communicating Corporate Social Responsibility: Perspectives and Practice, {{ISBN|978-1783507955}}, page 346</ref> Vanaprastha stage was a transition phase from a householder's life with its greater emphasis on Artha and Kama (wealth, security, pleasure and desires) to one with greater emphasis on Moksha (spiritual liberation).<ref name=alnu>Albertina Nugteren (2005), Belief, Bounty, And Beauty: Rituals Around Sacred Trees in India, Brill Academic, {{ISBN|978-9004146013}}, pages 13–21</ref><ref name=saraoup>Saraswathi et al (2010), Reconceptualizing Lifespan Development through a Hindu Perspective, in Bridging Cultural and Developmental Approaches to Psychology (Editor: Lene Arnett Jensen), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195383430}}, page 280-286</ref> | |- | ''Sannyasa'' (renounced life) | 75+ (or anytime) | The stage was marked by renunciation of material desires and prejudices, represented by a state of disinterest and detachment from material life, generally without any meaningful property or home (ascetic), and focused on moksha, peace and simple spiritual life.<ref>S. Radhakrishnan (1922), "The Hindu Dharma", ''International Journal of Ethics'', 33(1): 1–22</ref><ref>DP Bhawuk (2011), "The Paths of Bondage and Liberation", in ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology'', Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, pages 93–110</ref> Anyone could enter this stage after completing the ''Brahmacharya'' stage of life.<ref name=patrick/> | |- |}

==Asrama and Purushartha== The Asramas system is one facet of the complex Dharma concept in Hinduism.<ref name=aw2>Alban Widgery (1930), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 The Principles of Hindu Ethics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003160324/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 |date=3 October 2022 }}, ''International Journal of Ethics'', 40(2): 237–239. {{JSTOR|2377977}}.</ref> It is integrated with the concept of Purushartha, or four proper aims of life in Hindu philosophy, namely, Dharma (piety, morality, duties), Artha (wealth, health, means of life), Kama (love, relationships, emotions) and Moksha (liberation, freedom, self-realization).<ref name=aw2/> Each of the four Asramas of life are a form of personal and social environment, each stage with ethical guidelines, duties and responsibilities, for the individual and for the society. Each Asrama stage places different levels of emphasis on the four proper goals of life, with different stages viewed as steps to the attainment of the ideal in Hindu philosophy, namely Moksha.<ref>Alban Widgery (1930), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 The Principles of Hindu Ethics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003160324/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2377977 |date=3 October 2022 }}, ''International Journal of Ethics'', 40(2): 239–240. {{JSTOR|2377977}}.</ref>

Neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three Asramas must devote itself solely to a specific goal of life (''Purushartha'').<ref name=paol>Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśram System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, {{oclc|466428084}}, pages 216–219</ref> The fourth stage of ''Sannyasa'' is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval texts is that ''Sannyas'' stage of life must entirely be devoted to ''Moksha'' aided by ''Dharma''.<ref name=paol/>

''Dharma'' is held primary for all stages. ''Moksha'' is the ultimate noble goal, recommended for everyone, to be sought at any stage of life. On the other two, the texts are unclear.<ref name=paol/> With the exception of Kamasutra, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasise in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,<ref name=paol/>

{{Quote|The life span of a man is one hundred years. Dividing that time, he should attend to three aims of life in such a way that they support, rather than hinder each other. In his youth he should attend to profitable aims (artha) such as learning, in his prime to pleasure (kama), and in his old age to dharma and moksha.|Kamasutr 1.2.1–1.2.4|Translated by Patrick Olivelle<ref name=paol/>}}

==See also== {{col div|colwidth=30em}} * Brahmacharya * Grihastha * Hinduism * Niyamas * Purushartha * Sannyasa * Vanaprastha * Varna in Hinduism * Yamas {{Div col end}}

== Citations == {{Reflist|30em}}

== General and cited references == * Chakkarath, Pradeep (2005). "What Can Western Psychology Learn from Indigenous Psychologies? Lessons from Hindu Psychology". In W. Friedlmeier, P. Chakkarath, & B. Schwarz (Eds.), ''Culture and Human Development: The Importance of Cross-cultural Research to the Social Sciences'' (pp. 31–51). New York: Psychology Press. * Chakkarath, Pradeep (2013). "Indian Thoughts on Psychological Human Development". In G. Misra (Ed.), ''Psychology and Psychoanalysis in India'' (pp. 167–190). New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. * {{Cite book | last =Kriyananda | first =Swami | year =1998 | title =The Hindu Way of Awakening | publisher =Crystal Clarity Publishers | isbn =1-56589-745-5 }} * {{Cite book | last =Rama | first =Swami | year =1985 | title =Perennial Psychology of the Bhagavad Gita | publisher =Himalayan Institute Press | isbn =0-89389-090-1 | url-access =registration | url =https://archive.org/details/perennialpsychol00rama }}

==Further reading== * Alain Daniélou (1993), ''Virtue, Success, Pleasure, and Liberation'', {{ISBN|978-0892812189}} * Patrick Olivelle (1993), ''The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution'', Oxford University Press, {{Isbn|9788121511353}}, {{oclc|466428084}}

==External links== {{Wiktionary|ashrama|आश्रम}} * [http://www.yogabasics.com/learn/the-four-ashramas-of-yoga.html "The Four Ashramas of Yoga"]—Timothy Burgin, July 11, 2007; Yoga Basics * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150125224425/http://www.hinduism.co.za/pravritt.htm Pravritti-Nivritti] Social action, inward contemplation and Asramas * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701104831/http://hinduism.iskcon.com/practice/702.htm The Four Ashrams] – ISKCON

Category:Ashramas Category:Hindu philosophical concepts Category:Human life stages