{{Short description|School of architecture}} {{More citations needed|date=April 2022}} [[File:Masjid connected with Asaf-ud-daula also Asfi Mosque-Lucknow-Uttar Pradesh-IMG 5405.jpg|thumb|Asafi Mosque in [[Lucknow]], associated with [[Asaf-ud-Daula|Asaf ud-Daula]]]] {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}} {{Use Indian English|date=May 2018}} [[File:Lucknow Imambara.jpg|thumb|Hussainabad Imambara (Chota Imambara)]] The [[Lucknow]] School of Architecture was an experiment by the resurgent [[Nawabs of Awadh]]. It was an attempt to preserve the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] school of architecture by experimenting with different materials and innovating new concepts.
Among the extant architecture there are religious buildings such as ''[[imambara]]s'', [[mosque]]s and other [[Islamic]] [[shrine]]s, and secular structures like enclosed gardens, ''baradaris'', palace complexes.
The following are distinct features of Lucknow architecture :
*Use of Fish as an auspicious and decorative motif especially on Gates * The use of Chattar (umbrella) as in the [[Chattar Manzil]] * The [[Baradari (building)|Baradari]] (the twelve doorway pavilions) * [[Rumi Darwaza]], the signature structure of Lucknow * Enclosed Baghs like [[Sikandar Bagh]] * Vaulted halls such as the [[Asafi Imambara]] * The labyrinth ([[Bara Imambara|Bhulbhulaiya]]) * [[Basement|Taikhanas]] * Use of [[Lakhori bricks|lakhauri bricks]]
[[Lucknow]]’s geography also plays a major role in determining the type of structures built. Lucknow is based on fertile land, and the land below the Himalayan foothills is known as 'Terai' or moist land. It is located in the middle of Ganaetic Plain and reaches Gomati (left of Ganga River), placing it in the center of [[Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name=":0">{{cite conference |doi=10.26051/0D-0R3H-772W |year=2021 |first1=Somya |last1=Mishra |first2=Debkumar |last2=Chakrabarti |title=Common place-identity of Indian towns through historic marketplaces: A case of Lucknow |s2cid=236660689 |conference=International Seminar on Urban Form }}</ref>
The monuments in Lucknow have been influenced by various cultures and religions throughout the years. Dating back to the 18th century, Lucknow also named "[[Awadh]]", or "Oudh" was one of the richest semi-independent states under the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] rule and was predominantly ruled by Muslim Shiites of Persian origin known as “[[Nawab]]s”.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Casci |first=Simonetta |date=2002 |title=Lucknow Nawabs: Architecture and Identity |journal=Economic and Political Weekly |volume=37 |issue=36 |pages=3711–3714 |jstor=4412572 }}</ref> Being defeated by the British Imperials forces, the nawabs made an alliance with the [[East India Company]] until it was annexed in 1856.<ref name=":1" /> It is for this reason that you will see various influences from Persia, Turkey, and Europe (such as France).
== History == The architectural history of the city only started flourishing once the capital of "[[Awadh]]" or "Oudh" moved from [[Faizabad]] to Lucknow in 1775 by Nawab [[Asaf-ud-Daula|Wazir Asafud-Daulah]] (1775-1798). Under Asafud - Daulah’s rule, the city hosted variously educated and skilled literates and workers, poets, and soldiers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mujeeb |first=M. |title=The Indian Muslims |date=2003 |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal |isbn=81-215-0027-3 |location=New Delhi |oclc=82369300}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rizvi |first=Saiyid Athar Abbas |title=Shāh Walī-Allāh and his times : a study of eighteenth century Islām, politics, and society in India |date=1980 |publisher=Maʼrifat Pub |isbn=0-949830-01-1 |location=Canberra |oclc=7222793}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Saksena |first=Ram Babu |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofurdulit0000saks |title=A History of Urdu Literature |date=1927 |publisher=Ram Narain Lal (Allahabad) |others=Servants of Knowledge |isbn=978-81-206-0616-6}}</ref> Lucknow flourished under Asaf-ud-daula’s reign as it was during this period that the city grew outwards past Macchi Bhawan and the Chowk area.<ref name=":8">{{cite thesis |id={{ProQuest|1506166147}} |last1=Krishna |first1=Ashima |date=2014 |title=The urban heritage management paradigm: Challenges from Lucknow, an emerging Indian city }}</ref> It was during this period that Rumi Darwaza, Daulat Khana, Asafi Kothi, Hussainabad Imambaras, Bibiapur Kothi and various gardens such as “Aishbagh, Charbagh, Yahiyaganj, Wazirganj, Amaniganj, Fatehganj, Rakabganj, Daulatganj, Begumganj and Nakkhas<ref name=":8" />” (pp. 54) were built. He was also integral in making market streets or ‘bazaars’ and therefore can be attributed to Lucknow’s fame and glory.<ref name=":8" />
However, some architectural activity in the Lucknow region predates the Nawabi period. One of the oldest surviving monuments in the Lucknow region is the Barah Khamba (Shamir Khan’s Tomb), situated in [[Malihabad]]. According to the [[Archaeological Survey of India]], two inscriptions were found at the site. One inscription records the construction of a building, identified as a tomb, by Shamir Khan during his lifetime in AH 975 (1567–68 CE), during the reign of [[Akbar]]. The second inscription reportedly refers to the death of his sons in the same year, suggesting that the site may have served as a family burial place.Archaeological Survey of India.<ref>Indian Archaeology – A Review 1991–92. Archaeological Survey of India. 1996. p. 120.</ref> In 'My Indian Mutiny Diary' (1857; pp. 57–58),<ref>{{Cite web |title=My Indian Mutiny Diary |url=http://www.indianculture.gov.in/ebooks/my-indian-mutiny-diary |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=Indian Culture |language=en}}</ref> [[William Howard Russell]] describes the city with:<blockquote>"A vision of palaces, minars, domes azure and golden, cupolas, colonnade, long faced of fair perspective in pillar and column, terraced roofs - all rising up amid a calm and still ocean of the brightest verdure. Look for moles and miles away, and still the ocean spreads, and the towers of the fair-city gleam in its midst. Spires of gold glitter in the sun. Turrets and gilded spheres shine like constellation. There is nothing mean or squalid to be seen. There is a city more vast than Paris, as it seem, and more brilliant lying before us. Is this the city of Oudh?"</blockquote>The change in Lacknavi landscape occurred after the introduction to Colonial rule when Wajid Ali Shah (the last Nawab) surrendered in 1856.<ref name=":8" /> There were various politically motivated demolitions and the change in landscape went through further change during the 1857 War of Independence.<ref name=":8" /> Previously, the second ruler of Awadh, Nawab [[Safdar Jang]] (1739–1756) attempted to restore an old fort in the city named Machchi Bhavan, however that building was destroyed by [[Henry Montgomery Lawrence|Sir Henry Lawrence]] during the 1857 uprising.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reflections from Lucknow on the Great Uprising of 1857 |url=https://usiofindia.org/publication/usi-journal/reflections-from-lucknow-on-the-great-uprising-of-1857-2/ |access-date=2022-05-14 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The city of Lucknow can easily be separated to Old or ‘Purana’ Lucknow or new Lucknow. This is because newer settlements surround the older settlements in the city - the older being south of the Gomti river with compacted settlements.<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Kamal |first1=Mohammad Arif |title=Assessment of Traditional Architecture of Lucknow With Reference to Climatic Responsiveness |journal=Architecture and Engineering |date=2021 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 |doi=10.23968/2500-0055-2021-6-1-19-31 |s2cid=234229495 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Such settlement had grander courtyards which allowed for social gatherings in comparison to the newer settlements. The older section of the city has winding streets and lanes between 3–5 m in width with multiple story houses.<ref name=":7" />
== Influences ==
=== The Indo - Islamic Influences === The Nawabs were an integral part of the city's architecture as they were the few with the means to construct the monuments that still hold today.<ref name=":0" /> These were the Iranian group of Mughal nobility and therefore held a close connection to Persian ideologies which influenced a lot of their stylistic features, for example, the animal motifs like the fish emblem.<ref name=":1" /> Majourity of these fish emblems is found on arch spandrels of many entrances and gateways to monuments. All deceased Nawabs built a tomb, and their predecessors deserted their palaces to build their own.<ref name=":0" />
Indigenous houses have a Mardana (men’s quarters) and a Zenana (women’s quarter’s) to satisfy the requirements of the propriety at the time.<ref name=":4">{{Cite thesis |title=Architecture and development as instruments for political control and marginalization in Lucknow, India |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/70288 |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=1997 |degree=Thesis |first=Manish |last=Srivastava|hdl=1721.1/70288 }}</ref> Whilst the Mardana was accessible through the street, the courtyard allowed access to the Zenan and played the role of ventilation.<ref name=":4" /> The indigenous houses also have been found to have labyrinth like networks that rarely open to big spaces and are mainly used by residents.This architecture had strategic importance as outsiders would be unable to comprehend the complexity of the narrow lanes and therefore discouraged stranger access.<ref name=":4" />
Srivastava (1997) outlined the reason in their work (pp. 30–31) highlighting it
“allowed for the preservation of: (1) ritual, (2) socio-economic status of particular groups, and (3) the seclusion of women according to the Islamic traditions of Lucknow.”
=== European Influences === The hot Indian climate, especially through summer has been said to play a contributing factor to why the British preferred the European houses compared to the indigenous houses.<ref name=":4" /> The power structure and economics of the time allowed British India to construct more grander houses than ever before, which has been outlined by some to reiterate the cultural superiority felt by the British in Lucknow.<ref name=":4" />
Unlike indigenous homes, European homes in the area do not have a central courtyard and have allocated private and public spaces within the house.<ref name=":4" /> This is effectively showcased in [[Dilkusha Kothi|Dulkusha]] – one of the earliest European buildings in Lucknow.<ref name=":4" /> Furthermore, there are no separation of men and female spaces and the doors and windows were significantly larger.<ref name=":4" /> Ornamentation was now grandly exhibited on the outside compared to indigenous houses which ornamented on the inside.<ref name=":4" />
=== Types of Buildings === It is well known that “in the course of a hundred years, Lucknow was all over studded with scores of palatial monuments, majestic gateways, [[Imambaras of Lucknow|Imambaras]], [[mosque]]s, tombs, country houses, including more than a hundred monuments in all”.<ref name=":0" />
==== Imambaras ==== Most of these monuments diverge from the traditional stone and iron frames and use bricks and mortar instead.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |first=Sanobar |last=Haider |date=2018 |title=The Architecture of the Imamabadas in Lucknow; Imambada Sibtainabad |journal=International Journal of History and Research |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.24247/ijhrdec20181 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They use ‘lakhauri’ bricks for bulbous domes, minarets arches and vaults, and tiles for their flooring.<ref name=":2" /> Keeping the religious requirements in mind, most imambaras allow for segregation and have designated male and female sections within each structure.<ref name=":2" /> A key aesthetic and practical component of Imambaras was the ‘Mehraab’ which was utilised to show the direction of prayer and usually included floral embellishments and engravings, along with calligraphy in the [[Arabic]], [[Persian language in the Indian subcontinent|Persian]], or [[Urdu]] script.<ref name=":2" /> The furniture lamps and chandeliers manufactured and imported from around the world play an important role in decorating any imambara, and will therefore be utilised as a regular motif.<ref name=":3">{{Cite thesis |title=Hybridity, Style and Identity, the Court Art and Architecture of Lucknow 1770-1850 |url=https://ualresearchonline.arts.ac.uk/id/eprint/8956/ |publisher=Open University and University of the Arts London |date=2002-06-01 |degree=phd |language=en |first=Sally |last=Rynne}}</ref> Many imambaras also have mosques placed adjacent to the main building.<ref name=":3" /> [[File:Imambara of Asaf-ud-daula .jpg|thumb|307x307px|Bara Imambara]]
===== Asafi Imambara or Bara Imambara ===== {{Main|Bara Imambara}}
One of the most treasured and significant monuments within Lucknow is the [[Bara Imambara|Asafi Imambara]] also known as the ‘Bara’ or big Imambara. The Asafi Imambara was made by the Delhi architect Kifayat Ullah.<ref name=":2" /> The main Imambara building consists of the main hall which has said to be the biggest hall of its kind.<ref name=":2" /> Mr. Fergussons has been relayed to outline the dimension of the monument in the Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh, Vol. II-H to M on page 356<ref>{{Cite book |last=Government of Uttar Pradesh |url=http://archive.org/details/dli.ministry.08179 |title=Gazetteer of the Province of Oudh, Volume II -H to M |date=1877 |publisher=Allahabad, North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press}}</ref> <blockquote>“162 feet long by 53 feet 6 inches wide. On the two sides are verandahs respectively 26 feet 6 inches and 27 feet 3 inches wide, and at each end an octagonal apartment, 53 feet in diameter; the whole interior dimensions being thus 263 feet by 145.” </blockquote>He then went on to describe the material and compared it to those used in the west on page 357.<blockquote>"This immense building is covered with vaults of very (ample toxin and still simpler construction, being of a rubble or coarse concrete several feet in thickness, which is laid on a rude mould or centering of bricks and mud, and allowed to stand a year or two to dry and set. The centering is then removed, and the vault, being in one piece, stands with. out abutment or thrust, apparently a better and more durable form of roof than our most scientific Gothic vaulting; certainly far cheaper and far more easily made, since it is literally cast on a mud form, which may be moulded into any shape the fancy of the architect may dictate." </blockquote>The gates of the Imambara are made of stone with a shape known as ‘chattri’ or umbrella.<ref name=":2" /> The mirror frames within the imambara are a well-known decorative motif for the Awadhi architecture.<ref name=":3" /> Replicating the signature style for Iranian tombs, the Asafi Imambara also has domed tops.<ref name=":3" />
In 2018 the " parapet on the rear side of the 230-yearold building had collapsed after which the top of a minaret of the 180-year-old Jama Masjid in Tehseenganj area had collapsed due to a dust storm."<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 7, 2018 |title=2 heritage monuments collapse after spell of rain |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/lucknow/2-heritage-monuments-collapse-after-spell-of-rain/articleshow/65300382.cms |access-date=2022-05-27 |website=The Times of India |language=en}}</ref>
==== Parks and Gardens ==== Lucknow has had the reputation of being “the city of gardens” as the royal gardens throughout history have contributed to the city landscape and fame, even though the vast majority of them have been private.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal |last1=Sinha |first1=Amita |title=Colonial and post-colonial memorial parks in Lucknow, India: shifting ideologies and changing aesthetics |journal=Journal of Landscape Architecture |date=September 2010 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=60–71 |doi=10.1080/18626033.2010.9723439 |s2cid=143555181 }}</ref> These gardens incorporated Mughal aesthetic elements using “charbagh (four-square garden) geometry, baradaris (pavilions), water channels and pools, and orchard planting” (pp. 61).<ref name=":5" />
The Nawabi gardens were almost extinct after the 1857 mutiny – the only two remaining were [[Sikandar Bagh]] and Banarasi Bagh.<ref name=":5" />
==== Bungalows ==== Bungalows are one story holiday homes used by British officers. The architecture maintained Palladian symmetry and utilized wooden columns for support, along with tiles for the roofs of verandas.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Sinha |first=Amita |date=1999-01-01 |title=Bungalows of Lucknow Cantonment, India |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299656811 |journal=Open House International |volume=24 |pages=56–63}}</ref>
Typical features have been described by Sinha (1999, pp. 59)<blockquote>“flat roof structures with windows covered with wooden venetian shitters and at least two verandahs, thatched or tiled… contained gardens, kitchens, stables and servant quarter… large central rooms surrounded by smaller spaces for dressing, bath and storage, and encircled by verandahs”</blockquote>It is evident that designs typically maintained the individuals personal needs by giving importance to the dining and bedroom (which were usually situated in the centre of the home). Most bungalows also had designated garages, as they were usually occupied by wealthy individuals. Interestingly the design of such houses were easily altered for larger families i.e. two brothers would split the house in half through the centre or rooms in the bungalow would be shared with extended family members. There were usually no corridors, compelling occupants to cross bedrooms to get to communal spaces in the house – later designs included corridors to allow independent access to rooms.<ref name=":6" /> There were however some influences from the native people – the utilization of two kitchens.<ref name=":6" /> Some Hindus and Sikhs of the time were vegetarian, and therefore culture dictated that cutlery handling meat be separated from those that were not – this is one of the reason why some wealthier individuals ha one vegetarian kitchen and another non-vegetarian kitchen. Furthermore, bungalows ran entirely on the cheap Indian labor of the time requiring up to 20 servants.<ref name=":6" />
The excessive of servants described by Sinha (1999, pp. 60) to upkeep the house explains why contemporary owners find it difficult to maintain modern bungalows.<blockquote>"servants were required to keep up the gardens, get water form the well, cook and clean, wait at tables, groom horses, remove waste from “thunder boxes” and engage in a multitude of other chores, leaving the housewife with few household responsibilities and ample leisure time."</blockquote>Modern bungalows have water supply, electrical supplies and sewage system which does reduce the amount of manpower required.<ref name=":6" />
== List of Monuments == {| class="wikitable" ! Date Constructed ! Name of Place ! Type of Building |- |1745 |Imambara of Lucknow{{Clarify|date=June 2023|reason=Need clarification if it really exists since the name is pretty general.}} |Imambara |- |1775-1797 |Rauza of Abas ibn Ali |Shrine |- |1780s |[[Chattar Manzil]]i |Palace |- |1780-1800 |[[The Residency, Lucknow|The Residency]] |Building/ Housing |- |1784 |[[Bara Imambara|Asafi Imambara or Bara (Big) Imambara]] |Imambara |- |1784 |[[Rumi Darwaza]] |Gate |- |1790s |[[Imambara Ghufran Ma'ab|Imambara Ghufran Ma’ab]] |Imambara |- |1800-1805 |[[Dilkusha Kothi]] |House |- |1818 - 1823<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last=Haider |first=Sanobar |date=2018 |title=The Architecture of the Imamabadas in Lucknow; Imambada Sibtainabad |journal=International Journal of History and Research |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.24247/ijhrdec20181|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=India - Monograph Series, Part VII-B, Vol-I, Uttar Pradesh - Census 1961 |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/31379 |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> |[[Imambara Shah Najaf]] |Imambara |- |1822–1887 |[[Sikandar Bagh]]u |Garden and Villa |- |1830 |Qadam-e-Rasooli |Shrine |- |1832 |[[Jama Mosque, Lucknow|Jama Masjid]] |Mosque |- |1838 |[[Chota Imambara|Chota (Small) Imambara]] |Imambara |- |1845–present |[[La Martiniere College]] |School |- |1847-1856 |[[Qaisar Bagh]]u |Garden |- |1850 |The Rauza of Musa al-Kazimi |Shrine |- |Unknown |[[Naqqar khana|Naubat Khana]] of Bada Imambada |Drum house or orchestra pit |- |1860 |The All Saints Church of Lucknow Garrison |Church |- |1860 |[[Christ Church, Lucknow|The Church of Christ]] |Church |- |1881 |[[Husainabad Clock Tower]] |Clock Tower |- |1914-1923 |[[Lucknow Charbagh railway station|Railway Station Lucknow Charbagh]] |Railway Station |- |1914 |[[Lucknow Junction railway station|Nyjna e Lucknow (LJN) NER (Choti Line)]] |Railway Station |}
== References == <references /> {{Architecture of India}}
[[Category:Culture of Lucknow]] [[Category:Architecture in India by city|Lucknow]] [[Category:Buildings and structures in Lucknow]]