Sideroxylon spinosum

{{Short description|Genus of trees}} {{pp|small=yes}} {{hatnote group|{{redirect|Argan}}{{for|the genus of moths|Argania (moth){{!}}''Argania'' (moth)}}}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2026}} {{Speciesbox |image = Argan Tree near Tafraoute.jpg |image_caption = Near [[Tafraout]], Morocco |status = VU |status_system = IUCN3.1 |status_ref =<ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=Oldfield, S. |year=2022 |amends=2021 |title=''Sideroxylon spinosum'' |article-number=e.T161794316A220065052 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-2.RLTS.T161794316A220065052.en |access-date=30 November 2025}}</ref> |display_parents = 2 |taxon = Sideroxylon spinosum |authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] (1753)<ref name = powo/> |synonyms = *''Argania sideroxylon'' <small>Roem. & Schult (1819), nom. superfl.</small> *''Argania spinosa'' {{small|(L.) Skeels (1911)}} *''Argania spinosa'' var. ''apiculata'' {{small|Maire (1929)}} *''Argania spinosa'' var. ''mutica'' {{small|Maire (1929)}} *''Elaeodendron argan'' {{small|Retz. (1791)}} *''Rhamnus sicula'' {{small|L. (1768)}} *''Sideroxylon argan'' {{small|(Retz.) Baill. (1890)}} *''Verlangia argan'' {{small|(Retz.) Neck. ex Raf. (1838)}} |synonyms_ref =<ref name=powo>[https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:789863-1 ''Sideroxylon spinosum'' L.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250414180942/https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:789863-1 |date=14 April 2025 }} ''[[Plants of the World Online]]''. Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref> | range_map = Argania spinosa range.png | range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#70A800|Native range of ''A. spinosa''}} }}

'''''Sideroxylon spinosum''''', known as '''argan''' ({{langx|shi|label=[[Shilha language|Tashelhit]]|ⴰⵔⴳⴰⵏ|argan}}), synonym '''''Argania spinosa''''', is a species of [[flowering plant]]. It is a tree native to the [[calcareous]] semi-desert [[Sous]] valley and to the [[Chiadma]] and [[Haha (tribe)|Haha]] regions of [[Morocco]], as well as some parts of [[Tindouf Province]] in southwestern [[Algeria]],<ref name="grin">{{cite web |title=''Argania spinosa'' (L.) Skeels |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=3956 |publisher=GRIN Taxonomy, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=6 May 2023 |date=13 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Physicochemical Study and Composition of ''Argania spinosa'' Oil from Two Regions of Algeria| journal=Chemistry of Natural Compounds|volume=50|issue=2|pages=346–348|doi=10.1007/s10600-014-0949-1|year = 2014|last1 = Kouidri|first1 = M.|last2=Saadi|first2=A. K.|last3=Noui|first3=A.| s2cid=36309638}}</ref> and also to [[Mauritania]] and [[Western Sahara]].<ref name=IUCN/> Argan trees grow to {{convert|8–10|m|abbr=on}} high and live up to approximately 200 years. They are thorny, with gnarled trunks and wide spreading crown. The crown has a [[circumference]] of up to {{convert|70|m|abbr=on}} and the [[branch]]es may lean towards the ground.

==Name== The former scientific name ''Argania'' was derived from ''argan'', the name of the tree in [[Shilha language|Shilha]], the [[Berber languages|Berber language]] which is spoken by the majority of the people living in the areas where the tree is endemic. Shilha Berber has a rich vocabulary for the various parts of the fruit, its stages of ripeness, and its harvesting and processing. The oil is called [[argan oil]]. In medieval Arabic pharmacological sources, the tree is known as ''harjān'', a distortion of the Berber word ''argan''.

==Description== [[File:Argania spinosa MHNT.BOT.2010.12.2.jpg|thumb|fruit and seeds]] [[File:Argania spinosa.jpg|thumb|Foliage, flowers and immature fruit]] The [[leaves]] are small, {{convert|2–4|cm|abbr=on|frac=8}} long, and oval with a rounded apex. The [[flower]]s are small, with five pale yellow-green petals; flowering in April. The [[fruit]] is 2–4 cm long and {{convert|1.5–3|cm|abbr=on|frac=8}} broad, with a thick, bitter peel surrounding a sweet-smelling but unpleasantly flavoured layer of pulpy pericarp. This surrounds the very hard nut, which contains one (occasionally two or three) small, oil-rich seeds. The fruit takes over a year to mature, ripening in June to July of the following year.

==Cultivation== The argan tree used to grow throughout North Africa, but today it only grows in southwestern Morocco. Argan is perfectly adapted to the region's harsh environment, with the ability to survive extreme heat (over 50 °C), drought and poor soil. Although numbers are dwindling, argan is the second most abundant tree in Moroccan forests, with over twenty million trees living in the region and playing a vital role in the food chain and environment. The tree's roots grow deep into the ground in search of water, which helps bind soil and prevents erosion. Much of the region has resisted the advance of the Sahara desert due to the argan tree, and it therefore plays an irreplaceable part in the ecological balance of the region.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Protecting Society and the Environment with a Geographical Indication |url=https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2656 |access-date=12 April 2023 |website=www.wipo.int |language=en |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417171622/https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2656 |url-status=live }}{{Creative Commons text attribution notice|cc=by4|from this source=yes}}</ref>

In Morocco, ''arganeraie'' forests now only cover some {{convert|8280|sqkm|abbr=on}} and are designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[biosphere reserve]]. Their area has shrunk by about half during the last 100 years, due to [[charcoal]] making, grazing, increasingly intensive cultivation and the expansion of urban and rural settlements. Livestock numbers have increased substantially, with signs of overgrazing and over browsing in the argan forest. Browsing directly harms the existing, mature argan trees as goats will climb high into the branches of an argan tree to reach its fruit. Overgrazing can cause soil erosion, affects the microclimate of the forest by reducing ground cover and surface humidity and increasing temperature, and impedes the long term regeneration of the forest.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=LYBBERT |first1=TRAVIS |last2=BARRETT |first2=CHRISTOPHER B. |last3=NARJISSE |first3=HAMID |date=1 May 2004 |title=Does Resource Commercialization Induce Local Conservation? A Cautionary Tale From Southwestern Morocco |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920490430205 |journal=Society & Natural Resources |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=413–430 |doi=10.1080/08941920490430205 |bibcode=2004SNatR..17..413L |s2cid=18631871 |issn=0894-1920|hdl=1813/57696 |hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The best hope for the conservation of the trees may lie in the recent development of a thriving export market for [[argan oil]] as a high-value product. However, the wealth brought by argan oil export has also created threats to argan trees in the form of increased goat population. Locals use the newfound wealth to buy more goats and the goats stunt the growth of the argan trees by climbing up and eating their leaves and fruit. It is reported that the display of the tree climbing goats is staged or faked in areas popular with tourists, as the goats only very infrequently climb the trees without human intervention.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.traveller.com.au/iconic-treeclimbing-goats-of-morocco-revealed-to-be-a-scam-h1dqsk|title=Iconic 'tree-climbing' goats of Morocco revealed to be a scam|date=25 April 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.wtm.com/iconic-and-instagrammable-or-invented-and-inhumane-moroccos-tree-goats/|title=Iconic and Instagrammable or invented and inhumane? Morocco's tree goats|last=Frary|first=Mark|date=3 May 2019|website=WTM Insights|language=en-GB|access-date=3 June 2019|archive-date=3 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203120507/https://news.wtm.com/iconic-and-instagrammable-or-invented-and-inhumane-moroccos-tree-goats/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Argan is also cultivated in the [[Arabah]] and [[Negev]] regions of [[Israel]].<ref>Growing for Change, Ruhama Shattan, Jerusalem Post, 12 October 2001</ref><ref>Growth and oil production of argan in the Negev Desert of Israel, A. Nerd, E. Etesholaa, N. Borowyc and Y. Mizrahi, Industrial Crops and Products, Volume 2, Issue 2, February 1994, pages 89–95</ref><ref>Phenology, breeding system and fruit development of Argan [''Argania spinosa'', Sapotaceae] cultivated in Israel, Avinoam Nerd, Vered Irijimovich and Yosef Mizrahi, Economic Botany, Volume 52, Number 2 / April 1998, pp. 161–167.</ref>

The argan tree has played a role in the cultures of the Berber people living there for hundreds of years. Argan is a multi-purpose tree and each part of it is usable as a food or economic resource. The fruit can be eaten, oil can be extracted from the nuts and the tree's wood can be used for fuel. The tree has therefore played a vital socio-economic role in local culture, and currently provides a significant source of food and income for around three million people, over two million of whom live in rural areas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

In some parts of Morocco, argan takes the place of the [[olive]] as a source of [[Fodder|forage]], oil, [[timber]], and fuel in Berber society.

===Fruit=== Argan fruit falls in July, when they are black and dry. Until this happens, goats are kept out of the argan woodlands by wardens. Rights to collect the fruit are controlled by law and village traditions. The "nuts" are gathered after fruit consumption and spat out by ruminating goats. Seeds being spat out by the goats constitutes one mechanism of [[seed dispersal]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Delibes|first1=Miguel|last2=el al|title=Tree-climbing goats disperse seeds during rumination|journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment|date=2 May 2017|doi=10.1002/fee.1488|volume=15|issue=4|pages=222–223|url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/158050/1/Delibes_et_al-2017-Frontiers_in_Ecology_and_the_Environment%20%281%29.pdf|hdl=10261/158050|doi-access=free|bibcode=2017FrEE...15..222D|archive-date=23 July 2018|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723012906/http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/158050/1/Delibes_et_al-2017-Frontiers_in_Ecology_and_the_Environment%20%281%29.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Argan oil=== {{Main|Argan oil}}

Argan oil is produced by several women's co-operatives in the southwestern parts of Morocco. The most labour-intensive part of oil-extraction is removal of the soft pulp (used to feed animals) and the cracking by hand, between two stones, of the hard nut. The seeds are then removed and gently roasted. This roasting accounts for part of the oil's distinctive, nutty flavour.<ref name=Skeels1999>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0378-8741(98)00228-1 |title=Ethnoeconomical, ethnomedical, and phytochemical study of ''Argania spinosa'' (L.) Skeels |year=1999 |last1=Charrouf |first1=Zoubida |last2=Guillaume |first2=Dominique |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=67 |pages=7–14 |pmid=10616955 |issue=1}}</ref> The traditional technique for oil extraction is to grind the roasted seeds to paste, with a little water, in a stone rotary quern. The paste is then squeezed by hand to extract the oil. The extracted paste is still oil-rich and is used as animal feed. Oil produced this way can be stored and used for three to six months, and can be produced as needed from kernels, which can keep for 20 years unopened. Dry-pressing is becoming increasingly important for oil produced for sale, as this method allows for faster extraction, and the oil produced can be used for 12–18 months after extraction.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=Removed citation to predatory publisher content}}

The oil contains 80% unsaturated fatty acids, is rich in essential [[fatty acids]], and is more resistant to [[oxidation]] than olive oil. Argan oil is used for dipping bread, on [[couscous]] and [[salad]]s, and for other similar uses. A dip for bread known as ''[[Amlu|amlou]]'' is made from argan oil, [[almond]]s, and [[peanut]]s, sometimes sweetened by [[honey]] or sugar. The unroasted oil is traditionally used as a treatment for skin diseases, and has become favoured by European cosmetics manufacturers.<ref name=Khallouki2003>{{cite journal |pmid=12548113 |year=2003 |last1=Khallouki |first1=F |last2=Younos |first2=C |last3=Soulimani |first3=R |last4=Oster |first4=T |last5=Charrouf |first5=Z |last6=Spiegelhalder |first6=B |last7=Bartsch |first7=H |last8=Owen |first8=RW |title=Consumption of argan oil (Morocco) with its unique profile of fatty acids, tocopherols, squalene, sterols and phenolic compounds should confer valuable cancer chemopreventive effects |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1097/00008469-200302000-00011 |journal=European Journal of Cancer Prevention |s2cid=12350686 }}</ref><ref name="onlinelibrary.wiley.com">{{cite journal |doi=10.1002/ejlt.200700220 |title=Argan oil: Occurrence, composition and impact on human health |year=2008 |last1=Charrouf |first1=Zoubida |last2=Guillaume |first2=Dominique |journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology |volume=110 |issue=7 |pages=632|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Argan oil is sold in Morocco as a luxury item. Sales of the product have grown since being marketed by the cosmetics industry in the US and Europe in the early 21st century. Its price is notable compared to other oils.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Autoxydation de l'huile d'argan ''Argania spinosa'' L. du Maroc |trans-title=Autoxidation of argan oil ''Argania spinoza'' L. from Morocco |language=fr |last1=Chimi |first1=H |last2=Cillard |first2=J |last3=Cillard |first3=P |journal=Sciences des Aliments |issn=0240-8813 |year=1994 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=117–24 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4124059 |archive-date=18 November 2016 |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161118163916/http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=4124059 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Argan oil contains:<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10408390802544520 |title=Should the Amazigh Diet (Regular and Moderate Argan-Oil Consumption) have a Beneficial Impact on Human Health? |year=2010 |last1=Charrouf |first1=Zoubida |last2=Guillaume |first2=Dominique |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=50 |issue=5 |pages=473–7 |pmid=20373191|s2cid=41530834 }}</ref> * 46% [[Oleic acid]] * 32% [[Linoleic acid]]  * 12% [[Palmitic acid]] * 6% [[Stearic acid]]

===Animal feed=== Argan trees are a major source of forage for sheep, goats, camels and cattle. The fruit and leaves are readily consumed by livestock. The press cake resulting from oil extraction can also be sun dried and fed to ruminants. Bees can nest in argan trees, making them sites for wild honey harvesting.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/54 |title=Heuzé V., Tran G., 2015. Argan (''Argania spinosa''). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. Last updated on October 26, 2015, 16:29 |access-date=24 August 2017 |archive-date=24 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215406/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/54 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==International recognition== === Geographical indication === The unique geographical properties of the region led to an application with the European Union to protect Argane (argan in French) by the Moroccan government. The application for Argane to become a Protected [[Geographical indication|Geographical Indication]] was made in October 2011 with the European Commission.<ref name=":0" />

=== Intangible Cultural Heritage === {{Infobox intangible heritage |Image=Argan paste making in Morocco.jpg |Caption=Argan paste making |ICH=Argan, practices and know-how concerning the argan tree |State Party=Morocco |Region=AST |ID=00955 |Year=2014 |Session=14th |List=Representative }} In 2014, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ([[UNESCO]]), inscribed "Argan, practices and know-how concerning the argan tree" on the [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Representative List]] of the [[Intangible cultural heritage|Intangible Cultural Heritage]] of Humanity, upon Moroccan request, for the protection and safeguarding of traditions, knowledge, practices, and crafts related to the argan tree.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/argan-practices-and-know-how-concerning-the-argan-tree-00955|title=Argan, practices and know-how concerning the argan tree|website=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=17 September 2020|archive-date=7 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201207231405/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/argan-practices-and-know-how-concerning-the-argan-tree-00955|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== United Nations International Day === On 3 March 2021, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to proclaim 10 May the [[International Day of Argania]], an observance to be celebrated annually.<ref>{{cite web |title=United Nations Resolution for the International Day of Argania |url=https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/75/262}}</ref> Amongst the motivations for this proclamation were the importance of Argania to sustainable development in areas where it is endemic. The UN resolution was submitted by Morocco, and was co-sponsored by 113 member states of the United Nations before being adopted by consensus.<ref>{{cite web |title=UN Food and Agricultural Organization Report |url=http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/1398322/icode/}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist}} {{more footnotes needed|date=March 2017}} *{{cite journal |author1=T.J. Lybbert |author2=C.B. Barrett |author3=H. Najisse |title=Market-Based Conservation and Local Benefits: The Case of Argan Oil in Morocco |journal=Ecological Economics |year=2002 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=125–144 |doi=10.1016/S0921-8009(02)00020-4}} * {{cite book | author=O. M'Hirit | author2=M. Bensyane | author3=F.Benchekroun | author4=S.M. El Yousfi | author5=M. Bendaanoun | year=1998 | title=L'arganier: une espèce fruitière-forestière à usages multiples | publisher=Pierre Mardaga | isbn=978-2-87009-684-0}} * {{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02858970 |author1=J.F. Morton |author2=G.L. Voss | title=The argan tree (''Argania sideroxylon'', Sapotataceae), a desert source of edible oil | journal=Economic Botany | year=1987 | volume=41 | issue=2 | pages=221–233|s2cid=23198131 }} * {{cite book | author=Rachida Nouaim | year=2005 | title=L'arganier au Maroc: entre mythes et réalités. Une civilisation née d'un arbreune espèce fruitière-forestière à usages multiples | location=Paris | publisher=L'Harmattan | isbn=978-2-7475-8453-1}} * {{cite journal |author1=H.D.V. Prendergast |author2=C.C. Walker | title=The argan: multipurpose tree of Morocco | journal=Kew Magazine | year=1992 | volume=9 | issue=2 | pages=76–85 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-8748.1992.tb00072.x}} * {{cite book | author=Elaine M. Solowey | year=2006 | title=Supping at God's table | publisher=Thistle Syndicate | isbn=978-0-9785565-1-8 |pages=75–76}} * {{cite journal | last1 = Cristiano | first1 = Luigi | last2 = De Martino | first2 = Gianni | year = 2000 | title = Marocco atlantico. In terra di Argania | journal = Erboristeria Domani | volume = 233 | pages = 78–85 }}

==External links== {{Commons category}} {{Wikispecies|Sideroxylon spinosum}}

* {{cite web | title=Biodiversity of South Western Morocco (Flora and Plant Communities of Morocco) |url=http://www.teline.fr/en | access-date=29 October 2006 }} * {{cite journal | journal = Agroforestry Systems| title=The argan tree in Marocco: Propagation by seeds, cuttings and in-vitro techniques | date =2002 |volume= 54 |issue =1 | pages = 71–81 |author1=R. Nouaim |author2=G. Mangin |author3=M. C. Breuil |author4=R. Chaussod | doi = 10.1023/A:1014236025396| s2cid=21621498 }}

[[Category:Sideroxylon|spinosum]] [[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]] [[Category:Crops originating from Africa]] [[Category:Forages]] [[Category:Drought-tolerant trees]] [[Category:Trees of Mediterranean climate]] [[Category:Trees of Morocco]] [[Category:Trees of Algeria]] [[Category:Flora of Mauritania]] [[Category:Flora of Western Sahara]] [[Category:Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] [[Category:Plants described in 1753]] [[Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]