Arawak

{{Short description|Umbrella for various Indigenous peoples of the Americas}} {{Other uses}} {{distinguish|Sarawak}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} {{Infobox ethnic group | group = Arawak | native_name = | native_name_lang = | image = File:Arowak woman by John Gabriel Stedman.jpg | caption = Arawak woman, by John Gabriel Stedman | regions = South America, Caribbean | languages = Arawakan languages (Lokono, Taíno, etc.), Caribbean English, Caribbean Spanish, Creole languages | religions = Native American religion, Spirituality | related_groups = }}

'''Arawak''' is an exonym used for various groups of Indigenous peoples in northern South America and the Caribbean. The term "Arawak" has been applied at different times to several Indigenous groups, including the Lokono of South America and the Taíno ("Island Arawaks"), who lived in the Greater Antilles and northern Lesser Antilles. These groups spoke related Arawakan languages, part of one of the most widespread Indigenous language families in the Americas.<ref name="Rouse5" /> Historically, none of the peoples described by the term referred to themselves as "Arawak". The term became widely used through the work of 19th-century linguists.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cherry |first=John F. |date=2020 |title=An Archaeological History of Montserrat in the West Indies |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/An_Archaeological_History_of_Montserrat/f3zKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22An+Archaeological+History+of+Montserrat+in+the+West+Indies%22+Arawak&pg=PA62&printsec=frontcover |location= |publisher=Oxbow Books |page=62 |isbn=9781789253931 |access-date=2026-04-21}}</ref>

==Etymology== [[File:Arowak village.jpg|thumb|An artistic depiction of a Lokono village in Suriname, 1860.]] None of the Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean or South America referred to themselves as ''Arawak''. Early Spanish explorers and administrators used the terms ''Arawak'' and ''Caribs'' to distinguish the peoples of the Caribbean, with ''Carib'' reserved for Indigenous groups that they considered hostile and ''Arawak'' for groups that they considered friendly.<ref name="Kim">{{cite journal |first=Julie Chun |last=Kim |title=The Caribs of St. Vincent and Indigenous Resistance during the Age of Revolutions |journal=Early American Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2013 |pages=117–132 |doi=10.1353/eam.2013.0007 |jstor=23546705|s2cid=144195511 }}</ref>{{rp|121}}

In 1871, ethnologist Daniel Garrison Brinton proposed calling the Caribbean populace "Island Arawak" because of their cultural and linguistic similarities with the mainland Arawak. Subsequent scholars shortened this convention to "Arawak", creating confusion between the island and mainland groups. In the 20th century, scholars such as Irving Rouse resumed using "Taíno" for the Caribbean group to emphasize their distinct culture and language.<ref name=Rouse5>{{cite book |last= Rouse |first= Irving |year= 1992 |title= The Tainos |url= https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |url-access= registration |quote= Island Carib. |publisher= Yale University Press |page= [https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/5 5] |isbn= 0300051816 |access-date= 16 June 2015}}</ref>

==History== thumb|Arawakan languages in South America. The northern Arawakan languages are colored in light blue, southern Arawakan languages in dark blue. The Arawakan languages may have emerged in the Orinoco River valley in present-day Venezuela. They subsequently spread widely, becoming the most extensive language family in South America at the time of European contact, with speakers located along the Orinoco and Amazonian rivers and their tributaries.<ref name=Hill14>{{cite book |last1= Hill |first1= Jonathan David|last2= Santos-Granero |first2= Fernando |year= 2002 |title= Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qb4LoGZnf-8C&q=Lokono&pg=PA41 |publisher= University of Illinois Press|pages= 1–4|isbn= 0252073843 |access-date= 16 June 2014 }}</ref> The group that self-identified as the Arawak, also known as the Lokono, settled the coastal areas of what is now Guyana,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brett |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com.ly/books?id=rrUNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&hl=ar&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Indian Missions in Guiana |date=1851 |publisher=G. Bell |language=en}}</ref> Suriname, Grenada, Bahamas, Jamaica,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://jis.gov.jm/information/jamaican-history/ |title=The History of Jamaica |publisher= Government of Jamaica}}</ref> and parts of Trinidad and Tobago.<ref name=Rouse5/><ref>{{cite book |last= Olson |first= James Stewart |year= 1991 |title= The Indians of Central and South America: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=175c4xOpLtYC&q=Locono|publisher= Greenwood |page= 29 |isbn= 0313263876 |access-date= 16 June 2014}}</ref>

Michael Heckenberger, an anthropologist at the University of Florida who helped found the Central Amazon Project, and his team found elaborate pottery, ringed villages, raised fields, large mounds, and evidence of regional trade networks, all indicating a complex culture. There is also evidence that they modified the soil using various techniques such as adding charcoal to transform it into black earth, which is still famed for its agricultural productivity. Maize and sweet potatoes were their main crops, though they also grew cassava and yautia. The Arawaks fished using nets made of fibers, bones, hooks, and harpoons. According to Heckenberger, pottery and other cultural traits show these people belonged to the Arawakan language family, which also included the Taino, the first Native Americans Columbus encountered in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal=Archaeology |volume=63 |issue=5 |date=September–October 2010 |pages=51–52, 54, 56 |last1=Tennesen |first1=M. |title=Uncovering the Arawacks |jstor=41780608}}</ref>

At some point, the Arawakan-speaking Taíno culture emerged in the Caribbean. Archaeological evidence shows early human presence in the Caribbean in Trinidad by about 6000 BC and in Cuba by around 5000 BC. Later migration from South America included Huecoids and Saladoids. Saladoid people had reached Puerto Rico by at least 430 BC and later into Hispaniola. By around 400 AD, these different groups formed the basis of a Caribbean culture.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Tony |title=Caribbean history : from pre-colonial origins to the present |date=2012 |publisher=Boston : Pearson |pages=4}}</ref> Two major models have been presented to account for the arrival of Taíno ancestors in the islands; the "Circum-Caribbean" model suggests an origin in the Colombian Andes connected to the Arhuaco people, while the Amazonian model supports an origin in the Amazon basin, where the Arawakan languages developed.<ref>{{cite book |last= Rouse |first= Irving |year= 1992 |title= The Tainos |url= https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |url-access= registration |quote= Island Carib. |publisher= Yale University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/30 30]–48 |isbn= 0300051816 |access-date= 16 June 2014}}</ref> The Taíno were among the first American people to encounter Europeans. Christopher Columbus visited multiple islands and chiefdoms on his first voyage in 1492, which was followed by the establishment of La Navidad<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/colonial-genocides-project/hispaniola|title=Hispaniola | Genocide Studies Program|website=gsp.yale.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-01-19}}</ref> that same year on the northeast coast of Hispaniola, the first Spanish settlement in the Americas. Relationships between the Spaniards and the Taíno would ultimately sour. Some of the lower-level chiefs of the Taíno appeared to have assigned a supernatural origin to the explorers. When Columbus returned to La Navidad on his second voyage, he found the settlement burned down and the 39 men he had left there killed.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Destruction of the Taino|last=Keegan|first=William F.|year=1992|pages=51–56}}</ref>

With the establishment of a second settlement, La Isabella, and the discovery of gold deposits on the island, the Spanish settler population on Hispaniola started to grow substantially, while disease and conflict with the Spanish began to kill tens of thousands of Taíno every year. By 1504, the Spanish had overthrown the last of the Taíno cacique chiefdoms on Hispaniola, and firmly established the supreme authority of the Spanish colonists over the now-subjugated Taíno. Over the next decade, the Spanish colonists presided over a genocide of the remaining Taíno on Hispaniola, who suffered enslavement, massacres, or exposure to diseases.<ref name=":0" /> The population of Hispaniola at the point of first European contact is estimated at between several hundred thousand to over a million people,<ref name=":0" /> but by 1514, it had dropped to a mere 35,000.<ref name=":0" /> By 1509, the Spanish had successfully conquered Puerto Rico and subjugated the approximately 30,000 Taíno inhabitants. By 1530, there were 1,148 Taíno left alive in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://gsp.yale.edu/case-studies/colonial-genocides-project/puerto-rico|title=Puerto Rico | Genocide Studies Program|website=gsp.yale.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-01-19}}</ref>

Taíno influence has survived even until today, though, as can be seen in the religions, languages, and music of Caribbean cultures.<ref>{{cite web|title=Exploring the Early Americas|website=Library of Congress |date=12 December 2007 |url=https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/exploring-the-early-americas/columbus-and-the-taino.html}}</ref> The Lokono and other South American groups resisted colonization for a longer period, and the Spanish remained unable to subdue them throughout the 16th century. In the early 17th century, they allied with the Spanish against the neighbouring Kalina (Caribs), who allied with the English and Dutch.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Hill |first1= Jonathan David|last2= Santos-Granero |first2= Fernando |year= 2002 |title= Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qb4LoGZnf-8C&q=Lokono&pg=PA41 |publisher= University of Illinois Press|pages= 39–42 |isbn= 0252073843 |access-date= 16 June 2014 }}</ref> The Lokono benefited from trade with European powers into the early 19th century, but suffered thereafter from economic and social changes in their region, including the end of the plantation economy. Their population declined until the 20th century, when it began to increase again.<ref>{{cite book |last= Olson |first= James Stewart |year= 1991 |title= The Indians of Central and South America: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=175c4xOpLtYC&q=Locono|publisher= Greenwood |pages= 30, 211 |isbn= 0313263876 |access-date= 16 June 2014}}</ref>

Most of the Arawak of the Antilles died out or intermarried after the Spanish conquest. In South America, Arawakan-speaking groups are widespread, from southwest Brazil to the Guianas in the north,<ref>[https://books.google.com.ly/books?id=rrUNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&hl=ar&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=2#v=onepage&q&f=false Brett, William Henry.(1851). ''Indian Tribes of Guyana'']</ref> representing a wide range of cultures. They are found mostly in the tropical forest areas north of the Amazon. As with all Amazonian native peoples, contact with European settlement has led to culture change and depopulation among these groups.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Lagasse|first1=P.|title=Arawak|url=http://ss360.libraries.psu.edu.ezaccess.libraries.psu.edu/cgi-bin/ssredirpg?D=7F9&U=http%3A%2F%2Falias.libraries.psu.edu%2Feresources%2Fproxy%2Flogin%3Furl%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Fentry%2Fcolumency%2Farawak%2F0%3FinstitutionId%3D725}}</ref>

==Arawakan-speaking peoples and descendants== [[File:Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 60008905 Een groep Arowakken en Karaiben in fe.jpg|thumb|Lokono people gathered for an audience with the Dutch Governor in Paramaribo, Suriname, 1880]]

===Garifuna=== {{Excerpt|Garifuna}}

===Lokono=== {{Seealso|Lokono}}

In the 21st century, about 10,000 Lokono live primarily in Guyana, with smaller numbers present in Venezuela, Suriname, and French Guiana.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://dice.missouri.edu/assets/docs/awarak/Lokono.pdf | title = Lokono | website = DICE Missouri | access-date = 2024-06-27 }}</ref> Despite colonization, the Lokono population is growing.<ref>{{cite book |last= Olson |first= James Stewart |year= 1991 |title= The Indians of Central and South America: An Ethno-historical Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=175c4xOpLtYC&q=Locono|publisher= Greenwood |page= 211 |isbn= 0313263876 |access-date= 16 June 2014}}</ref>

In addition, attempts to save the Lokono language, classified as critically-endangered, have been undertaken. An assessment published by Language Documentation and Conservation in 2015 determined the number of Lokono speakers who are fluent in the language had declined to approximately five percent of the known population.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rybka | first1 = Konrad | date = Jan 1, 2015 | title = State-of-The-Art in the Development of Lokono | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303288522 | journal = Language Documentation and Conservation | volume = 9 | issue = | pages = 110–133 | access-date = December 30, 2024 }}</ref>

===Taíno=== {{Seealso|Taíno}}

The Spaniards who arrived in the Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola (today Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and the Virgin Islands in 1492, and later in Puerto Rico in 1493, first met the Indigenous peoples now commonly referred to as the Taíno, and then the Kalinago and other groups. Some of these groups—most notably the Kalinago—were able to survive despite warfare, disease and slavery brought by the Europeans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Julie Chun |date=2013 |title=The Caribs of St. Vincent and Indigenous Resistance during the Age of Revolutions |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/493901 |journal=Early American Studies|volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=117–132 |doi=10.1353/eam.2013.0007 |issn=1559-0895|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Others survived in isolated communities with escaped and free Black people, called Maroons.<ref name=":7">Woodaman, Ranald (2017). [https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/taino-survival-back-history "Taíno Survival: Back into History"]. ''American Indian Magazine''. '''18''' (4).</ref> Many of the explorers and early colonists also raped Indigenous women they came across, resulting in children who were considered mestizo. Some of these mestizo groups retained aspects of Indigenous culture and customs over many generations, especially among rural communities such as the jíbaro.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vilar |first1=Miguel G. |last2=Melendez |first2=Carlalynne |last3=Sanders |first3=Akiva B. |last4=Walia |first4=Akshay |last5=Gaieski |first5=Jill B. |last6=Owings |first6=Amanda C. |last7=Schurr |first7=Theodore G. |last8=The Genographic Consortium |date=2014 |title=Genetic diversity in Puerto Rico and its implications for the peopling of the Island and the West Indies |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajpa.22569 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |language=en |volume=155 |issue=3 |pages=352–368 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.22569 |pmid=25043798 |bibcode=2014AJPA..155..352V |issn=0002-9483|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name=":8" />

In time, the number of recorded Indigenous Antilleans was greatly diminished through forced labor, disease and warfare, but also through changes to how ''Indio'' groups were recorded in the Spanish Caribbean. For example, the 1787 census in Puerto Rico lists 2,300 "pure" Indios in the population, but on the next census, in 1802, not a single Indio is listed. This created the enduring belief that the Taíno people went extinct, also known as the paper genocide. The paper genocide and the myth of extinction spread throughout colonial empires, Taíno people still continued to practice their culture and teachings passing it down from generation to generation. Much of this was done in secret or disguised through Catholicism in fear for their survival and of discrimination.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Baracutei Estevez |first=Jorge |date=2019-10-14 |title=On Indigenous Peoples' Day, meet the survivors of a 'paper genocide' |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/meet-survivors-taino-tribe-paper-genocide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017021929/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/2019/10/meet-survivors-taino-tribe-paper-genocide/ |archive-date=2019-10-17 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last1=Poole |first1=Robert M. |title=Who Were the Taíno, the Original Inhabitants of Columbus' Island Colonies? |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/who-were-taino-original-inhabitants-columbus-island-73824867/ |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

With the modern invention of DNA testing, many Caribbean people have discovered they have Indigenous heritage. This has been interpreted by some as supporting the claims of individuals and communities with Taíno heritage living today, particularly in rural areas such as "campos" (meaning small villages/towns in the country side). Though many communities and individuals across the Caribbean have some amount of Indigenous DNA, not all of them identify as Indigenous or Taíno. Those who do identify as Indigenous Caribbean may also use other terms to describe themselves as well as or in addition to ''Taíno''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schroeder |first1=Hannes |last2=Sikora |first2=Martin |last3=Gopalakrishnan |first3=Shyam |last4=Cassidy |first4=Lara M. |last5=Maisano Delser |first5=Pierpaolo |last6=Sandoval Velasco |first6=Marcela |last7=Schraiber |first7=Joshua G. |last8=Rasmussen |first8=Simon |last9=Homburger |first9=Julian R. |last10=Ávila-Arcos |first10=María C. |last11=Allentoft |first11=Morten E. |last12=Moreno-Mayar |first12=J. Víctor |last13=Renaud |first13=Gabriel |last14=Gómez-Carballa |first14=Alberto |last15=Laffoon |first15=Jason E. |date=2018-03-06 |title=Origins and genetic legacies of the Caribbean Taino |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=115 |issue=10 |pages=2341–2346 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1716839115 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=5877975 |pmid=29463742|bibcode=2018PNAS..115.2341S }}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Genes of 'extinct' Caribbean islanders found in living people |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/genes-extinct-caribbean-islanders-found-living-people |access-date=2022-10-23 |website=www.science.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Study identifies traces of indigenous 'Taíno' in present-day Caribbean populations |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/606691 |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=EurekAlert! |language=en}}</ref> There has been increasing scholarly attention paid to Taíno practices and culture, including communities with full or partial Taíno identities. Because of this, Taíno people started to become more open about sharing their identities, passed down Indigenous culture, and beliefs, such as the syncretic religion of Agua Dulce (also known as Tamani) that is practiced in the Dominican Republic.<ref>{{cite web | title =Agua Dulce in Kiskeya: Tobacco, Casabe, Water and Stone | author = Baracutei Estevez, Jorge | date = Fall 2018 | url = https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/agua-dulce-kiskeya-tobacco-casabe-water-and-stone | website = NMAI Magazine | access-date =2024-12-30}}</ref> Even before the DNA confirmation in the scientific community, Taíno peoples within the Caribbean and its diasporas had started a movement around the late 1980s and early 1990s calling for the protection, revival or restoration of Taíno culture.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

By coming together and sharing individual knowledge passed down by either oral history or maintained practice, these groups were able to use that knowledge and cross-reference the journals of Spaniards to fill in parts of Taíno culture and religion long thought to be lost due to colonization. This movement led to some Yukayekes (Taíno Tribes) being reformed.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Neeganagwedgin |first=Erica |date=December 2015 |title=Rooted in the Land: Taíno identity, oral history and stories of reclamation in contemporary contexts |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/117718011501100405 |journal=AlterNative|language=en |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=376–388 |doi=10.1177/117718011501100405 |issn=1177-1801|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Today there are Yukayekes in Cuba,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cuba's Taíno people: A flourishing culture, believed extinct |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20190205-cubas-tano-people-a-flourishing-culture-believed-extinct |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=www.bbc.com |date=6 February 2019 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>[https://www.americanindianmagazine.org/story/indigenous-cuba-hidden-plain-sight "Indigenous Cuba: Hidden in Plain Sight"]. ''NMAI Magazine''. Retrieved 2023-09-17.</ref> Jamaica,<ref name=":6" /> and Puerto Rico,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010 |title=American Indian and Alaska Native Tribes in the United States and Puerto Rico: 2010 (CPH-T-6) |url=https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2010/cph-t/cph-t-6.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004223420/https://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2010/cph-t/cph-t-6.html |archive-date=October 4, 2015 |access-date=September 14, 2016 |website=Census.gov |publisher=Census bureau}}</ref> such as "Higuayagua" and "Yukayeke Taíno Borikén".<ref name=":8">Curet, Antonio L. (Spring 2015). "Indigenous Revival, Indigeneity, and the Jíbaro in Borikén". ''Centro Journal''. '''27''': 206–247.</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Feliciano-Santos |first=Sherina |date=2017-09-01 |title=Prophetic repairs: Narrative and social action among Puerto Rican Taíno |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0271530917300897 |journal=Language & Communication |volume=56 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.1016/j.langcom.2017.03.001 |issn=0271-5309|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Johnnel |last2=Spencer |first2=Andrew J. |date=2020-01-01 |title="No one will be left behind?" Taíno indigenous communities in the Caribbean and the road to SDGs 2030 |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/whatt-02-2020-0011/full/html |journal=Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=305–320 |doi=10.1108/WHATT-02-2020-0011 |issn=1755-4217|url-access=subscription }}</ref> There have also been attempts to revive the Taíno language—such as the Hiwatahia Hekexi dialect<ref>{{cite web | title =Taíno language returns to its people | url = https://ictnews.org/opinion/taino-language-returns-to-its-people | website = ICT News | date = 14 December 2023 | access-date =2024-12-29}}</ref>—using words that have survived into local Spanish dialects and extrapolation from other Arawakan languages in South America to fill in lost words.<ref name=":5" />

==See also== * Aiomun-Kondi, Lokono deity, created the world in Lokono mythology * Arawakan languages * Cariban languages * Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas * Garifuna language * List of Indigenous names of Caribbean islands

==Notes== {{notelist}}

==References== {{reflist}}

===Bibliography===  {{refbegin|40em}} * Jesse, C., (2000). ''The Amerindians in St. Lucia (Iouanalao)''. St. Lucia: Archaeological and Historical Society. * {{cite book |last=Haviser |first=J. B. |editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=S. M. |date=1997 |contribution=Settlement Strategies in the Early Ceramic Age |title=The Indigenous People of the Caribbean |location=Gainesville, Florida |publisher=University Press}} * Hofman, C. L., (1993). ''The Native Population of Pre-columbian Saba. Part One. Pottery Styles and their Interpretations''. [PhD dissertation], Leiden: University of Leiden (Faculty of Archaeology). * Haviser, J. B., (1987). ''Amerindian cultural Geography on Curaçao''. [Unpublished PhD dissertation], Leiden: Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University. * {{cite journal|author=Handler, Jerome S.|date=Jan 1977|title=Amerindians and Their Contributions to Barbadian Life in the Seventeenth Century|journal= The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society|volume=33|issue=3|pages=189–210|publisher=Museum and Historical Society|location=Barbados}} * Joseph, P. Musée, C. Celma (ed.), (1968). "LГhomme Amérindien dans son environnement (quelques enseignements généraux)", In ''Les Civilisations Amérindiennes des Petites Antilles, Fort-de-France: Départemental d’Archéologie Précolombienne et de Préhistoire.'' * Bullen, Ripley P., (1966). "Barbados and the Archeology of the Caribbean", ''The Journal of the Barbados Museum and Historical Society,'' 32. * Haag, William G., (1964). ''A Comparison of Arawak Sites in the Lesser Antilles''. Fort-de-France: ''Proceedings of the First International Congress on Pre-Columbian Cultures of the Lesser Antilles,'' pp. 111–136 *Deutsche, Presse-Agentur. [https://web.archive.org/web/20110701134540/http://www.monstersandcritics.com/science/news/article_1531751.php/Archaeologists-study-signs-of-ancient-civilization-in-Amazon-basin "Archeologist studies signs of ancient civilization in Amazon basin"], ''Science and Nature,'' M&C, 08/02/2010. Web. 29 May 2011. *{{cite book |last1= Hill |first1= Jonathan David|last2= Santos-Granero |first2= Fernando |year= 2002 |title= Comparative Arawakan Histories: Rethinking Language Family and Culture Area in Amazonia |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qb4LoGZnf-8C&q=Lokono&pg=PA41 |publisher= University of Illinois Press|isbn= 0252073843 |access-date= 16 June 2014 }} *{{cite book |last= Olson |first= James Stewart |year= 1991 |title= The Indians of Central and South America: An Ethnohistorical Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=175c4xOpLtYC&q=Locono|publisher= Greenwood |isbn= 0313263876 |access-date= 16 June 2014}} *{{cite book |last= Rouse |first= Irving |year= 1992 |title= The Tainos |url= https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous |url-access= registration |quote= Island Carib. |publisher= Yale University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/tainosrisedeclin00rous/page/40 40]|isbn= 0300051816 |access-date= 16 June 2014}} {{refend}}

==External links== {{Commons category|Arawak}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Arawak Peoples}} Category:Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean Category:Indigenous peoples of the Guianas Category:Indigenous peoples in Suriname Category:History of the Caribbean Category:History of Hispaniola Category:Spanish West Indies Category:History of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Category:History of Îles des Saintes Category:Exonyms