{{Short description|none}} [[File:saxonaltar.jpg|thumb|Typical Saxon altar as seen in [[Escomb Church]]]] {{Anglo-Saxon society}} {{History of Christianity in the British Isles}}
In the seventh century the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan]] [[Anglo-Saxons]] were converted to [[Christianity]] ({{langx|ang|Crīstendōm}}) mainly by missionaries sent from [[Rome]]. Irish missionaries from [[Iona]], who were proponents of [[Celtic Christianity]], were influential in the conversion of [[Northumbria]], but after the [[Synod of Whitby]] in 664, the Anglo-Saxon church gave its allegiance to the [[Pope]].
==Background== {{Main|Christianity in Roman Britain}}
[[Christianity]] in [[Roman Britain]] dates to at least the 3rd century. In 313, the [[Edict of Milan]] legalised Christianity, and it quickly became the major religion in the [[Roman Empire]].{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|pp=109–110}} The Christian church based its organisation on [[Roman province]]s. The church in each city was led by a [[bishop]], and the chief city of the province was led by a [[metropolitan bishop]].{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=2}} In 314, three British bishops attended the [[Synod of Arles|Council of Arles]]: [[Eborius]] from [[Eboracum]] (York), [[Restitutus]] from [[Londinium]] (London), and [[Adelfius]] possibly from [[Lindum Colonia]] (Lincoln). These cities were provincial capitals, and the bishops were likely metropolitans with authority over the other bishops in their provinces. This suggests the British church was well established by the early 4th century.{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|p=110}}{{Sfn|Petts|2003|p=39}}
It is unclear how widely the [[Romano-British]] people adopted Christianity. Historian [[Marc Morris (historian)|Marc Morris]] writes, "As for organized Christianity in Britain, the evidence suggests it had never been very strongly established in the first place."{{Sfn|Morris|2021|p=36}} While archaeological evidence from [[Roman villa]]s indicates that some aristocrats were Christians, Morris argues there is little evidence for the existence of urban churches.{{Sfn|Morris|2021|p=36}} In contrast, historian [[Barbara Yorke]] concludes, "When all available evidence is drawn together there is in fact a strong case for permeation of Christianity at all levels of Romano-British society".{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|p=110}}
[[End of Roman rule in Britain|Roman rule ended]] at the start of the 5th century. After the departure of the Roman army, the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] recruited the [[Germanic peoples]] called [[Anglo-Saxons]] to defend Britain, but they rebelled against their British hosts in 442.{{Sfn|Myres|1989|p=104}} Writing in the 8th century, [[Bede]] divided the Anglo-Saxons into three major groups: [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]]. The Angles founded the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]], [[Mercia]], and [[Northumbria]]. The Saxons founded the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]] (South Saxons), [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] (East Saxons), and [[Wessex]] (West Saxons). The Jutes established the [[Kingdom of Kent]] and also settled on the [[Isle of Wight]].{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|pp=56–57}} The new inhabitants practiced [[Anglo-Saxon paganism]], a [[polytheistic]] religion in which multiple gods were worshipped, among them [[Woden]], [[Thor]], and [[Týr|Tiw]]. Woden was the king of the gods, and early English kings traced their ancestry back to him {{Crossreference|(see [[Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies]])}}.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|pp=18 & 25–26}}
Christianity survived in the Brittonic kingdoms of the west and north. In these regions, the church was organised around [[diocese]]s corresponding to tribal divisions. Influence from [[Gaul]] encouraged the spread of [[monasticism]] within the British church during the 6th century.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|pp=34–36}}
British missionaries, most famously [[Saint Patrick]], converted [[History of Christianity in Ireland|Ireland to Christianity]]. The early medieval churches of Wales, Scotland, and Ireland shared common characteristics often described as [[Celtic Christianity]].{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|pp=3 & 115}} The Celtic and [[Latin Church|Roman churches]] disagreed on several issues. The most important was the [[Easter controversy|date of Easter]]. There were other differences over baptismal customs and the style of [[tonsure]] worn by monks.{{Sfn|Moorman|1973|p=19}}
==Christianisation== {{Main|Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England}}
===Gregorian mission=== {{Main|Gregorian mission}}
[[Pope Gregory I]] (590–604) sent the first missionaries to the Anglo-Saxons, and this mission ultimately culminated in England's absorption into the [[Patriarch of the West|western patriarchate]].{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=41}} Gregory chose [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] to lead the mission to the Kingdom of Kent.{{Sfn|Stenton|1971|p=104}} King [[Æthelberht of Kent]] was [[bretwalda]], a position that gave him influence over other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. In addition, Kent had important trade connections with [[Francia]], and Æthelberht had some exposure to Christianity through his wife, [[Bertha of Kent|Bertha]], a Frankish princess and a Christian.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|pp=60–61}}
Augustine arrived on the [[Isle of Thanet]] in 597 and convinced Æthelberht to allow the preaching of [[the gospel]].{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=62}} Augustine established his base at the main town of [[Canterbury]].{{Sfn|Lyle|2002|p=48}} He took over an old Roman church that he named Christ Church (now [[Canterbury Cathedral]]).{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=50 & 53}} Augustine also founded the Monastery of SS. Peter and Paul (later known as [[St Augustine's Abbey]]) outside the city.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=63}} Æthelberht was probably converted and baptised in 601.{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=49}}
In 601, Pope Gregory sent Augustine the [[pallium]] of a metropolitan bishop and a letter stating that he was to be archbishop of [[Anglo-Saxon London|London]]. Gregory instructed him to establish twelve [[episcopal see]]s under his jurisdiction. In time, there was to be an archbishop of [[York]] also with twelve bishops under his jurisdiction. During his lifetime, Augustine was to have precedence over the archbishop of York; afterwards, precedence was to be determined by seniority of [[Episcopal consecration|consecration]]. However, London belonged to King [[Sæberht of Essex|Sabert]] of the East Saxons, who was a pagan and sub-king to the bretwalda. It would have been politically impractical to move the metropolitan see to the capital of an inferior ruler. For these reasons, Augustine kept his see in Kent, becoming the first [[archbishop of Canterbury]].{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=50}}
Pope Gregory also wrote that Augustine was to have authority over the native British bishops as well.{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=51}} After meeting with Augustine, around 603, the British bishops refused to recognize him as their archbishop.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=71}} His successor, [[Laurence of Canterbury]], said Bishop [[Dagán]] had refused to either share a roof with the Roman missionaries or to eat with them.{{sfn|Stenton|1971|p=112}}
Through the influence of Æthelberht, his nephew King Sabert did convert.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=64}} In 604, Augustine consecrated [[Mellitus]] as bishop of the East Saxons with his see at London (he was therefore the first known [[bishop of London]]).{{Sfn|Brooks|2005}} In the same year, Augustine consecrated [[Justus]] as the first [[bishop of Rochester]] for the people of [[west Kent]].{{Sfn|Deanesly|1963|p=53}} Upon Augustine's death around 604, he was succeeded as archbishop by Laurence of Canterbury, a member of the original mission.{{Sfn|Kirby|1992|p=37}}
The church experienced a setback when the pagan [[Eadbald of Kent|Eadbald]] succeeded his father Æthelberht in 616. However, Eadbald eventually converted as well. Similarly, the sons of Sabert reverted to paganism after his death and drove Mellitus out of Essex.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=64}} King [[Rædwald of East Anglia|Rædwald]] of East Anglia converted but retained an altar to the old gods.{{Sfn|Plunkett|2005|p=75}}
=== The North === When [[Æthelfrith]] of [[Bernicia]] seized the neighboring kingdom of [[Deira]], [[Edwin of Northumbria|Edwin]], son of [[Ælla of Deira]] fled into exile. Around 616, at the [[Battle of Chester]], Æthelfrith ordered his forces to attack a body of monks from the Abbey of [[Bangor-on-Dee]], "If then they cry to their God against us, in truth, though they do not bear arms, yet they fight against us, because they oppose us by their prayers."<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04798a.htm Alston, George Cyprian. "St. Dinooth." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 21 April 2019{{PD-notice}}</ref> Shortly after, Æthelfrith was killed in battle against Edwin, who with the support of [[Rædwald of East Anglia]] claimed the throne. Edwin married the Christian [[Æthelburh of Kent]], daughter of Æthelberht, and sister of King [[Eadbald of Kent]]. A condition of their marriage was that she be allowed to continue the practice of her religion. When Æthelburh traveled north to Edwin's court, she was accompanied by the missioner [[Paulinus of York]]. Edwin eventually became a Christian, as did members of his court. When Edwin was killed in 633 at the [[Battle of Hatfield Chase]], Æthelburh and her children returned to her brother's court in Kent, along with Paulinus. [[James the Deacon]] remained behind to serve as a missioner in the [[kingdom of Lindsey]], but Bernicia and Deira reverted to heathenism.
===Insular missions=== {{Main|Hiberno-Scottish mission}} The introduction of Christianity to Ireland dates to sometime before the 5th century, presumably in interactions with Roman Britain. In 431, [[Pope Celestine I]] consecrated [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|Palladius]] a bishop and sent him to Ireland to minister to the "Scots believing in Christ".<ref name=cusack>[https://www.libraryireland.com/HistoryIreland/Mission-St-Palladius.php Cusack, Margaret Anne, "Mission of St. Palladius", ''An Illustrated History of Ireland'', Chapter VIII]</ref> Monks from Ireland, such as [[Finnian of Clonard]], studied in Britain at the monastery of [[Cadoc]] the Wise, at [[Llancarfan]] and other places. Later, as monastic institutions were founded in Ireland, monks from Britain, such as [[Ecgberht of Ripon]] and [[Chad of Mercia]], went to Ireland. In 563 [[Columba]] arrived in [[Dál Riata]] from his homeland of Ireland and was granted land on Iona. This became the centre of his evangelising mission to the Picts.
When Æthelfrith of Northumbria was killed in battle against Edwin and Rædwald at the River Idle in 616, his sons fled into exile. Some of that time was spent in the kingdom of [[Dál Riata]], where [[Oswald of Northumbria]] became Christian. At the death of Edwin's successors at the hand of [[Cadwallon ap Cadfan]] of Gwynedd, Oswald returned from exile and laid claim to the throne. He defeated the combined forces of Cadwallon and [[Penda of Mercia]] at the [[Battle of Heavenfield]]. In 634, Oswald, who had spent time in exile at Iona, asked abbot [[Ségéne mac Fiachnaí]] to send missioners to Northumbria. At first, a bishop named Cormán was sent, but he alienated many people by his harshness, and returned in failure to Iona reporting that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. [[Aidan of Lindisfarne|Aidan]] criticised Cormán's methods and was soon sent as his replacement.<ref>[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/52.html Kiefer, James E., "Aidan of Lindisfarne, Missionary", ''Biographical Sketches of memorable Christians of the past'', Society of Archbishop Justus. 29 August 1999]</ref> Oswald gave Aidan the island of Lindisfarne, near the royal court at [[Bamburgh Castle]]. Since Oswald was fluent in both one of the and Irish, he often served as interpreter for Aidan. Aidan built churches, monasteries and schools throughout Northumbria. [[Lindisfarne]] became an important centre of Insular Christianity under Aidan, [[Cuthbert]], [[Eadfrith of Lindisfarne|Eadfrith]] and [[Eadberht of Lindisfarne|Eadberht]]. Cuthbert's tomb became a center for pilgrimage.
==Monastic foundations== Around 630 [[Eanswith]], daughter of [[Eadbald of Kent]], founded [[Folkestone Priory]].<ref name=Alston>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02443a.htm Alston, George Cyprian. "The Benedictine Order." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 25 April 2019{{PD-notice}}</ref>
[[William of Malmesbury]] says Rædwald had a step-son, [[Sigeberht of East Anglia]], who spent some time in exile in Gaul, where he became a Christian.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/williammalmesbu00malmgoog#page/n113/mode/2up William of Malmesbury. ''Chronicle of the Kings of England'', London, George Bell and Son, 1904. p. 89]</ref> After his step-brother [[Eorpwald of East Anglia|Eorpwald]] was killed, Sigeberht returned and became ruler of the East Angles. Sigeberht's conversion may have been a factor in his achieving royal power, since at that time Edwin of Northumbria and Eadbald of Kent were Christian. Around 631, [[Felix of Burgundy]] arrived in Canterbury and [[Honorius of Canterbury|Archbishop Honorius]] sent him to Sigeberht. [[Alban Butler]] says Sigeberht met Felix during his time in Gaul and was behind Felix's coming to Anglo-Saxon England.<ref>[https://catholicsaints.info/butlers-lives-of-the-saints-saint-felix-bishop-and-confessor/ Butler, Alban. “Saint Felix, Bishop and Confessor”. ''Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Principal Saints'', 1866. CatholicSaints.Info. 7 March 2013]</ref> Felix established his episcopal see at [[Dommoc]] and a monastery at [[Soham Abbey]]. Although Felix's early training may have been influenced by the Irish tradition of [[Luxeuil Abbey]], his loyalty to Canterbury ensured that the church in East Anglia adhered to Roman norms.{{sfn|Stenton|1971|p=117}} Around 633, Sigeberht welcomed from Ireland, [[Saint Fursey|Fursey]] and his brothers [[Foillan]] and [[Saint Ultan|Ultan]] and gave them land to establish an abbey at [[Cnobheresburg]]. Felix and Fursey effected a number of conversions and established many churches in Sigeberht's kingdom. Around the same time Sigeberht established a [[Beodricesworth monastery|monastery at Beodricesworth]].
[[File:Whitby Abbey 1.jpg|thumb|Whitby Abbey 1]] [[Hilda of Whitby]] was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria. In 627 Edwin and his household were baptized Christian. When Edwin was killed in the [[Battle of Hatfield Chase]], the widowed [[Æthelburh of Kent|Queen Æthelburh]], her children, and Hilda returned to Kent, now ruled by Æthelburh's brother, [[Eadbald of Kent]]. Æthelburh established [[Lyminge Abbey]], one of the first religious houses to be founded in the new Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It was a double monastery, built on Roman ruins. Æthelburh was the first abbess. It is assumed that Hilda remained with the Queen-Abbess. Nothing further is known of Hild until around 647 when having decided not to join her older sister [[Hereswith]] at [[Chelles Abbey]] in Gaul, Hild returned north. (Chelles had been founded by [[Bathild]], the Anglo-Saxon queen consort of [[Clovis II]].) Hild settled on a small parcel of land near the mouth of the river Ware, where under the direction of Aidan of Lindisfarne, she took up religious life. In 649, he appointed her abbess of the [[double monastery]] of [[Hartlepool Abbey]], previously founded by the Irish recluse [[Hieu (abbess)|Hieu]].<ref>[http://www.societyforthestudyofwomenphilosophers.org/Hilda_of_Whitby.html "Hilda of Whitby", Society for the Study of Women Philosophers]</ref> In 655, in thanksgiving for his victory over [[Penda of Mercia]] at the [[Battle of the Winwæd]], King [[Oswiu]] brought his year old daughter [[Ælfflæd of Whitby|Ælfflæd]] to his kinswoman Hilda to be brought up at the abbey.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.teesarchaeology.com/projects/Anglo_Saxon_Hartlepool/Anglo_Saxon_Hartlepool.html |title="An Anglo-Saxon Monastery at Hartlepool", Tees Archaeology |access-date=2019-04-23 |archive-date=2018-11-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103093651/http://www.teesarchaeology.com/projects/Anglo_Saxon_Hartlepool/Anglo_Saxon_Hartlepool.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> (Hild was the grand-niece of Edwin of Northumbria; Oswiu was the son of Edwin's sister Acha.) Two years later, Oswiu established a double monastery at [[Whitby Abbey|Streoneshalh]], (later known as Whitby), and appointed Hild abbess. Ælfflæd then grew up there. The abbey became the leading royal nunnery of the kingdom of Deira, a centre of learning, and burial-place of the royal family.
==Resolving blood feuds== {{Main|Kentish Royal Legend}} [[Eormenred of Kent]] was the son of [[Eadbald of Kent|King Eadbald]] and grandson of King [[Æthelberht of Kent]]. Upon the death of his father, his brother [[Eorcenberht of Kent|Eorcenberht]] became king. The description of Eormenred as king may indicate that he ruled jointly with his brother or, alternatively, that as sub-king in a particular area. Upon his death, his two young sons were entrusted to the care of their uncle King Eorcenberht, who was succeeded upon his death by his son [[Ecgberht of Kent|Ecgberht]]. Through the connivance of King Ecgberht's advisor Thunor, the sons of Eormenred were murdered. The king was viewed as having either acquiesced or given the order.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=-1HS5gCZ1w4C&dq=Saint+Tyfei&pg=PA81 Wasyliw, Patricia Healy. ''Martyrdom, Murder, and Magic: Child Saints and Their Cults in Medieval Europe'', Peter Lang, 2008, p. 74]{{ISBN|9780820427645}}</ref> In order to quench the family feud which this kinslaying would have provoked, Ecgberht agreed to pay a [[weregild]] for the murdered princelings to their sister. (Weregild was an important legal mechanism in early Germanic society; the other common form of legal reparation at this time was blood revenge. The payment was typically made to the family or to the clan.) The legend claims that [[Domne Eafe]] was offered (or requested) as much land as her pet hind could run around in a single lap. The result, whether miraculous or by the owner's guidance, was that she gained some eighty [[Sulung (unit of measurement)|sulungs]] of land on [[Isle of Thanet|Thanet]] as [[weregild]], on which to establish the double monastery of St. Mildred's at [[Minster-in-Thanet]].<ref name=Alston/> (cf. the story of [[Brigid of Kildare#Miracles|St. Brigid's miraculous cloak]]).
A similar situation arose in the North. [[Eanflæd]] was the daughter of King [[Edwin of Northumbria]]. Her maternal grandfather was King [[Æthelberht of Kent]]. She was married to [[Oswiu]], King of Bernicia. In 651, after seven years of peaceful rule, Oswiu declared war on [[Oswine of Deira|Oswine]], King of neighboring [[Deira]]. Oswine, who belonged to the rival Deiran royal family, was Oswiu's maternal second cousin.{{Sfn|Yorke|1990|p=76}}
Oswine refused to engage in battle, instead retreating to [[Gilling East|Gilling]] and the home of his friend, Earl Humwald.<ref name=Strutt>{{cite book|last1=Strutt|first1=Joseph|title=From the Arrival of Julius Caesar to the End of the Saxon Heptarchy|year=1777|publisher=Joseph Cooper|page=139|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EcNCAQAAMAAJ&q=Oswin+of+Deira+%2B+humwald&pg=PA139|access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref> Humwald betrayed Oswine, delivering him to Oswiu's soldiers by whom Oswine was put to death.<ref name=Hutchinson>{{cite book|last1=Hutchinson|first1=William|title=The History and Antiquities of the County Palatine of Durham|year=1817|page=9|edition=Volume 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O5AxAQAAMAAJ&q=earl+humwald&pg=PA9|access-date=5 May 2015}}</ref> In Anglo-Saxon culture, it was assumed that the nearest kinsmen to a murdered person would seek to avenge the death or require some other kind of justice on account of it (such as the payment of weregild). However, Oswine's nearest kinsman was Oswiu's own wife, Eanflæd, also second cousin to Oswine.{{Sfn|Kirby|2000|p=78}} In compensation for her kinsman's murder, Eanflæd demanded a substantial weregild, which she then used to establish [[Gilling Abbey]].{{sfn|Yorke|1990|p=80}} The monastery was staffed in part by the relatives of both of their families, and given the task of offering prayers for both Oswiu's salvation and Oswine's departed soul. By founding the monastery shortly after Oswine's death,{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=106}} Oswiu and Eanflæd avoided the creation of a feud.{{Sfn|Yorke|2006|p=234}}
==Synod of Whitby (664)== {{Main|Synod of Whitby}}
By the early 660s, Insular Christianity received from the monks of Iona was standard in the north and west, while the Roman tradition brought by Augustine was the practice in the south. In the Northumbrian court King Oswiu followed the tradition of the missionary monks from Iona, while Queen [[Eanflæd]], who had been brought up in Kent followed the Roman tradition. The result was that one portion of the court would be celebrating Easter, while the other was still observing the Lenten fast.
At that time, Kent, Essex, and East Anglia were following Roman practice. Oswiu's eldest son, [[Alhfrith]], son of [[Rhiainfellt]] of [[Rheged]], seems to have supported the Roman position. [[Cenwalh of Wessex]] recommended [[Wilfrid]], a Northumbrian churchman who had recently returned from Rome,{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=107}} to Alhfrith as a cleric well-versed in Roman customs and liturgy.{{Sfn|Kirby|2000|p=87}} Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon, with [[Eata of Hexham|Eata]], abbot of [[Melrose Abbey]] and former student of Aidan of Lindisfarne.{{Sfn|Higham|1997|p=42}} Wilfrid ejected Abbot Eata, because he would not conform to Roman customs; and Eata returned to Melrose.{{Sfn|Kirby|2000|p=87}} [[Cuthbert]], the guest-master was also expelled.{{Sfn|Thacker|2004}} Wilfrid introduced a form of the ''Rule of Saint Benedict'' into Ripon.
In 664, King Oswiu convened a meeting at Hild's monastery to discuss the matter. The Celtic party was led by Abbess Hilda, and bishops [[Colmán of Lindisfarne]] and [[Cedd]] of [[Lastingham|Læstingau]]. (In 653, upon the occasion of the marriage of Oswiu's daughter Alchflaed with [[Peada of Mercia]], Oswiu had sent Cedd to evangelize the [[Middle Angles]] of Mercia.) The Roman party was led by Wilfrid and [[Agilbert]].
The meeting did not proceed entirely smoothly due to variety of languages spoken, which probably included [[Old Irish]], [[Old English]], [[Frankish language|Frankish]] and [[Old Welsh]], as well as [[Latin]]. Bede recounted that Cedd interpreted for both sides.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bede|title=Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Book 3, chapter 25}}</ref> Cedd's facility with the languages, together with his status as a trusted royal emissary, likely made him a key figure in the negotiations. His skills were seen as an eschatological sign of the presence of the [[Holy Spirit]], in contrast to the Biblical account of the [[Tower of Babel]].{{sfn|Mayr-Harting|1991|p=9}} Colman appealed to the practice of St. John; Wilfrid to St. Peter. Oswiu decided to follow Roman rather than Celtic rite, saying "I dare not longer contradict the decrees of him who keeps the doors of the Kingdom of Heaven, lest he should refuse me admission".<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15610a.htm Thurston, Herbert. "Synod of Whitby." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 23 April 2019{{PD-notice}}</ref> Some time after the conference Colman resigned the see of Lindisfarne and returned to Ireland.
==Anglo-Saxon saints== {{Main|Cult of saints in Anglo-Saxon England}} A number of Anglo-Saxon saints are connected to royalty.{{Sfn|Rollason|1989|p=114}} King [[Æthelberht of Kent]] and his wife [[Bertha of Kent|Queen Bertha]] were later regarded as saints for their role in establishing Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons. Their granddaughter [[Eanswith]] founded Folkestone Priory, in 630 the first monastery in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms for women.{{Sfn|Yorke|2003|p=23}} Her aunt [[Æthelburh of Kent|Æthelburh]] founded [[Lyminge Abbey]] about four miles northwest of Folkestone on the south coast of Kent around 634. In a number of instances, the individual retired from court to take up the religious life. The sisters [[Mildrith]], [[Mildburh]], and [[Mildgyth]], great granddaughters of King Æthelberht and Queen Bertha, and all abbesses at various convents, were revered as saints. [[Ceolwulf of Northumbria]] abdicated his throne and entered the monastery at Lindisfarne.<ref>[https://www.katolsk.no/biografier/historisk/cnorthum Odden, Per Einer. "The Holy Ceolwulf of Northumbria (~ 695-764)", The Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo, May 26, 2004]</ref>
In some cases, where the death of a member of royalty appears to be largely politically motivated, it was viewed as martyrdom due to the circumstances. The murdered princes [[Æthelred and Æthelberht]] were later commemorated as saints and martyrs. [[Oswine of Deira]] was betrayed by a trusted friend to soldiers of his enemy and kinsman [[Oswiu]] of Bernicia. Bede described Oswine as "most generous to all men and above all things humble; tall of stature and of graceful bearing, with pleasant manner and engaging address".<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11349a.htm Parker, Anselm. "St. Oswin." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 23 January 2020{{PD-notice}}</ref> Likewise, the sons of [[Arwald]] of the [[Isle of Wight]] were betrayed to [[Cædwalla of Wessex]], but because they were converted and baptized by Abbot Cynibert of Hreutford immediately before being executed, they were considered saints.<ref name=Stanton>[https://archive.org/details/amenologyenglan01stangoog/page/n200 <!-- pg=176 --> Stanton, Richard. ''A Menology of England and Wales'', Burns & Oates, (1892)]{{PD-notice}}</ref> [[Edward the Martyr]] was stabbed to death on a visit to his stepmother [[Ælfthryth, wife of Edgar|Queen Ælfthryth]] and his stepbrother, the boy [[Æthelred the Unready|Æthelred]] while dismounting from his horse, although there is no indication that he was particularly noted for virtue.
Royalty could use their affiliation to such cults in order to claim legitimacy against competitors to the throne.{{sfn|Rollason|1989|p=123}} A dynasty may have had accrued prestige for having a saint in its family.{{sfn|Rollason|1989|p=120}} Promoting a particular cult may have aided a royal family in claiming political dominance over an area, particularly if that area was recently conquered.{{sfn|Rollason|1989|p=120}}
==Anglo-Saxon mission on the Continent== {{Main|Anglo-Saxon mission}}
In 644, the twenty-five year old [[Ecgberht of Ripon]] was a student at the monastery of [[Rath Melsigi]] when he and many others fell ill of the plague. He vowed that if he recovered, he would become a perpetual pilgrimage from his homeland of Britain and would lead a life of penitential prayer and fasting.{{Sfn|Mayr-Harting|2004}} He began to organize a mission to the [[Frisia]]ns, but was dissuaded from going by a vision related to him by a monk who had been a disciple of Saint [[Boisil]], prior of [[Melrose Abbey|Melrose]]. Ecgberht then recruited others.
Around 677, Wilfrid, bishop of York quarreled with King [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria]] and was expelled from his see. Wilfrid went to Rome to appeal Ecgfrith's decision.{{sfn|Stenton|1971|p=136}} On the way he stopped in [[Utrecht]] at the court of [[Aldgisl]], the rulers of the Frisians, for most of 678. Wilfrid may have been blown off course on his trip from Anglo-Saxon lands to the continent, and ended up in Frisia; or he may have intended to journey via Frisia to avoid [[Neustria]], whose [[Mayor of the Palace]], [[Ebroin]], disliked Wilfrid.{{Sfn|Thacker|2004}} While Wilfrid was at Aldgisl's court, Ebroin offered a bushel of gold coins in return for Wilfrid, alive or dead. Aldgisl's hospitality to Wilfrid was in defiance of Frankish domination.
The first missioner was Wihtberht who went to Frisia about 680 and labored for two years with the permission of [[Aldgisl]]; but being unsuccessful, Wihtberht returned to Briiain.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=3jPRV2hUGE8C&dq=Rath+Melsigi&pg=PA194 ''St. Cuthbert, His Cult and His Community to AD 1200'', (Gerald Bonner et al, eds.) Boydell & Brewer, 1989, p. 194] {{ISBN|9780851156101}}</ref> [[Willibrord]] grew up under the influence of Wilfrid, studied under Ecgberht of Ripon, and spent twelve years at the Abbey of Rath Melsigi. Around 690, Ecgberht sent him and eleven companions to Christianise the Frisians. In 695 Willibrord was consecrated in Rome, Bishop of Utrecht. In 698 he established the [[Abbey of Echternach]] on the site of a Roman villa donated by the [[Austrasia]]n noblewoman [[Irmina of Oeren]]. Aldgisl's successor [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Redbad]] was less supportive than his father, likely because the missionaries were favored by [[Pepin of Herstal]], who sought to expand his territory into Frisia.
In 716, [[Boniface]] joined Willibrord in Utrecht. Their efforts were frustrated by the war between [[Charles Martel]] and [[Redbad, King of the Frisians]]. Willibrord fled to the abbey he had founded in Echternach, while Boniface returned to the Benedictine monastery at [[Nursling|Nhutscelle]]. The following year he traveled to Rome, where he was commissioned by [[Pope Gregory II]] as a traveling missionary bishop for Germania.
==Benedictine reform== {{main|English Benedictine Reform}}
The Benedictine reform was led by Saint [[Dunstan]] over the latter half of the 10th century. It sought to revive church piety by replacing secular canons- often under the direct influence of local landowners, and often their relatives- with celibate monks, answerable to the ecclesiastical hierarchy and ultimately to the Pope. This deeply split the newly formed kingdom of England, bringing it to the point of civil war, with the East Anglian nobility (such as [[Athelstan Half-King]], [[Byrhtnoth]]) supporting Dunstan and the Wessex aristocracy ([[Ordgar]], [[Æthelmær the Stout]]) supporting the secularists. These factions mobilised around King [[Eadwig]] (anti-Dunstan) and his brother King [[Edgar the Peaceable|Edgar]] (pro). On the death of Edgar, his son [[Edward the Martyr]] was assassinated by the anti-Dunstan faction and their candidate, the young king [[Æthelred the Unready|Æthelred]] was placed on the throne. However this "most terrible deed since the English came from over the sea" provoked such a revulsion that the secularists climbed down, although Dunstan was effectively retired.
This split fatally weakened the country in the face of renewed Viking attacks.
==Church organisation== The English church was divided into two [[Ecclesiastical province|ecclesiastical provinces]] each with its own [[archbishop]]. In the south, the [[Province of Canterbury]] was led by the [[archbishop of Canterbury]]. In the north, the [[Province of York]] was led by the [[archbishop of York]]. Theoretically, neither archbishop had precedence over the other. In reality, the southern province had more dioceses and was wealthier than the northern province. As a result, Canterbury dominated.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=41}}
In 669, [[Theodore of Tarsus]] became Archbishop of Canterbury. In 672 he convened the [[Council of Hertford]] which was attended by a number of bishops from across the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. This Council was a milestone in the organization of the Anglo-Saxon Church, as the decrees passed by its delegates focused on issues of authority and structure within the church.{{Sfn|Cubitt|1995|p=62}} Afterwards Theodore, visiting the whole of Anglo-Saxon held lands, consecrated new bishops and divided up the vast dioceses which in many cases were coextensive with the kingdoms of the heptarchy.<ref>[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01505a.htm Thurston, Herbert. "The Anglo-Saxon Church." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 23 January 2020{{PD-notice}}</ref>
Initially, the diocese was the only administrative unit in the Anglo-Saxon church. The bishop served the diocese from a [[cathedral]] town with the help of a group of priests known as the bishop's ''familia''. These priests would baptise, teach and visit the remoter parts of the diocese. ''Familiae'' were placed in other important settlements, and these were called [[Minster (church)|minsters]].{{Sfn|Moorman|1973|p=27}}
In the late 10th century, the [[English Benedictine Reform|Benedictine Reform]] movement helped to restore [[Christian monasticism|monasticism]] in England after the Viking attacks of the 9th century. The most prominent reformers were Archbishop [[Dunstan]] of Canterbury (959–988), Bishop [[Æthelwold of Winchester]] (963–984), and Archbishop [[Oswald of Worcester|Oswald]] of York (971–992). The reform movement was supported by King [[Edgar the Peaceable|Edgar]] ({{reign|959|975}}). One result of the reforms was the creation of monastic cathedrals at [[Canterbury Cathedral|Canterbury]], [[Worcester Cathedral|Worcester]], [[Winchester Cathedral Priory|Winchester]], and [[Sherborne Abbey|Sherborne]]. These were staffed by [[Cloistered clergy|cloistered monks]], while other cathedrals were staffed by [[secular clergy]] called [[Canon (clergy)|canons]]. By 1066, there were over 45 [[List of monastic houses in England|monasteries in England]], and monks were chosen as bishops more often than in other parts of western Europe.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=42}}
Most villages would have had a church by 1042,{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=42}} as the [[parish]] system developed as an outgrowth of [[manorialism]]. The [[parish church]] was a [[Proprietary church|private church]] built and endowed by the [[lord of the manor]], who retained the [[Advowson|right to nominate the parish priest]]. The priest supported himself by farming his [[glebe]] and was also entitled to other support from parishioners. The most important was the [[tithe]], the right to collect one-tenth of all produce from land or animals. Originally, the tithe was a voluntary gift, but the church successfully made it a compulsory tax by the 10th century.{{Sfn|Moorman|1973|p=28}}
By 1000, there were eighteen dioceses in England: [[Diocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]], [[Anglican Diocese of Rochester|Rochester]], [[Diocese of London|London]], [[Diocese of Winchester|Winchester]], [[Diocese of Lincoln|Dorchester]], [[Diocese of Ramsbury|Ramsbury]], [[Diocese of Sherborne|Sherborne]], [[Diocese of Selsey|Selsey]], [[Diocese of Lichfield|Lichfield]], [[Diocese of Hereford|Hereford]], [[Anglican Diocese of Worcester|Worcester]], [[Diocese of Exeter|Crediton]], [[Diocese of Cornwall|Cornwall]], [[Diocese of Elmham|Elmham]], [[Diocese of Lindsey|Lindsey]], [[Diocese of Wells|Wells]], [[Diocese of York|York]] and [[Diocese of Durham|Durham]]. To assist bishops in supervising the parishes and monasteries within their dioceses, the office of [[archdeacon]] was created. Once a year, the bishop would summon parish priests to the cathedral for a synod.{{Sfn|Moorman|1973|p=48}}
{{multiple image |align = left | width = 350 | footer = The dioceses of Anglo-Saxon England 850—1035 | image1 = England diocese map pre-925.svg | alt1 = England diocese map pre-925 | caption1 = 850—925 | image2 = England diocese map post 950.svg | alt2 = England diocese map post 950 | caption2 = 950—1035 }} {{clear}}
=== Church and state === The king was regarded not only as the head of the church but also "the [[vicar of Christ]] among a Christian folk".<ref>{{harvnb|Moorman|1973|p=47}}: Laws of Ethelred II, quoted in F.M. Stenton, ''Anglo-Saxon England'', p. 538</ref> Bishops were chosen by the king and tended to be recruited from among royal chaplains or monasteries. The bishop-elect was then presented at a synod where clerical approval was obtained and consecration followed. The appointment of an archbishop was more complicated and required approval from the [[pope]]. The Archbishop of Canterbury had to travel to Rome to receive the [[pallium]], his symbol of office. These visits to Rome and the payments that accompanied them (such as [[Peter's Pence]]) was a point of contention.{{Sfn|Loyn|2000|pp=4-5}} Æthelwold of Winchester's ''[[Regularis Concordia (Winchester)|Regularis Concordia]]'' which laid down rules for the government of the church, provided that the monks of a cathedral monastery had the right to elect their bishop. This was approved by a synodical council in 973, but largely ignored.{{sfn|Knowles|1963|p=627}}
Bishops played a crucial role in government, advising the king, presiding over shire courts and taking parts in meetings of the king's council, the [[witan]]. Even more importantly, the church was a wealthy institution—owning 25 to 33 per cent of all land according to the [[Domesday Book]]. In this capacity, bishops and abbots had similar status and power to secular magnates, and it was vital to the king that trustworthy men occupied these positions.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=47}}
==See also== * [[Celtic Christianity]] * [[List of Anglo-Saxon saints]] * [[List of members of the Gregorian mission]]
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Bibliography== {{refbegin|35em}} * {{Cite ODNB|first=N. P.| last= Brooks|title=Mellitus (d. 624), archbishop of Canterbury|year=2005 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/18531}} * [[William Chaney|Chaney, William A.]] (1960) ''Paganism to Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England'' . * [[William Chaney|Chaney, William A.]] (1970). ''The cult of kingship in Anglo-Saxon England: the transition from paganism to Christianity'' (Manchester University Press) * {{cite book | last = Cubitt | first = Catherine | title = Anglo-Saxon Church Councils, c.650-c.850 | year = 1995 | place = London}} * {{cite book | last = Deanesly | first = Margaret | author-link = Margaret Deanesly | title = The Pre-Conquest Church in England | publisher = Adam & Charles Black | series = An Ecclesiastical History of England | volume = 1 | edition = 2nd | year = 1963 | place = London | url = https://archive.org/details/preconquestchurc0000dean | url-access=registration}} * {{cite book | last = Higham | first = N. J. | author-link = N. J. Higham | title = The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England | publisher = Manchester University Press | year = 1997 | place = Manchester, UK | isbn = 0-7190-4827-3}} * Higham, N. J. (2006) ''(Re-)Reading Bede: the "Ecclesiastical History" in Context''. London: Routledge {{ISBN|978-0-415-35368-7}} ; {{ISBN|0-415-35367-X}} * {{cite book | last = Huscroft | first = Richard | title = Ruling England, 1042-1217 | publisher = Routledge | edition = 2nd | year = 2016 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tKNYCwAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-1138786554}} * {{cite book | last = Kirby | first = D. P. | author-link = David Peter Kirby | title = The Earliest English Kings | publisher = Routledge | year = 1992 | place = London | isbn =0-415-09086-5}} * {{cite book | last = Kirby | first = D. P. | author-link = David Peter Kirby | title = The Earliest English Kings | publisher = Routledge | edition = revised | year = 2000 | place = New York | url = https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Earliest_English_Kings/CCrZDwAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-415-24211-0}} *{{cite book|last=Knowles |first=David| author-link=David Knowles (scholar) |title=The Monastic Order in England: A History of its Development from the Times pf St Dunstan to the Fourth Lateran Council 940-1216|edition=2nd|publisher=Cambridge University Press |location =Cambridge, UK |year=1963|isbn= 978-0-521-54808-3 }} * {{cite book | last = Loyn | first = H. R. | author-link = H. R. Loyn | title = The English church, 940–1154 | publisher = Routledge | series = The Medieval World | year = 2000 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iGfJAwAAQBAJ | isbn = 9781317884729}} * {{cite book | last = Lyle | first = Marjorie | title = Canterbury: 2000 Years of History | publisher = Tempus | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-7524-1948-0}} * {{cite book |last=Mayr-Harting |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Mayr-Harting |date=1991 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fLrdkyalKpwC |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=Batsford |isbn=0-7134-6589-1}} * {{Cite ODNB|first=Henry|last=Mayr-Harting|title=Ecgberht [St Ecgberht, Egbert] (639–729), church reformer and holy man|year=2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/8579}} * {{cite book | last = Moorman | first = John R. H. | author-link = John Moorman | title = A History of the Church in England | publisher = Morehouse Publishing | edition = 3rd | year = 1973 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=TdnFzfzpOxsC | isbn = 978-0819214065}} * {{cite book | last = Morris | first = Marc | author-link = Marc Morris (historian) | title = The Anglo-Saxons: A History of the Beginnings of England: 400–1066 | publisher = Pegasus Books | year = 2021 | isbn = 978-1-64313-312-6}} * {{cite book | last = Myres | first = J. N. L. | author-link = Nowell Myres | title = The English Settlements | publisher = Oxford University Press | series = [[Oxford History of England]] | year = 1989 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=S1EdW6i3iTcC | isbn = 0-19-282235-7}} * {{cite book | last = Petts | first = David | title = Christianity in Roman Britain | publisher = Tempus | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-7524-2540-4}} * {{cite book | last = Plunkett | first = Steven | title = Suffolk in Anglo-Saxon Times | publisher = Tempus | year = 2005 | place = Stroud | isbn = 0-7524-3139-0}} * {{cite book |last=Rollason |first=David |date=1989 |title=Saints and Relics in Anglo-Saxon England |location=Oxford |publisher=Basil Blackwell |isbn=978-0631165064}} * {{cite book |last=Stenton |first=F. M. |title=Anglo-Saxon England |date=1971 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280139-5 |edition=3rd |location=Oxford}} * {{Cite ODNB|first=Alan|last=Thacker|title=Wilfrid [St Wilfrid] (c. 634–709/10), bishop of Hexham|year=2004|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/29409}} * [[Charles Thomas (archaeologist)|Thomas, Charles]] (1981) ''Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500'', London: Batsford *{{cite book |last=Yorke |first=Barbara |title=Kings and Kingdoms of Early Anglo-Saxon England |year=1990 |location=London |publisher=Seaby |isbn=978-1-85264-027-9}} * {{cite book|last=Yorke|first=Barbara|title=Nunneries and the Anglo-Saxon royal houses |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2003|isbn=0-8264-6040-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iXw3-r2hvkC&q=saint%20Eanswith&pg=PA23}} * {{cite book | last = Yorke | first = Barbara | author-link = Barbara Yorke | title = The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain, 600–800 | publisher = Pearson Education | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-582-77292-3}} {{Refend}}
==Further reading== {{refbegin|35em}} *{{cite book|last= Barrow|first=Julia |title= The Clergy in the Medieval World: Secular Clerics, their Families and Careers in North-Western Europe, c.800–c.1200|publisher= Cambridge University Press |location =Cambridge, UK |year=2015|isbn=978-1107086388}} * {{cite book |author=Blair, John P. |title=The Church in Anglo-Saxon Society |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year= 2005 |isbn=978-0-19-921117-3 }} * {{cite book |last=Blair|first= Peter Hunter|author2=Blair, Peter D.|author-link= Peter Hunter Blair |title=An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England|edition=Third |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-53777-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Brown, Peter G. |author-link=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A. D. 200–1000 |publisher=Blackwell Publishers |location=Cambridge, MA |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-631-22138-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternchr0002brow }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Campbell, James |title=Observations on the Conversion of England |encyclopedia = Essays in Anglo-Saxon History |publisher=Hambledon Press |location=London |year=1986 |pages=69–84 |isbn=978-0-907628-32-3}} *{{cite book |last= Campbell|first= James|title= The Anglo-Saxons|author2=John, Eric |author3=Wormald, Patrick |name-list-style=amp|year= 1991|location=London|publisher= Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-014395-9}} * {{cite journal |author=Church, S. D. |title=Paganism in Conversion-age Anglo-Saxon England: The Evidence of Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' Reconsidered |journal =[[History (The Journal of the Historical Association)|History]] |volume=93 |issue=310 |pages=162–180 |doi= 10.1111/j.1468-229X.2008.00420.x |year=2008}} * {{cite journal |author=Coates, Simon |title=The Construction of Episcopal Sanctity in early Anglo-Saxon England: the Impact of Venantius Fortunatus |journal=Historical Research |volume=71 |issue=174|date=February 1998 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1111/1468-2281.00050}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Colgrave, Bertram |title=Introduction |encyclopedia=The Earliest Life of Gregory the Great |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |edition=Paperback reissue of 1968 |year=2007|isbn=978-0-521-31384-1}} * {{cite book |author=Collins, Roger |title=Early Medieval Europe: 300–1000 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-312-21886-7 |edition=Second}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Dales, Douglas |title="Apostles of the English": Anglo-Saxon Perceptions |encyclopedia = L'eredità spirituale di Gregorio Magno tra Occidente e Oriente |publisher= Il Segno Gabrielli Editori |year=2005 |isbn= 978-88-88163-54-3}} * {{cite journal |author1=Deanesly, Margaret |author1-link=Margaret Deanesly |author2=Grosjean, Paul |title=The Canterbury Edition of the Answers of Pope Gregory I to St Augustine |journal=[[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=April 1959 |pages=1–49 |doi=10.1017/S0022046900061832}} * {{cite journal |author=Demacopoulos, George |title=Gregory the Great and the Pagan Shrines of Kent |journal= [[Journal of Late Antiquity]] |date=Fall 2008 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=353–369 |doi= 10.1353/jla.0.0018|s2cid=162301915 }} * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |author-link=Charles Reginald Dodwell |title=Anglo-Saxon Art: A New Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/anglosaxonartnew0000dodw_62 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |year=1985 |edition =Cornell University Press 1985 |isbn=978-0-8014-9300-3}} * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |title=The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |series=Pellican History of Art |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-300-06493-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/pictorialartsofw00dodw }} * {{cite book |last1=Dyson |first1=Gerald P. |title=Priests and their Books in Late Anglo-Saxon England |date=2019 |publisher=Boydell Press |isbn=9781783273669 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lmQ0vQEACAAJ |language=en}} * {{cite book |author=Fletcher, R. A. |author-link=Richard A. Fletcher |title=The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity |publisher=H. Holt and Co |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8050-2763-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/barbarianconvers00flet }} * {{cite journal |author1=Foley, W. Trent |author2=Higham, Nicholas. J. |title=Bede on the Britons |journal=Early Medieval Europe |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=154–185 |year=2009 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0254.2009.00258.x}} * {{cite conference |author=Frend, William H. C. | author-link= William Hugh Clifford Frend |title=Roman Britain, a Failed Promise |conference=The Cross Goes North: Processes of Conversion in Northern Europe AD 300–1300 |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge, UK |editor=Martin Carver |editor-link=Martin Carver |year=2003 |isbn=1-84383-125-2 |pages=79–92 }} * {{cite book |author=Fryde, E. B. |author2=Greenway, D. E.|author3= Porter, S.|author4= Roy, I. |title=Handbook of British Chronology|edition=Third revised |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56350-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Gameson, Richard and Fiona |title=From Augustine to Parker: The Changing Face of the First Archbishop of Canterbury |editor1=Smyth, Alfred P. |editor2=Keynes, Simon |editor2-link=Simon Keynes |encyclopedia=Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Cyril Roy Hart |publisher=Four Courts Press |location=Dublin |year=2006 |pages=13–38 |isbn=978-1-85182-932-3 }} * {{cite book |author=Herrin, Judith |author-link=Judith Herrin |title=The Formation of Christendom |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-691-00831-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/formationofchris0000herr }} * {{cite book |author=Higham, N. J. |title=The Convert Kings: Power and Religious Affiliation in Early Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester, UK |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7190-4827-2 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/convertkingspowe00high }} * {{cite book |title=A Brief History of the Anglo-Saxons: The Beginnings of the English Nation |last= Hindley|first=Geoffrey |year= 2006|publisher= Carroll & Graf Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7867-1738-5 }} * {{cite book |title= The Making of Early England |author=Kirby, D. P. |year=1967 |publisher=Schocken Books |location=New York|edition=Reprint }} * {{cite book |author=John, Eric |title=Reassessing Anglo-Saxon England |publisher=Manchester University Press |location=Manchester |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-7190-5053-4 }} * {{cite journal |author=Jones, Putnam Fennell |title=The Gregorian Mission and English Education |journal= [[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=335–348|type = fee required |date=July 1928 |doi=10.2307/2847433 |jstor=2847433 |s2cid=162352366 }} * {{cite book |author=Lapidge, Michael |author-link=Michael Lapidge |title=The Anglo-Saxon Library |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-926722-4}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Laurentius|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England |author=Lapidge, Michael|page=279 |editor=Lapidge, Michael |editor2=Blair, John |editor3=Keynes, Simon |editor4=Scragg, Donald |year=2001 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-22492-1 }} * {{cite book |author=Lawrence, C. H. |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Longman |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-582-40427-4 }} * {{cite journal |author=Markus, R. A. |title=The Chronology of the Gregorian Mission to England: Bede's Narrative and Gregory's Correspondence |journal=[[Journal of Ecclesiastical History]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=16–30 |date=April 1963 |doi=10.1017/S0022046900064356}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Markus, R. A. |title=Gregory the Great and a Papal Missionary Strategy |encyclopedia=Studies in Church History 6: The Mission of the Church and the Propagation of the Faith |year=1970 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=29–38 |oclc= 94815 }} * {{cite book |author=Markus, R. A. |title=Gregory the Great and His World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-58430-2 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |last= Mayr-Harting |first= Henry |author-link= Henry Mayr-Harting |encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |title= Augustine (St Augustine) (d. 604)|url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/899 |access-date=2008-03-30 |year=2004b |publisher= Oxford University Press}}{{subscription required}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=McGowan, Joseph P. |title=An Introduction to the Corpus of Anglo-Latin Literature |encyclopedia=A Companion to Anglo-Saxon Literature |editor=Philip Pulsiano |editor2=Elaine Treharne |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2008 |edition=Paperback |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-1-4051-7609-5 |pages=11–49}} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Meens, Rob |editor=Lapidge, Michael |encyclopedia=Anglo-Saxon England 23 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1994 |title=A Background to Augustine's Mission to Anglo-Saxon England|pages=5–17|isbn=978-0-521-47200-5}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last= Nelson |first= Janet L. |author-link= Janet Nelson |encyclopedia= Oxford Dictionary of National Biography |title= Bertha (b. c.565, d. in or after 601) |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/2269 |access-date=2008-03-30 |year=2006 |publisher= Oxford University Press}}{{subscription required}} * {{cite encyclopedia | last = Ortenberg | first = Veronica |encyclopedia= The English Church and the Papacy in the Middle Ages |title= The Anglo-Saxon Church and the Papacy | editor-last = Lawrence| editor-first = C. H.| pages = 29–62 | place = Stroud| publisher = Sutton Publishing|isbn=978-0-7509-1947-0 | year = 1965 |edition=1999 reprint}} *{{cite book |last=Rollason |first=D.W. |title=The Mildrith Legend: A Study in Early Medieval Hagiography in England |year=1982 |location=Atlantic Highlands |publisher=Leicester University Press |isbn=978-0-7185-1201-9}} * {{cite book |title= Leaders of the Anglo-Saxon Church: From Bede to Stigand |editor-last=Rumble |editor-first=Alexander R. |year= 2012|publisher= Boydell and Brewer }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Schapiro, Meyer |author-link=Meyer Schapiro |title=The Decoration of the Leningrad Manuscript of Bede|encyclopedia= Selected Papers: Volume 3: Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art |pages=199 and 212–214|year= 1980 |publisher=Chatto & Windus|location= London|isbn= 978-0-7011-2514-1 }} * {{cite journal|last=Sisam |first=Kenneth |author-link=Kenneth Sisam |title=Canterbury, Lichfield, and the Vespasian Psalter |journal=[[Review of English Studies]] |series=New Series |volume=7 |issue=25 |date=January 1956 |pages=1–10|doi=10.1093/res/VII.25.1 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |author=Spiegel, Flora |title=The 'tabernacula' of Gregory the Great and the Conversion of Anglo-Saxon England |volume=36 |encyclopedia =Anglo-Saxon England 36 |doi= 10.1017/S0263675107000014 |pages=1–13|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK |year=2007|s2cid=162057678 }} * {{cite web |url=https://www.artnet.com/library/07/0750/T075031.ASP |title=St Augustine Gospels |publisher=Art.net |work=Grove Dictionary of Art |year=2000}} Accessed on 10 May 2009 * {{cite journal |author= Thacker, Alan |title=Memorializing Gregory the Great: The Origin and Transmission of a Papal Cult in the 7th and early 8th centuries|journal= Early Medieval Europe |year=1998 |volume=7|issue=1|pages= 59–84 |doi= 10.1111/1468-0254.00018}} * {{cite book |title= A New Dictionary of Saints: East and West |last=Walsh |first=Michael J. |year=2007 |publisher= Burns & Oates |location=London |isbn=978-0-86012-438-2 }} * {{cite book |author=Williams, Ann |author-link= Ann Williams (historian) |title=Kingship and Government in Pre-Conquest England c. 500–1066 |publisher=MacMillan Press |location=London |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-333-56797-5 }} * {{cite book |author-link=David M. Wilson |author=Wilson, David M. |title=Anglo-Saxon Art: From the Seventh Century to the Norman Conquest |publisher= Thames and Hudson |year= 1984 |location=London |oclc= 185807396}} * {{cite journal |last=Wood |first=Ian |title=The Mission of Augustine of Canterbury to the English|type = fee required |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |date=January 1994 |doi=10.2307/2864782 |jstor=2864782|s2cid=161652367 }} {{Refend}}
{{Germanic peoples}} {{Christian History|collapsed}}
[[Category:Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England| ]]