{{Short description|Promontory in Athens, and the ancient council associated with it}} {{Other uses}} [[File:Areopagus hill.jpg|thumb|The Areopagus as viewed from the [[Acropolis]].]] [[File:Ariospagos.jpg|thumb|Engraved plaque containing [[Apostle Paul]]'s ''[[Areopagus sermon]]''.]]
The '''Areopagus''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|r|i|ˈ|ɒ|p|ə|g|ə|s}}) was a [[principal council]] of ancient Athens, later serving mainly as a judicial body responsible for cases of homicide, wounding, and certain religious offenses.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The law in classical Athens|last=MacDowell|first=Douglas M.|publisher=Cornell University Press|year=1978|isbn=9780801493652|location=Ithaca, N.Y.|pages=27|oclc=20663324}}</ref><ref name="Ath Pol 57.3">{{cite web|last1=Pseudo-Aristotle|title=Atheneion Politeia|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0046%3Achapter%3D57%3Asection%3D3|website=Perseus|publisher=Perseus Tufts|access-date=8 February 2016}}</ref> It met on a rocky outcrop called the “Hill of Ares,” northwest of the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] in [[Athens, Greece]], from which it took its name. Its English name comes from the Late Latin composite form of the Greek name '''Areios Pagos''', translated "Hill of [[Ares]]" ({{langx|grc|Ἄρειος Πάγος}}). The war god Ares was supposed to have been tried by the other [[Greek gods|gods]] on the Areopagus for the murder of [[Poseidon]]'s son [[Halirrhothius]], a typical example of an [[origin myth|aetiological]] myth.
==History== [[File:Acropolis from the Areopagus.jpg|thumb|The Acropolis seen from the Areopagus]] [[File:Akropolis by Leo von Klenze.jpg|thumb|An idealized reconstruction of the Areopagus (front) and the Acropolis, [[Leo von Klenze]], 1846.]]
The exact origin of the Areopagus as an institution remains unclear. In pre-classical times, before the 5th century BC, the Areopagus may have been a council of elders for the city of Athens, with membership restricted by constitutional conventions to those who had held high public office, in this case that of [[Archon]].<ref>Aristotle, ''[[Constitution of the Athenians (Aristotle)|Constitution of the Athenians]]'' §3</ref> Conversely, it may have begun almost exclusively as a homicide court and judicial body.<ref>Wallace, Robert W. The Areopagos Council, to 307 B.C. First Edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 46.</ref> While there is no consensus, homicide trials seem to have been held by Athenians on the Areopagus hill as early as the 7th century BC and possibly as far back as the mid-8th century BC.<ref>Wallace, Robert W. ''The Areopagos Council, to 307 B.C.'' First Edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 30.</ref>
In 594 BC, the Areopagus Council was heavily restructured by [[Solon]], as was the rest of the Athenian state apparatus. Aristotle suggests that Solon confirmed its competence over cases of treason ({{lang | grc | eisangelia}}, εἰσαγγελία) and its guardianship of the laws ({{lang | grc | nomophylakia}}, νομοφυλακία).<ref>Arist. Ath. Pol. 8.4.</ref> Solon's entrusting of the {{lang | grc | nomophylakia}} to the Areopagus Council may imply that the council was invested with maintaining the stability of his reforms after he left Athens.<ref>Irwin, Amber L. "The History of the Areopagos Council from Its Origins to Ephialtes". M.A., McGill University (Canada), 2011. 57.</ref>
Under the reforms of [[Cleisthenes]], enacted in 508/507 BC, the [[Boule (ancient Greece)|Boule]] (βουλή) or council was expanded from 400 to 500 men, and was formed of 50 men from each of the ten clans or {{lang | grc | [[phylai]]}} (φυλαί) of [[Attica]]. There is very little evidence to suggest that Cleisthenes may have altered the composition or the jurisdiction of the Areopagus Council, given that he himself was likely a council member.<ref>Wallace, Robert W. ''The Areopagos Council, to 307 B.C.'' First Edition. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. 72-73.</ref>
[[Cleisthenes]] significantly influenced the Areopagus by establishing the Council of Five Hundred and implementing [[ostracism]], which reduced aristocratic power and encouraged citizen involvement in governance. These reforms transformed the Areopagus into a judicial body, emphasizing justice within the democratic framework. By organizing citizens into demes, [[Cleisthenes]] further ensured broader representation, solidifying the Areopagus's role in [[Athenian democracy]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |title=Cleisthenes |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Cleisthenes/ |access-date=2024-11-04 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>
In 462/461 BC, [[Ephialtes]] may have put through reforms which deprived the Areopagus Council of almost all its functions — except that of a murder tribunal — in favour of the [[Heliaia]]. While this perception is corroborated by most ancient authors, it may have merely been a retrojection by those writing long after the 5th century BC. This is because there is little evidence to suggest that the Areopagus Council had done anything of note to warrant an attack on its powers by the time of Ephialtes.<ref>Rihll, T. E., "Democracy Denied: Why Ephialtes Attacked the Areiopagus". ''The Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 115 (1995): 87–98.</ref> Nevertheless, over the course of the 5th century BC, the Areopagus Council did lose its competence over {{lang | grc | eisangelia}} and {{lang | grc | [[dokimasia]]}} (δοκιμασία), the initial examination of those elected into office, though it is unknown if this was because of Ephialtes.<ref>Irwin, Amber L. "The History of the Areopagos Council from Its Origins to Ephialtes". M.A., McGill University (Canada), 2011. 52.</ref>
In ''[[The Eumenides]]'' of [[Aeschylus]] (458 BC), the Areopagus is the site of the trial of [[Orestes]] for killing his mother [[Clytemnestra]] and her lover [[Aegisthus]]. While this is a dramatization of the trials that would have taken place at the Areopagus, it is the only surviving tragedy that closely resembles what Athenian citizens would recognize as a judicial proceeding. Most general happenings are the same but with a unique twist, such as the presiding officer being the goddess Athena and all prosecutors being female and divine as well. One notable inconsistency in this drama is that, in the fifth-century, Orestes would not have been tried at the Areopagus council since he was claiming to have killed his mother 'with justice', rather than asserting that he had not killed her. A case of this nature would instead come before the ''ephetai'' at the Delphinium.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Edward M. |title=Law and Drama in Ancient Greece |last2=Leao |first2=Delfim F. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2013}}</ref>
In the second half of the 4th century BC, the Areopagus Court grew in influence and political power, and contributed to the anti-[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonian]] faction in Athens. It conducted an investigation on charges of treason and bribery ({{lang | grc | apophasis}}, ἀπόφασις) against [[Demosthenes]] as a result of the [[Harpalus|Harpalus affair]] in 324 BC. At the same time, the Areopagus as an institution may have also regained power over the {{lang | grc | nomophylakia}}, which had been lost to reforms in the 5th century BC.<ref>Mossé, Claude. ''Athens in Decline: 404-86 B.C.'' Routledge, 2014. 78-79.</ref>
The Areopagus Council continued to function as a body of former archons in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times. After Sulla's [[Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87–86 BC)|capture of Athens in 86/87 BC]] and subsequent restructuring of the city's political structure, it was elevated to one of the most prestigious and politically powerful institutions in Athens.<ref>{{Citation|last=Phillips|first=David D.|title= Areopagus|date= 2010|url= https://digitalcommons.trinity.edu/context/class_faculty/article/1049/viewcontent/NHirschfeld_Cyprus_2010_contributiontobook.pdf|encyclopedia= The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome|publisher= Oxford University Press|language= en |doi= 10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001|isbn= 978-0-19-517072-6|access-date= 2021-08-24}}</ref> The Roman statesman [[Cicero]] once said of the council, "when one says 'the Athenian state is ruled by the council,' the words 'of the Areopagus' are omitted."<ref>Cicero. ''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Cic.+N.D.+2.74&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0037 De Natura Deorum].'' 2.74</ref>
Acts 17:16-34 prominently features the Areopagus as the setting for the [[Paul the Apostle|Apostle Paul's]] [[Areopagus sermon]] during his visit to Athens, notably leading to the conversion of [[Dionysius the Areopagite]].<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts+17%3A16-34&version=KJV Acts 17:16-34]</ref> However, it is unclear whether Paul gave his speech before the Areopagus Council in the setting of a judicial investigation or trial, or on the physical location of the Areopagus hill as an informal speech. The Areopagus Council likely would not have met on the actual Areopagus hill by the time of Paul's visit, but rather in the [[Ancient Agora of Athens|agora]] or in the [[Stoa Basileios]].<ref>[[F. F. Bruce|Bruce, F. F.]] ''The Acts of the Apostles. The Greek Text with Introduction and Commentary''. 2nd Ed. (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952). 335.</ref>
The Areopagus had ceased operation as a political council by at least the early 5th century AD, according to [[Theodoret|Theodoret of Cyrus]].<ref>Theodoret. ''Theodoret of Cyrus: A Cure for Pagan Maladies.'' Translated by Thomas P. Ancient Christian Writers; Halton. No. 67. New York: Newman Press, 2013. 9.18.</ref>
After the closure{{when|date=June 2024}} of the council, the Areopagus hill was occupied by various houses and dwellings while under [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine rule]]. Buildings of note on the hill during this time included a church and monastery, both dedicated to [[Dionysius the Areopagite]].<ref>Bouras, Charalampos. ''Byzantine Athens, 10th-12th Centuries''. Routledge, 2017. 188.</ref>
The term "Areopagus" also refers to the judicial body of aristocratic origin that subsequently formed the [[Court of Cassation (Greece)|higher court]] of modern [[Greece]].
Near the Areopagus was also constructed in the mid-19th century AD by the Roman Catholic Church the [[Cathedral Basilica of St. Dionysius the Areopagite]].
{{wide image|20101024_Panoramic_Image_of_Athens_from_Areopagus_hill_Greece.jpg|900px|align-cap=center|alt=[[Athens]] viewed from the Areopagus hill by day}} {{wide image|Athens_from_areios_pagos_march_31_2009.jpg |900px|align-cap=center|alt=[[Athens]] viewed from the Areopagus hill at night}}
==Modern references== *The English poet [[John Milton]] titled his defence of freedom of the press "[[Areopagitica]]", arguing that the censors of ancient Athens, based at the Areopagus, had not practiced the kind of prior restraint of publication being called for in the English Parliament of Milton's time. *The Areopagus Society, formed in 1893, is one of the oldest clubs at the preparatory [[Hotchkiss School]], Connecticut, USA, and meets to debate on certain topics.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hotchkissmedia.org/communications/timeline/1827-1924.html|title=Hotchkiss Timeline|website=www.hotchkissmedia.org|language=en|access-date=2017-12-11}}</ref> *"Areopagus" is the title of the second poem in Irish poet [[Louis MacNeice]]'s 1952 collection, ''Ten Burnt Offerings''.
== See also == *[[Areopagus sermon]] *[[Areopagus of Eastern Continental Greece]], a regional Greek administration during the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek Revolution of 1821]], which was named after the Ancient Athenian institution.
== Footnotes == {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * [https://books.google.com/books?id=5LwoAAAAYAAJ The Constitutional Antiquities of Sparta and Athens] by Gustav Gilbert * [https://books.google.com/books?id=IOVTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT565 Pantologia by John Mason Good, Olinthus Gregory, Newton Bosworth. p. 565] * [https://books.google.com/books?id=p31MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA647 The London Encyclopaedia, Volume 2. Edited by Thomas Curtis. p. 647]
==External links== {{Commons category|Areopagus}} * [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts%2017:16-34&version=31 Acts 17:16-34] – The [[Areopagus sermon]] * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130630212116/http://www.athenswalk.net/_/Athens_Walk.html Athens Photo Guide]}} * {{cite EB1911|author=Botsford, George Willis|wstitle=Areopagus|volume=2|pages=453–454}}
{{coord|37|58|20|N|23|43|25|E|display=title|region:GR_type:landmark_source:dewiki}} {{Landmarks in Athens}} {{Ancient Greece topics}} {{Authority control}}
[[Category:Geography of ancient Greece]] [[Category:Landmarks in Athens]] [[Category:Greek courts of appeal]] [[Category:Ancient Greek buildings and structures in Athens]] [[Category:Ares]] [[Category:Hills of Athens]] [[Category:Ancient Greek law]]