Anarchism in the United States

{{Short description|none}} {{use American English|date=April 2019}} {{use mdy dates|date=April 2019}} {{Anarchism US}} {{anarchism sidebar|by region}} '''[[Anarchism]] in the United States''' began in the mid-19th century and started to grow in influence as it entered the [[American labor movements]], growing an [[anarcho-communist]] current as well as gaining notoriety for violent [[propaganda of the deed]] and campaigning for diverse [[social reform]]s in the early 20th century. By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of [[individualist anarchism]] had passed{{sfn|Avrich|2005a|p=6}} and anarcho-communism and other [[social anarchist]] currents emerged as the dominant anarchist tendency.<ref>{{cite book |title=An Anarchist FAQ |publisher=[[AK Press]] |year=2012 |isbn=978-1849351225 |editor-last=McKay |editor-first=Iain |volume=I/II |location=Oakland, CA |orig-date=2008}}</ref>

In the [[post-World War II]] era, anarchism regained influence through new developments such as [[anarcho-pacifism]], the [[American New Left]] and the [[counterculture of the 1960s]]. Contemporary anarchism in the United States influenced and became influenced and renewed by developments both inside and outside the worldwide anarchist movement such as [[platformism]], [[insurrectionary anarchism]], the [[new social movements]] ([[anarcha-feminism]], [[queer anarchism]] and [[green anarchism]]) and the [[alter-globalization]] movements. Within [[contemporary anarchism]], the [[anti-capitalism]] of [[classical anarchism]] has remained prominent.<ref>Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". ''WorkingUSA''. '''12''' (3): 505–519. {{doi|10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x}}. {{ISSN|1089-7011}}.</ref><ref>Williams, Dana M. (2018). "Contemporary Anarchist and Anarchistic Movements". Sociology Compass. Wiley. 12 (6): 4. {{doi|10.1111/soc4.12582}}. {{ISSN|1751-9020}}.</ref>

Around the turn of the 21st century, anarchism grew in popularity and influence as part of the [[anti-war]], [[anti-capitalist]] and [[anti-globalization]] movements.<ref name=rupert>{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/globalizationint00rupe/page/66 66]|last=Rupert|first=Mark|title=Globalization and International Political Economy|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham|year=2006|isbn=978-0-7425-2943-4|url-access = registration | url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationint00rupe/page/66}}</ref> Anarchists became known for their involvement in protests against the meetings of the [[WTO]], [[G8]] and the [[World Economic Forum]]. Some anarchist factions at these protests engaged in rioting, property destruction and violent confrontations with the police. These actions were precipitated by ''[[ad hoc]]'', leaderless and anonymous cadres known as [[black bloc]]s, although other peaceful organizational tactics pioneered in this time include [[affinity groups]], [[security culture]] and the use of decentralized technologies such as the [[Internet]].<ref name=rupert/> A significant event of this period was the [[1999 Seattle WTO protests]].<ref name=rupert/>

==History== === Early anarchism === [[File:Josiah Warren.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Josiah Warren]], American individualist anarchist, inventor, musician, and author.]] For anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, [[American individualist anarchism]] "stresses the isolation of the individual—his right to his own tools, his mind, his body, and to the products of his labor. To the artist who embraces this philosophy it is '[[aesthetic]]' anarchism, to the reformer, ethical anarchism, to the independent mechanic, economic anarchism. The former is concerned with philosophy, the latter with practical demonstration. The economic anarchist is concerned with constructing a society on the basis of anarchism. Economically he sees no harm whatever in the private possession of what the individual produces by his own labor, but only so much and no more. The aesthetic and ethical type found expression in the [[transcendentalism]], [[humanitarianism]], and [[romanticism]] of the first part of the nineteenth century, the economic type in the pioneer life of the West during the same period, but more favorably after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213201445/http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|url-status=dead|title=Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism|author=Eunice Minette Schuster|archive-date=February 13, 2016}}</ref> It is for this reason that it has been suggested that in order to understand American individualist anarchism one must take into account "the social context of their ideas, namely the transformation of America from a pre-capitalist to a capitalist society, [...] the non-capitalist nature of the early U.S. can be seen from the early dominance of self-employment (artisan and peasant production). At the beginning of the 19th century, around 80% of the working (non-slave) male population were self-employed. The great majority of Americans during this time were farmers working their own land, primarily for their own needs" and so "individualist anarchism is clearly a form of [[artisan]]al [[socialism]] [...] while [[communist anarchism]] and [[anarcho-syndicalism]] are forms of industrial (or [[proletarian]]) socialism".<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1#secg14 "G.1.4 Why is the social context important in evaluating Individualist Anarchism?"] ''An Anarchist FAQ'' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315000327/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1|date=2013-03-15}}</ref>

Historian [[Wendy McElroy]] reports that American individualist anarchism received an important influence of three European thinkers. According to McElroy, "[o]ne of the most important of these influences was the French political philosopher [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], whose words "Liberty is not the Daughter But the Mother of Order" appeared as a motto on ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]''{{'s}} masthead",<ref name="mises">[[Wendy McElroy]]. [https://mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf "The culture of individualist anarchist in Late-nineteenth century America"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911065010/http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/5_3/5_3_4.pdf |date=September 11, 2013 }}.</ref> an influential individualist anarchist publication of [[Benjamin Tucker]]. McElroy further stated that "[a]nother major foreign influence was the German philosopher [[Max Stirner]]. The third foreign thinker with great impact was the British philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]]".<ref name="mises"/> Other influences to consider include [[William Godwin]]'s anarchism which "exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of [[Robert Owen]] and [[Charles Fourier]].<ref>Peter Sabatini. [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Peter_Sabatini__Libertarianism__Bogus_Anarchy.html "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503100657/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Peter_Sabatini__Libertarianism__Bogus_Anarchy.html |date=May 3, 2012 }}.</ref> After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at [[New Harmony, Indiana]] during 1825. One member of this commune was [[Josiah Warren]], considered to be the first individualist anarchist.<ref name=Slate>Palmer, Brian (2010-12-29) [http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ What do anarchists want from us?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110901161604/http://www.slate.com/id/2279457/ |date=September 1, 2011 }}, ''[[Slate.com]]''</ref> ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', the four-page weekly paper Warren edited during 1833, was the first anarchist periodical published,<ref name="bailie20">{{cite book |first=William |last=Bailie |url=http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf |title=Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist |access-date=2013-06-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204155505/http://libertarian-labyrinth.org/warren/1stAmAnarch.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-04 |location=Boston |publisher=Small, Maynard & Co. |year=1906 |page=20}}</ref> an enterprise for which he built his own printing press, cast his own type and made his own printing plates.<ref name="bailie20" /> After New Harmony failed, Warren shifted his ideological loyalties from socialism to anarchism which anarchist Peter Sabatini described as "no great leap, given that Owen's socialism had been predicated on Godwin's anarchism".

The emergence and growth of anarchism in the United States in the 1820s and 1830s has a close parallel in the simultaneous emergence and growth of [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionism]] as no one needed anarchy more than a slave. Warren termed the phrase "[[cost the limit of price]]", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.<ref>"A watch has a ''cost'' and a ''value''. The COST consists of the amount of labor bestowed on the mineral or natural wealth, in converting it into metals." Warren, Josiah. ''Equitable Commerce''</ref> Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce".<ref name=Slate /> He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the [[Cincinnati Time Store]], where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. These included [[Utopia, Ohio|Utopia]] and [[Utopian Community of Modern Times|Modern Times]]. Warren said that [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]' ''The Science of Society'', published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.<ref>Charles A. Madison. "Anarchism in the United States". ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 6, No. 1. (Jan., 1945), p. 53</ref> Catalan historian Xavier Diez report that the [[Intentional community|intentional communal]] experiments pioneered by Warren were influential in [[European individualist anarchism|European individualist anarchists]] of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as [[Émile Armand]] and the intentional communities started by them.<ref name="tesisenxarxa.net">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721040723/http://www.tesisenxarxa.net/TESIS_UdG/AVAILABLE/TDX...//txdr1de2.pdf Xavier Diez. ''L'Anarquisme Individualista a Espanya 1923–1938''] p. 42</ref>

[[File:Wbg-masonicportrait.png|thumb|left|200px|[[William Batchelder Greene]]]] [[Henry David Thoreau]] was an important early influence in individualist anarchist thought in the United States and Europe. Thoreau was an American author, poet, naturalist, tax resister, [[Development criticism|development critic]], surveyor, historian, philosopher and leading transcendentalist. ''[[Civil Disobedience (Thoreau)|Civil Disobedience]]'' is an essay by Thoreau that was first published in 1849. It argues that people should not permit governments to overrule or atrophy their consciences, and that people have a duty to avoid allowing such [[acquiescence]] to enable the government to make them the agents of injustice. Thoreau was motivated in part by his disgust with [[slavery]] and the [[Mexican–American War]]. It would influence [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Martin Buber]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]] through its advocacy of [[nonviolent resistance]].<ref name="ppu.org.uk">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |title=Resisting the Nation State – the pacifist and anarchist tradition |author= Geoffrey Ostergaard |access-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514052437/http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad8.html#anarch%20and%20violence |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is also the main precedent for [[anarcho-pacifism]].<ref name="ppu.org.uk" /> Anarchism started to have an [[green anarchism|ecological view]] mainly in the writings of American individualist anarchist and transcendentalist Thoreau. In his book ''[[Walden]]'', he advocates [[simple living]] and [[self-sufficiency]] among natural surroundings in resistance to the advancement of industrial civilization:<ref name="Thoreau">"Su obra más representativa es Walden, aparecida en 1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía de los individuos con el entorno natural. Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por Jonh Zerzan. Para George Woodcock (8), esta actitud puede estar también motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX."[http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html "LA INSUMISIÓN VOLUNTARIA. EL ANARQUISMO INDIVIDUALISTA ESPAÑOL DURANTE LA DICTADURA Y LA SEGUNDA REPÚBLICA (1923–1938)" by Xavier Diez] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060526224800/http://www.acracia.org/xdiez.html |date=May 26, 2006 }}</ref> "Many have seen in Thoreau one of the precursors of ecologism and [[anarcho-primitivism]] represented today in [[John Zerzan]]. For [[George Woodcock]], this attitude can be also motivated by certain idea of resistance to progress and of rejection of the growing materialism which is the nature of American society in the mid-19th century".<ref name="Thoreau"/> Zerzan himself included the text "Excursions" (1863) by Thoreau in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings called ''[[Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections]]'' from 1999.<ref name="Ref_d">{{Cite web |url=https://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989 |title=''Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections'' by John Zerzan (editor) |access-date=March 28, 2018 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807043841/https://www.amazon.fr/dp/toc/0922915989 |url-status=live }}</ref> Walden made Thoreau influential in the [[European individualist anarchist]] green current of [[anarcho-naturism]].<ref name="Thoreau"/>

[[File:StephenPearlAndrews.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Stephen Pearl Andrews]]]] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "[i]t is apparent [...] that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. [...] [[William Batchelder Greene|William B. Greene]] presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".<ref name="againstallauthority.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213201445/http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html|url-status=dead|title=Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism |author= Eunice Minette Schuster|archive-date=February 13, 2016}}</ref> William Batchelder Greene was a 19th-century [[Mutualism (movement)|mutualist]], [[individualist anarchist]], [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] minister, soldier and promoter of [[free banking]] in the United States. Greene is best known for the works ''Mutual Banking'' (1850) which proposed an [[interest-free banking]] system and ''Transcendentalism'', a critique of the New England philosophical school.

After 1850, Greene became active in labor reform<ref name="againstallauthority.org"/> and was "elected vice president of the New England Labor Reform League, the majority of the members holding to Proudhon's scheme of mutual banking, and in 1869 president of the Massachusetts Labor Union".<ref name="againstallauthority.org"/> He then published ''Socialistic, Mutualistic, and Financial Fragments'' (1875).<ref name="againstallauthority.org" /> He saw mutualism as the synthesis of "liberty and order".<ref name="againstallauthority.org"/> His "associationism [...] is checked by individualism. [...] 'Mind your own business,' 'Judge not that ye be not judged.' Over matters which are purely personal, as for example, moral conduct, the individual is sovereign, as well as over that which he himself produces. For this reason he demands 'mutuality' in marriage—the equal right of a woman to her own personal freedom and property".<ref name="againstallauthority.org" />

[[Stephen Pearl Andrews]] was an individualist anarchist and close associate of Josiah Warren. Andrews was formerly associated with the [[Fourierism|Fourierist]] movement, but converted to radical individualism after becoming acquainted with the work of Warren. Like Warren, he held the principle of "individual sovereignty" as being of paramount importance. Contemporary American anarchist [[Hakim Bey]] reports that "Steven Pearl Andrews [...] was not a fourierist, but he lived through the brief craze for [[Phalansterium|phalansteries]] in America and adopted a lot of fourierist principles and practices [...], a maker of worlds out of words. He syncretized abolitionism, [[Free love|Free Love]], spiritual universalism, Warren, and Fourier into a grand [[utopia]]n scheme he called the Universal Pantarchy. [...] He was instrumental in founding several 'intentional communities,' including the 'Brownstone Utopia' on 14th Street in [[New York City|New York]] and 'Modern Times' in [[Brentwood, New York|Brentwood]], Long Island. The latter became as famous as the best-known fourierist communes (Brook Farm in Massachusetts and the North American Phalanx in New Jersey)—in fact, Modern Times became downright notorious for "Free Love" and finally foundered under a wave of scandalous publicity. Andrews (and [[Victoria Woodhull]]) were members of the infamous Section 12 of the [[1st International]], expelled by [[Karl Marx|Marx]] for its anarchist, feminist, and [[Spiritualism (philosophy)|spiritualist]] tendencies".<ref>[http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__The_Lemonade_Ocean___Modern_Times.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304004101/http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Hakim_Bey__The_Lemonade_Ocean___Modern_Times.html|date=March 4, 2012}} [[Hakim Bey]]</ref>

=== 19th-century individualist anarchism === {{main|Individualist anarchism in the United States}} {{see also|Free love in the United States|Freethought in the United States|Liberty (1881–1908)}} [[File:Lucifer, The Light-Bearer.jpg|250px|thumb|left|''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'', an influential American [[free love]] journal]]An important current within American individualist anarchism was free love.<ref name="economicism">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |title=The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism By Wendy McElroy |access-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614215038/http://www.ncc-1776.org/tle1996/le961210.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Free love advocates sometimes traced their roots back to Josiah Warren and to experimental communities, and viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of an individual's self-ownership. Free love particularly stressed [[women's rights]] since most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.<ref name="economicism" /> The most important American free love journal was ''[[Lucifer the Lightbearer]]'' (1883–1907) edited by [[Moses Harman]] and [[Lois Waisbrooker]]<ref name="Ref_e">{{cite book|first=Joanne E.|last=Passet|chapter=Power through Print: Lois Waisbrooker and Grassroots Feminism|title=Women in Print: Essays on the Print Culture of American Women from the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries|url=https://archive.org/details/womeninprintessa0000unse|url-access=registration|editor-first1=James Philip|editor-last1=Danky|editor-first2=Wayne A.|editor-last2=Wiegand|location=Madison|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]|year=2006|pp=229–250|isbn=9780299217839}}</ref> but also there existed [[Ezra Heywood]] and [[Angela Heywood]]'s ''[[The Word (US magazine)|The Word]]'' (1872–1890, 1892–1893).<ref name="economicism" /> [[M. E. Lazarus]] was an important American individualist anarchist who promoted free love.<ref name="economicism" />

[[Hutchins Hapgood]] was an American journalist, author, individualist anarchist and [[Philosophical anarchism|philosophical anarchist]] who was well known within the [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] environment of around the start of 20th-century New York City. He advocated free love and committed adultery frequently. Hapgood was a follower of the German philosophers [[Max Stirner]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].<ref name="Ref_f">Biographical Essay by Dowling, Robert M. American Writers, Supplement XVII. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2008</ref>

The mission of ''Lucifer the Lightbearer'' was, according to Harman, "to help woman to break the chains that for ages have bound her to the rack of man-made law, spiritual, economic, industrial, social and especially sexual, believing that until woman is roused to a sense of her own responsibility on all lines of human endeavor, and especially on lines of her special field, that of reproduction of the race, there will be little if any real advancement toward a higher and truer civilization." The name was chosen because "[[Lucifer]], the ancient name of the Morning Star, now called [[Venus]], seems to us unsurpassed as a cognomen for a journal whose mission is to bring light to the dwellers in darkness." In February 1887, the editors and publishers of ''Lucifer'' were arrested after the journal ran afoul of the [[Comstock laws|Comstock Act]] for the publication of three letters, one in particular condemning forced sex within marriage, which the author identified as [[rape]]. In the letter, the author described the plight of a woman who had been raped by her husband, tearing stitches from a recent operation after a difficult childbirth and causing severe hemorrhaging. The letter lamented the woman's lack of legal recourse. The Comstock Act specifically prohibited the public, printed discussion of any topics that were considered "obscene, lewd, or lascivious," and discussing rape, although a criminal matter, was deemed obscene. A [[Topeka]] [[district attorney]] eventually handed down 216 indictments. Moses Harman spent two years in jail. Ezra Heywood, who had already been prosecuted under the Comstock Law for a pamphlet attacking marriage, reprinted the letter in solidarity with Harman and was also arrested and sentenced to two years in prison. In February 1890, Harman, now the sole producer of ''Lucifer'', was again arrested on charges resulting from a similar article written by a New York physician. As a result of the original charges, Harman would spend large portions of the next six years in prison. In 1896, ''Lucifer'' was moved to Chicago; however, legal harassment continued. The [[United States Postal Service]] seized and destroyed numerous issues of the journal and, in May 1905, Harman was again arrested and convicted for the distribution of two articles, namely "The Fatherhood Question" and "More Thoughts on Sexology" by Sara Crist Campbell. Sentenced to a year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]], the 75-year-old editor's health deteriorated greatly. After 24 years in production, ''Lucifer'' ceased publication in 1907 and became the more scholarly ''American Journal of Eugenics''.

[[File:Voltairine de Cleyre (Age 35).jpg|thumb|200px|[[Voltairine de Cleyre]], early American [[anarcha-feminist]] and [[freethought]] activist and writer]] Heywood's philosophy was instrumental in furthering individualist anarchist ideas through his extensive pamphleteering and reprinting of works of Josiah Warren, author of ''True Civilization'' (1869), and William B. Greene. At a 1872 convention of the New England Labor Reform League in Boston, Heywood introduced Greene and Warren to eventual ''Liberty'' publisher Benjamin Tucker. Heywood saw what he believed to be a disproportionate concentration of capital in the hands of a few as the result of a selective extension of government-backed privileges to certain individuals and organizations. ''The Word'' was an individualist anarchist free love magazine edited by Ezra Heywood and Angela Heywood, issued first from [[Princeton, Massachusetts]]; and then from [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].<ref name="economicism" /> ''The Word'' was subtitled "A Monthly Journal of Reform", and it included contributions from Josiah Warren, Benjamin Tucker, and [[Joshua K. Ingalls|J.K. Ingalls]]. Initially, ''The Word'' presented free love as a minor theme which was expressed within a labor reform format. But the publication later evolved into an explicitly free love periodical.<ref name="economicism" /> At some point Tucker became an important contributor but later became dissatisfied with the journal's focus on free love since he desired a concentration on economics. In contrast, Tucker's relationship with Heywood grew more distant. Yet, when Heywood was imprisoned for his pro-birth control stand from August to December 1878 under the Comstock laws, Tucker abandoned the ''Radical Review'' in order to assume editorship of Heywood's ''The Word''. After Heywood's release from prison, ''The Word'' openly became a free love journal; it flouted the law by printing birth control material and openly discussing sexual matters. Tucker's disapproval of this policy stemmed from his conviction that "Liberty, to be effective, must find its first application in the realm of economics".<ref name="economicism" />

M.E. Lazarus was an American individualist anarchist from [[Guntersville, Alabama]]. He is the author of several essays and anarchist pamphlettes including ''Land Tenure: Anarchist View'' (1889). A famous quote from Lazarus is "Every vote for a governing office is an instrument for enslaving me." Lazarus was also an intellectual contributor to Fourierism and the Free Love movement of the 1850s, a social reform group that called for, in its extreme form, the abolition of institutionalized marriage.

[[Freethought]] as a philosophical position and as activism was important in North American individualist anarchism. In the United States "freethought was a basically anti-Christian, [[anti-clerical]] movement, whose purpose was to make the individual politically and spiritually free to decide for himself on religious matters. A number of contributors to ''Liberty'' were prominent figures in both freethought and anarchism. The individualist anarchist George MacDonald was a co-editor of ''Freethought'' and, for a time, ''The Truth Seeker''. E.C. Walker was co-editor of the free-thought/free love journal ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer''".<ref name="mises" /> "Many of the anarchists were ardent freethinkers; reprints from freethought papers such as ''Lucifer, the Light-Bearer'', ''Freethought'' and ''The Truth Seeker'' appeared in ''Liberty''...The church was viewed as a common ally of the state and as a repressive force in and of itself".<ref name="mises" />

[[Voltairine de Cleyre]] was an American anarchist writer and [[anarcha-feminism|feminist]]. She was a prolific writer and speaker, opposing the state, marriage, and the domination of religion in sexuality and women's lives. She began her activist career in the freethought movement. De Cleyre was initially drawn to individualist anarchism but evolved through mutualism to an "[[anarchism without adjectives]]." She believed that any system was acceptable as long as it did not involve force. However, according to anarchist author Iain McKay, she embraced the ideals of [[stateless communism]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/Voltairine-De-Cleyre |title=Voltairine De Cleyre: Her revolutionary ideas and legacy |first=Iain |last=McKay |journal=Anarcho-Syndicalist Review |issue=44 |date=Summer 2006 |access-date=2008-12-14 |archive-date=December 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201131417/http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/Voltairine-De-Cleyre |url-status=live }}</ref> In her 1895 lecture entitled ''Sex Slavery,'' de Cleyre condemns ideals of beauty that encourage women to distort their bodies and child socialization practices that create unnatural [[gender role]]s. The title of the essay refers not to traffic in women for purposes of [[prostitution]], although that is also mentioned, but rather to marriage laws that allow men to rape their wives without consequences. Such laws make "every married woman what she is, a bonded slave, who takes her master's name, her master's bread, her master's commands, and serves her master's passions."<ref>{{citation |last=De Cleyre |first=Voltairine |title=Exquisite Rebel: The Essays of Voltairine De Cleyre – Anarchist, Feminist, Genius |page=228 |year=2005 |editor=Sharon, Presley |url=https://archive.org/details/exquisiterebeles0000decl |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-6094-8 |author-link=Voltairine de Cleyre |editor2=Sartwell, Crispin |editor-link=Sharon Presley |editor2-link=Crispin Sartwell |url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Lysander Spooner]]]] Individualist anarchism found in the United States an important space of discussion and development within what is known as the Boston anarchists.<ref name=levy>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Levy |first=Carl |url=http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770_1/Anarchism.html |title=Anarchism |encyclopedia=Microsoft [[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509025427/http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770_1/Anarchism.html |archive-date=2008-05-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Even among the 19th-century American individualists, there was not a monolithic doctrine, as they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including [[intellectual property]] rights and [[Possession (law)|possession]] versus [[property]] in land.<ref>Spooner, Lysander. [http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm ''The Law of Intellectual Property''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524005404/http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm |date=May 24, 2014 }}.</ref><ref name=watner>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]] (1977). {{cite web |url=https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf |title=Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty |date=July 30, 2014 |access-date=December 31, 2015 |archive-date=September 11, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911052214/http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf |url-status=live }}&nbsp;{{small|(868&nbsp;KB)}}. ''[[Journal of Libertarian Studies]]'', Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 308.</ref><ref>[[Carl Watner|Watner, Carl]]. "{{cite web |url=https://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_03.pdf |title=Spooner Vs. Liberty |date=August 18, 2014 |access-date=December 31, 2015 |archive-date=September 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905120641/http://mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_03.pdf |url-status=live }}"&nbsp;{{small|(1.20&nbsp;MB)}} in ''The Libertarian Forum''. March 1975. Volume VII, No 3. {{ISSN|0047-4517}}. pp. 5–6.</ref> A major schism occurred later in the 19th century when Tucker and some others abandoned their traditional support of [[natural right]]s as espoused by [[Lysander Spooner]] and converted to an [[egoism]] modeled upon [[Philosophy of Max Stirner|Stirner's philosophy]].<ref name=watner /> Besides his individualist anarchist activism, Spooner was also an important anti-slavery activist and became a member of the [[First International]].{{sfn|Woodcock|1962|p=459}} Some Boston anarchists, including Tucker, identified themselves as socialists which in the 19th century was often used in the sense of a commitment to improving conditions of the working class (i.e. "[[the labor problem]]").<ref>Brooks, Frank H. 1994. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty'' (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.</ref> The Boston anarchists such as Tucker and his followers are considered socialists to this day due to their opposition to usury.<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1#secg14 "G.1.4 Why is the social context important in evaluating Individualist Anarchism?" in ''An Anarchist FAQ'']{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315000327/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionG1#secg14 |date=March 15, 2013 }}</ref><ref>Stanford, Jim, ''Economics for Everyone: A Short Guide to the Economics of Capitalism'' (Ann Arbor, MI: [[Pluto Press]], 2008), p. 36.</ref><ref>McKay, Iain. ''An Anarchist FAQ''. Oakland: CA. 2008. p. 23.</ref>

[[File:Liberty OldPeriodical.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'', an influential [[American individualist anarchism|American individualist anarchist]] journal]] ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'' was a 19th-century [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[market socialist]]<ref>McKay, Iain. ''An Anarchist FAQ.'' AK Press. Oakland. 2008. p. 60.</ref> and [[Libertarian Socialism|libertarian socialist]]<ref>McKay, Iain. ''An Anarchist FAQ.'' AK Press. Oakland. 2008. p. 22</ref> periodical published in the United States by [[Benjamin Tucker]] from August 1881 to April 1908. The periodical was instrumental in developing and formalizing the individualist anarchist philosophy through publishing essays and serving as a format for debate. Contributors included Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, [[Auberon Herbert]], [[Dyer Lum]], Joshua K. Ingalls, [[John Henry Mackay]], [[Victor Yarros]], [[Wordsworth Donisthorpe]], [[James L. Walker]], [[J. William Lloyd]], [[Florence Finch Kelly]], Voltairine de Cleyre, [[Steven T. Byington]], [[John Beverley Robinson (anarchist)|John Beverley Robinson]], [[Jo Labadie]], Lillian Harman, and [[Henry Appleton (anarchist)|Henry Appleton]]. Included in its masthead is a quote from Pierre Proudhon saying that liberty is "Not the Daughter But the Mother of Order."

[[File:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]] Some of the American individualist anarchists later in this era such as Benjamin Tucker abandoned natural rights positions and converted to Max Stirner's [[egoist anarchism]]. Rejecting the idea of moral rights, Tucker said that there were only two rights, "the right of might" and "the right of contract." He also said, after converting to Egoist individualism, "In times past ... it was my habit to talk glibly of the right of man to land. It was a bad habit, and I long ago sloughed it off ... Man's only right to land is his might over it."<ref name="Ref_ac">Tucker, Instead of a Book, p. 350</ref> In adopting Stirnerite egoism (1886), Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of [[libertarianism]]. This rejection galvanized the movement into fierce debates, with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself. So bitter was the conflict that a number of natural rights proponents withdrew from the pages of ''Liberty'' in protest even though they had hitherto been among its frequent contributors. Thereafter, ''Liberty'' championed egoism although its general content did not change significantly."<ref name="Ref_ad">Wendy McElroy. "Benjamin Tucker, Individualism, & Liberty: Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order"</ref>

Several publications "were undoubtedly influenced by ''Liberty''{{'s}} presentation of egoism. They included: ''I'' published by C.L. Swartz, edited by W.E. Gordak and J.William Lloyd (all associates of ''Liberty''); ''The Ego'' and ''The Egoist'', both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German ''[[Der Eigene]]'', edited by [[Adolf Brand]], and ''The Eagle'' and ''The Serpent'', issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English-language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle 'A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology{{'"}}.<ref name="Ref_ad" /> Among those American anarchists who adhered to egoism include Benjamin Tucker, John Beverley Robinson, Steven T. Byington, Hutchins Hapgood, James L. Walker, Victor Yarros and Edward H. Fulton.<ref name="Ref_ad" /> Robinson wrote an essay called "Egoism" in which he states that "Modern egoism, as propounded by Stirner and Nietzsche, and expounded by [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]], [[George Bernard Shaw|Shaw]] and others, is all these; but it is more. It is the realization by the individual that they are an individual; that, as far as they are concerned, they are the only individual."<ref name="robinson">[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Egoism_John_Beverley_Robinson "Egoism"] by [[John Beverley Robinson (anarchist)|John Beverley Robinson]]</ref> Steven T. Byington was a one-time proponent of [[Georgism]] who later converted to egoist Stirnerist positions after associating with Benjamin Tucker. He is known for translating two important anarchist works into English from German: Max Stirner's ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' and [[Paul Eltzbacher]]'s ''[[Anarchism: Exponents of the Anarchist Philosophy]]'' (also published by Dover with the title ''The Great Anarchists: Ideas and Teachings of Seven Major Thinkers''). James L. Walker (sometimes known by the pen name "Tak Kak") was one of the main contributors to Benjamin Tucker's ''Liberty''. He published his major philosophical work called ''Philosophy of Egoism'' in the May 1890 to September 1891 in issues of the publication ''Egoism''.<ref>McElroy, Wendy. ''The Debates of Liberty''. Lexington Books. 2003. p. 55</ref>

=== Early anarcho-communism === [[File:Lucy Parsons.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Lucy Parsons]]]] By the 1880s anarcho-communism was already present in the United States as can be seen in the publication of the journal ''Freedom: A Revolutionary Anarchist-Communist Monthly'' by [[Lucy Parsons]] and Lizzy Holmes.<ref name="lucyparsons.org">[http://lucyparsons.org/biography-iww.php "Lucy Parsons: Woman Of Will"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228235117/http://lucyparsons.org/biography-iww.php |date=February 28, 2020 }} at the [[Lucy Parsons Center]]</ref> Lucy Parsons debated in her time in the US with fellow anarcha-communist [[Emma Goldman]] over issues of [[Anarchism and issues related to love and sex|free love]] and feminism.<ref name="lucyparsons.org" /> Included in their debates over questions of gender, patriarchy, and free love were questions of homosexuality. Part of Goldman's specific brand of anarchism was a belief that the state should be removed from interpersonal and sexual relationships. Freedom from state sexual control included, in Goldman's view, the freedom to choose a sexual or romantic partner regardless of their gender. It was free-love anarchists like Goldman who, during this period, introduced the beginnings of a homosexual rights movement to the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kissack |first=Terence |title=Free comrades : anarchism and homosexuality in the United States, 1895–1917 |date=2008 |publisher=[[AK Press]] |isbn=978-1-904859-11-6 |oclc=915188001}}</ref> Anarchists on this issue, however, were not united and many disagreed with Goldman's inclusion of homosexuality and [[free love]] in an anarchist belief system.

Described by the [[Chicago Police Department]] as "more dangerous than a thousand rioters" in the 1920s, Parsons and her husband had become highly effective [[anarchist]] organizers primarily involved in the [[labor movement]] in the late 19th century, but also participating in revolutionary [[activism]] on behalf of [[political prisoner]]s, people of color, the homeless and women. She began writing for ''The Socialist'' and ''The Alarm'', the journal of the [[International Working People's Association]] (IWPA) that she and Parsons, among others, founded in 1883. In 1886 her husband, who had been heavily involved in campaigning for the [[eight-hour day]], was arrested, tried and executed on November 11, 1887, by the state of Illinois on charges that he had conspired in the [[Haymarket Affair|Haymarket Riot]], an event which was widely regarded as a political [[frame-up]] and which marked the beginning of [[May Day]] labor rallies in protest.<ref>{{cite book |last=Trachtenberg |first=Alexander |title=The History of May Day |orig-date=1932 |url=http://www.marxists.org/subject/mayday/articles/tracht.html |access-date=2008-01-19 |date=March 2002 |publisher=[[Marxists Internet Archive|Marxists.org]] |archive-date=July 15, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715071802/https://www.marxists.org/subject/mayday/articles/tracht.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |first=Philip S. |author-link=Philip Foner |title=May Day: A Short History of the International Workers' Holiday, 1886–1986 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone |chapter-url-access=registration |year=1986 |publisher=International Publishers |location=New York |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone/page/27 27–39] |chapter= The First May Day and the Haymarket Affair}}</ref>

Another anarcho-communist journal called ''[[Free Society|The Firebrand]]'' later appeared in the United States. Most anarchist publications in the United States were in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], German, or Russian, but ''Free Society'' was published in English, permitting the dissemination of anarchist communist thought to English-speaking populations in the United States.<ref name="Goldman-MSF-551">"''Free Society'' was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century." ''Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909'', p. 551.</ref> Around that time these American anarcho-communist sectors entered in debate with the individualist anarchist group around Benjamin Tucker.<ref>"Tucker and other individualist anarchists argued in the pages of ''Liberty'' that anarchist communism was a misnomer because communism implied state authority and true anarchists were against all forms of authority, even the authority of small groups. To individualist anarchists, communistic anarchism, with its ideals of "to each according to need, from each according to ability," necessarily implied authority over others, because it did not privilege individual liberty as the highest virtue. But for anarchist communist, who saw economic freedom as central, individual liberty without food and shelter seemed impossible. Unlike the individualist tradition, whose ideas had had years of exposure through the English language anarchist press in America with the publication of ''[[The Word (US magazine)|The Word]]'' from 1872 to 1893 and [[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty from 1881 to 1908]], communistic anarchism had not been advocated in any detail."[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/jessica-moran-the-firebrand-and-the-forging-of-a-new-anarchism-anarchist-communism-and-free-lov#toc2 "The Firebrand and the Forging of a New Anarchism: Anarchist Communism and Free Love" by Jessica Moran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416131634/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/jessica-moran-the-firebrand-and-the-forging-of-a-new-anarchism-anarchist-communism-and-free-lov#toc2 |date=April 16, 2021 }}</ref> Encouraged by news of labor struggles and industrial disputes in the United States, the German anarchist [[Johann Most]] emigrated to the US upon his release from prison in 1882. He promptly began agitating in his adopted land among other German émigrés. Among his associates was [[August Spies]], one of the anarchists hanged for conspiracy in the Haymarket Square bombing, whose desk police found to contain an 1884 letter from Most promising a shipment of "medicine," his code word for dynamite.<ref>{{cite book |last=Messer-Kruse |first=Timothy |title=The Trial of the Haymarket Anarchists |year=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York |isbn=978-0-230-12077-8 |page=96}}</ref> Most was famous for stating the concept of the [[propaganda of the deed]], namely that "[t]he existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion."<ref>[http://www.wendymcelroy.com/articles/violence.html Wendy McElroy, "Liberty on Violence"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100225154853/http://www.wendymcelroy.com/articles/violence.html |date=February 25, 2010 }}.</ref> Most is best known for a pamphlet published in 1885: ''[[The Science of Revolutionary Warfare]],'' a how-to manual on the subject of bomb-making which earned the author the moniker "Dynamost". He acquired his knowledge of explosives while working at an explosives plant in New Jersey.<ref>{{cite book |last=Most|first=Johann|date=1978 |title=The Science of Revolutionary Warfare|publisher=Desert Publications|page=v|isbn=0-87947-211-1|author-link=Johann Most}}</ref> Most was described as "the most vilified social radical" of his time, a man whose profuse advocacy of social unrest and fascination with dramatic destruction eventually led [[Emma Goldman]] to denounce him as a recognized authoritarian.<ref name="Anarchism and Cinema">{{cite book|last=Porton|first=Richard|chapter=Anarchism and Cinema|date=2020-10-26|title=Film and the Anarchist Imagination|pages=9–59|publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]|doi=10.5406/j.ctv186grzg.5|isbn=978-0-252-05221-7|s2cid=241027230}}</ref>

[[File:Johannmost.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johann Most]]]] A gifted orator, Most propagated these ideas throughout Marxist and anarchist circles in the United States and attracted many adherents, most notably Emma Goldman and [[Alexander Berkman]]. In February 1888 Berkman left for the United States from his native Russia.<ref name=Avrich202>Avrich, ''[[Anarchist Portraits]]'', p. 202.</ref> Soon after his arrival in New York City, Berkman became an [[Anarchism|anarchist]] through his involvement with groups that had formed to campaign to free the men convicted of the [[Haymarket affair|1886 Haymarket bombing.]]<ref name=Pateman3>Pateman, p. iii.</ref> He, as well as Goldman, soon came under the influence of Johann Most, the best-known anarchist in the United States, and an advocate of propaganda of the deed—''attentat'', or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt.<ref name=Walter7>Walter, p. vii.</ref><ref>Newell, p. vi.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gage |first=Beverly |author-link=Beverly Gage |url=https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage |title=The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-975928-6 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage/page/48 48] |url-access=registration}}</ref> Berkman became a typesetter for Most's newspaper ''[[Freiheit (1879)|Freiheit]]''.<ref name=Pateman3 />

Inspired by Most's theories of Attentat, Goldman and Berkman, enraged by the deaths of workers during the [[Homestead strike]], put words into action with Berkman's attempted assassination of Homestead factory manager [[Henry Clay Frick]] in 1892. Berkman and Goldman were soon disillusioned as Most became one of Berkman's most outspoken critics. In ''Freiheit'', Most attacked both Goldman and Berkman, implying Berkman's act was designed to arouse sympathy for Frick.<ref name="goldman">{{cite book|last=Goldman|first=Emma|author-link=Emma Goldman|title=Living My Life|year=1970|edition=reprint|page=[https://archive.org/details/livingmylife02gold/page/105 105]|isbn=0-486-22543-7|title-link=Living My Life |publisher=Courier Corporation }}</ref> Goldman's biographer Alice Wexler suggests that Most's criticisms may have been inspired by jealousy of Berkman.<ref>Alice Wexler, ''Emma Goldman: An Intimate Life'' (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984) {{ISBN|978-0-394-52975-2}}</ref> Goldman was enraged and demanded that Most prove his insinuations. When he refused to respond, she confronted him at next lecture.<ref name="goldman" /> After he refused to speak to her, she lashed him across the face with a horsewhip, broke the whip over her knee, then threw the pieces at him.<ref name="goldman" /> She later regretted her assault, confiding to a friend, "At the age of twenty-three, one does not reason."

[[File:Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman.jpg|thumb|[[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] (circa 1917–1919)]] Emma Goldman was an anarchist known for her political activism, writing, and speeches. She played a pivotal role in the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America and Europe in the first half of the 20th century. Born in [[Kovno]] in the [[Russian Empire]] (present-day [[Kaunas, Lithuania]]), Goldman emigrated to the U.S. in 1885 and lived in New York City, where she joined the burgeoning anarchist movement in 1889.<ref name=UIC>University of Illinois at Chicago [http://www.uic.edu/depts/lib/specialcoll/services/rjd/findingaids/EGoldmanb.html Biography of Emma Goldman] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130911140147/http://www.uic.edu/depts/lib/specialcoll/services/rjd/findingaids/EGoldmanb.html |date=2013-09-11 }}. UIC Library Emma Goldman Collection. Retrieved on December 13, 2008.</ref> Attracted to anarchism after the Haymarket affair, Goldman became a writer and a renowned lecturer on anarchist philosophy, women's rights, and social issues, attracting crowds of thousands.<ref name = UIC /> She and anarchist writer Alexander Berkman, her lover and lifelong friend, planned to assassinate industrialist and financier Henry Clay Frick as an act of propaganda of the deed. Although Frick survived the attempt on his life, Berkman was sentenced to twenty-two years in prison. Goldman was imprisoned several times in the years that followed, for "inciting to riot" and illegally distributing information about [[birth control]]. In 1906, Goldman founded the anarchist journal ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]''. In 1917, Goldman and Berkman were sentenced to two years in jail for conspiring to "induce persons not to register" for the newly instated [[Conscription in the United States|draft]]. After their release from prison, they were arrested—along with hundreds of others—and deported to [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russia]]. Initially supportive of that country's [[Bolshevik]] revolution, Goldman quickly voiced her opposition to the Soviet use of violence and the repression of independent voices. In 1923, she wrote a book about her experiences, ''[[My Disillusionment in Russia]]''. While living in England, Canada, and France, she wrote an autobiography called ''[[Living My Life]]''. After the outbreak of the [[Spanish Civil War]], she traveled to Spain to support the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|anarchist revolution]] there. She died in [[Toronto]] on May 14, 1940, aged 70. During her life, Goldman was lionized as a [[free-thinking]] "rebel woman" by admirers and denounced by critics as an advocate of politically motivated murder and violent revolution.<ref name="Voices">{{cite book |last=Streitmatter|first=Rodger|title=Voices of Revolution: The Dissident Press in America|url=https://archive.org/details/voicesofrevoluti0000stre|url-access=registration|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year =2001|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/voicesofrevoluti0000stre/page/122 122–134]|isbn=0-231-12249-7}}</ref>

Her writing and lectures spanned a wide variety of issues, including prisons, [[atheism]], [[freedom of speech]], [[militarism]], [[capitalism]], marriage, free love, and [[homosexuality]]. Although she distanced herself from [[first-wave feminism]] and its efforts toward [[women's suffrage]], she developed new ways of incorporating gender politics into anarchism. After decades of obscurity, Goldman's iconic status was revived in the 1970s, when feminist and anarchist scholars rekindled popular interest in her life.

=== Anarchism and the labor movement === {{main|Anarcho-syndicalism|Industrial Workers of the World}} [[File:ChicagoAnarchists.jpg|thumb|left|A sympathetic engraving by [[Walter Crane]] of the executed anarchists of Chicago after the [[Haymarket affair]], the genesis of [[International Workers' Day|international May Day]]]] The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and spontaneous organization of labor."<ref>Resolutions from the St. Imier Congress, in ''Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas'', Vol. 1, p. 100 [http://www.blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923023949/http://blackrosebooks.net/anarism1.htm|date=September 23, 2010}}</ref>

After embracing anarchism [[Albert Parsons]], husband of Lucy Parsons, turned his activity to the growing movement to establish the 8-hour day. In January 1880, the Eight-Hour League of Chicago sent Parsons to a national conference in Washington, D.C., a gathering which launched a national lobbying movement aimed at coordinating efforts of labor organizations to win and enforce the 8-hour workday.<ref>Parsons, ''Life of Albert R. Parsons,'' pp. 18–19.</ref> In the fall of 1884, Parsons launched a weekly [[anarchism|anarchist]] newspaper in Chicago, ''[[The Alarm (newspaper)|The Alarm]].''<ref>''The Alarm'' is available on microfilm in two different filmings, with one master negative held by the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]], and the other by the [[Wisconsin Historical Society]] in [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]].</ref> The first issue was dated October 4, 1884, and was produced in a press run of 15,000 copies.<ref>''The Alarm,'' October 11, 1884, p. 1, col. 1.</ref> The publication was a 4-page [[broadsheet]] with a cover price of 5 cents. ''The Alarm'' listed the IWPA as its publisher and touted itself as "A Socialistic Weekly" on its page 2 [[Masthead (American publishing)|masthead]].<ref>See, for example, Masthead, ''The Alarm,'' vol. 1, no. 5 (November 1, 1884), p. 2, col. 1.</ref>

On May 1, 1886, Parsons, with his wife Lucy and their two children, led 80,000 people down Michigan Avenue, in what is regarded as the first-ever May Day Parade, in support of the eight-hour workday. Over the next few days 340,000 laborers joined the strike. Parsons, amidst the May Day Strike, found himself called to Cincinnati, where 300,000 workers had struck that Saturday afternoon. On that Sunday he addressed the rally in Cincinnati of the news from the "storm center" of the strike and participated in a second huge parade, led by 200 members of The Cincinnati Rifle Union, with certainty that victory was at hand. In 1886, the [[Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions]] (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada unanimously set 1 May 1886, as the date by which the eight-hour work day would become standard.<ref name="foner" /> In response, unions across the United States prepared a [[general strike]] in support of the event.<ref name="foner" /> On 3 May, in Chicago, a fight broke out when [[strikebreaker]]s attempted to cross the picket line, and two workers died when police opened fire upon the crowd.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |first=Paul |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=0-691-00600-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/haymarkettragedy00avri/page/190 190] |title-link=The Haymarket Tragedy }}</ref> The next day, 4 May, anarchists staged a rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square.<ref>{{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=[https://archive.org/details/haymarkettragedy00avri/page/193 193] |isbn=0-691-04711-1 |title-link=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> A bomb was thrown by an unknown party near the conclusion of the rally, killing an officer.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Green |first1=James R. |title=[[Death in the Haymarket]] |date=2006 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fi74wSzZhk8C&pg=PA5 5] |language=en |isbn=978-0-375-42237-9 |publisher=Pantheon Books |oclc=61115603 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In the ensuing panic, police opened fire on the crowd and each other.<ref>''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', 27 June 1886, quoted in {{cite book |last=Avrich |title=The Haymarket Tragedy |page=[https://archive.org/details/haymarkettragedy00avri/page/209 209] |isbn=0-691-04711-1 |title-link=The Haymarket Tragedy |year=1984 |publisher=Princeton University Press }}</ref> Seven police officers and at least four workers were killed.<ref name="the bomb">{{cite web |url=http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm |title=Act II: Let Your Tragedy Be Enacted Here |access-date=19 January 2008 |year=2000 |work=The Dramas of Haymarket |publisher=Chicago Historical Society | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080115030929/http://www.chicagohistory.org/dramas/act2/act2.htm| archive-date= 15 January 2008<!--Added by DASHBot-->}}</ref>

Eight anarchists directly and indirectly related to the organisers of the rally were arrested and charged with the murder of the deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident became known as the Haymarket affair and was a setback for the labor movement and the struggle for the eight-hour day. In 1890 a second attempt, this time international in scope, to organise for the eight-hour day was made. The event also had the secondary purpose of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.<ref>{{cite book |last=Foner |title=May Day |url=https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone |url-access=registration |page=[https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone/page/42 42] |isbn=0-7178-0624-3 |year=1986 |publisher=International Publishers Co }}</ref> Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the following year the celebration of [[International Workers' Day]] on May Day had become firmly established as an international worker's holiday.<ref name="foner">{{cite book | last = Foner | first = Philip Sheldon | title = May day: a short history of the international workers' holiday, 1886–1986 | url = https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone | url-access = registration | publisher = International Publishers | location = New York | year = 1986 | isbn = 0-7178-0624-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/maydayshorthisto0000fone/page/56 56]}}</ref> Albert Parsons is best remembered as one of four Chicago radical leaders convicted of conspiracy and hanged following a bomb attack on police remembered as the Haymarket affair. Emma Goldman, the activist and political theorist, was attracted to anarchism after reading about the incident and the executions, which she later described as "the events that had inspired my spiritual birth and growth." She considered the Haymarket martyrs to be "the most decisive influence in my existence".<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldman |first=Emma |author-link=Emma Goldman |title=Living My Life |orig-date=1931 |year=1970 |publisher=Dover Publications |location=New York |isbn=0-486-22543-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/livingmylife02gold/page/7 7–10, 508] |title-link=Living My Life }}</ref> Her associate, Alexander Berkman also described the Haymarket anarchists as "a potent and vital inspiration."<ref name="Avrich434">Avrich, ''[[The Haymarket Tragedy]]'', p. 434.</ref> Others whose commitment to anarchism crystallized as a result of the Haymarket affair included Voltairine de Cleyre and [[Bill Haywood|"Big Bill" Haywood]], a founding member of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]].<ref name="Avrich434" /> Goldman wrote to historian, [[Max Nettlau]], that the Haymarket affair had awakened the social consciousness of "hundreds, perhaps thousands, of people".<ref>Avrich, ''[[The Haymarket Tragedy]]'', pp. 433–434.</ref>

[[File:Joseph-labadie-circa-1880.jpg|thumb|[[Jo Labadie]], American anarchist and labor organizer]] Two individualist anarchists who wrote in Benjamin Tucker's ''Liberty'' were also important labor organizers of the time. Jo Labadie was an American labor organizer, individualist anarchist, social activist, printer, publisher, essayist, and poet. Without the oppression of the state, Labadie believed, humans would choose to harmonize with "the great natural laws ... without robbing [their] fellows through interest, profit, rent and taxes." However, he supported community cooperation, as he supported community control of water utilities, streets, and railroads.<ref name="Martin">Martin, James J. (1970). ''Men Against the State: The Expositors of Individualist Anarchism in America, 1827–1908.'' Colorado Springs: Ralph Myles Publisher.</ref> Although he did not support the militant anarchism of the Haymarket anarchists, he fought for the clemency of the accused because he did not believe they were the perpetrators. In 1888, Labadie organized the Michigan Federation of Labor, became its first president, and forged an alliance with [[Samuel Gompers]].<ref name="Martin" />

Dyer Lum was a 19th-century American individualist anarchist [[labor activism|labor activist]] and poet.<ref name="shuster">{{cite book |last=Schuster |first=Eunice |title=Native American Anarchism |publisher=Breakout Productions |location=City |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-893626-21-8 |page=168 (footnote 22) }}</ref> A leading anarcho-syndicalist and a prominent left-wing intellectual of the 1880s,<ref name="johnpoll">{{cite book |last1=Johnpoll |first1=Bernard |first2=Harvey |last2=Klehr |title=Biographical Dictionary of the American Left |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-313-24200-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict0000unse_o7r7 }}</ref> he is remembered as the lover and mentor of early anarcha-feminist Voltairine de Cleyre.<ref name="Crass">{{cite web|url=http://www.radiovolta.org/articles/decleyre_bio.shtml |title=Voltairine de Cleyre – a biographical sketch |access-date=2007-08-06 |last=Crass |first=Chris |author-link=Chris Crass |publisher=[[Infoshop.org]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630102730/http://www.radiovolta.org/articles/decleyre_bio.shtml |archive-date=2007-06-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Lum was a prolific writer who wrote a number of key anarchist texts, and contributed to publications including ''Mother Earth'', ''Twentieth Century'', ''Liberty'' (Benjamin Tucker's individualist anarchist journal), ''The Alarm'' (the journal of the IWPA) and ''The Open Court'' among others. He developed a "mutualist" theory of unions and as such was active within the [[Knights of Labor]] and later promoted [[Apolitical|anti-political]] strategies in the [[American Federation of Labor]] (AFL).<ref name="carson">Carson, Kevin. Mutualist Political Economy, [http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html Preface] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110415135834/http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html |date=April 15, 2011 }}</ref> Frustration with abolitionism, spiritualism, and labor reform caused Lum to embrace anarchism and radicalize workers,<ref name="carson" /> as he came to believe that revolution would inevitably involve a violent struggle between the working class and the employing class.<ref name="Crass" /> Convinced of the necessity of violence to enact social change he volunteered to fight in the American Civil War, hoping thereby to bring about the end of slavery.<ref name="Crass" /> The ''[[Freie Arbeiter Stimme]]'' was the longest-running anarchist periodical in the Yiddish language, founded initially as an American counterpart to [[Rudolf Rocker]]'s London-based ''[[Arbeter Fraynd]]'' (''Workers' Friend''). Publication began in 1890 and continued under the editorial of [[Saul Yanovsky]] until 1923. Contributors have included [[David Edelstadt]], Emma Goldman, Abba Gordin, Rudolf Rocker, Moishe Shtarkman, and Saul Yanovsky. The paper was also known for publishing poetry by [[Di Yunge]], Yiddish poets of the 1910s and 1920s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1051227/ |title=Free Voice of Labor: The Jewish Anarchists (1980) |website=[[IMDb]] |access-date=June 30, 2018 |archive-date=February 10, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210223638/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1051227/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW) [[Continental Congress of the working class|was founded]] in Chicago in June 1905 at a convention of two hundred socialists, anarchists, and radical trade unionists from all over the United States (mainly the [[Western Federation of Miners]]) who were opposed to the policies of the AFL.

=== Red Scare, propaganda by the deed and World Wars period === {{main|1919 United States anarchist bombings|Ferrer Center and Colony|First Red Scare|Galleanists|Immigration Act of 1903|Immigration Act of 1918}} [[File:Luigi Gallean2.jpg|thumb|right|Italian American anarchist [[Luigi Galleani]], whose followers known as [[Galleanists]] carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts from 1914 to 1932 in what they saw as attacks on "tyrants" and "enemies of the people"]] {{quote box|align=right|width=25em|quote=This was in an age when hundreds, if not thousands, of striking workers died at the hands of policemen and armed guards, and in which almost a hundred were killed each day in industrial accidents. While acts of anarchist terrorism were exceptional, however, they played a vital role in how Americans imagined the new world of industrial capitalism, providing early hints that the rise of [[J. P. Morgan#J.P. Morgan & Company: 1895–1913|Morganization]] would not come without violent resistance from below.|source= —Beverly Gage, 2009.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gage|first=Beverly|title=The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror|location=New York|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2009|isbn=978-0-19-975928-6|page=[https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage/page/43 43]|url=https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage|url-access=registration}}</ref>}} [[Individualist anarchism in Europe#Italy|Italian anti-organizationalist individualist anarchism]] was brought to the United States<ref name="Ref_ag">"It was in times of severe social repression and deadening social quiescence that individualist anarchists came to the foreground of libertarian activity – and then primarily as terrorists. In France, Spain, and the United States, individualistic anarchists committed acts of terrorism that gave anarchism its reputation as a violently sinister conspiracy." [http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418210801/http://libcom.org/library/socanlifean2|date=April 18, 2020}}. [[Murray Bookchin]], "[[Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm]]"</ref> by Italian born individualists such as [[Giuseppe Ciancabilla]] and others who advocated for violent propaganda by the deed there. Anarchist historian [[George Woodcock]] reports the incident in which the important Italian [[social anarchist]] [[Errico Malatesta]] became involved "in a dispute with the individualist anarchists of [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]], who insisted that anarchism implied no organization at all, and that every man must act solely on his impulses. At last, in one noisy debate, the individual impulse of a certain Ciancabilla directed him to shoot Malatesta, who was badly wounded but obstinately refused to name his assailant."{{sfn|Woodcock|1962}} Some anarchists, such as [[Johann Most]], were already advocated publicizing violent acts of retaliation against counterrevolutionaries because "we preach not only action in and for itself, but also action as propaganda."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |title='Action as Propaganda' by Johann Most, 25 July 1885 |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=21 April 2003 |access-date=20 September 2010 |archive-date=May 21, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521211430/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Clarify|date=February 2026|reason=This sentence is grammatically incorrect, and it isn't clear what the meaning is as a result. Were anarchists advocating for acts of retaliation? Publicizing occurrences of retaliation by anarchists? Advocating that such occurrences should be publicized? None of the above? I honestly have no idea. Also, there is likely better language to use than retaliate and counterrevolutionary since both imply a response. I would suggest changing one of them for clarity (but this is a minor concern -- a counterrevolutionary can certainly respond to anarchist activism, and anarchists then retaliate for that response).}}

By the 1880s, people inside and outside the anarchist movement began to use the slogan "[[propaganda of the deed]]" to refer to individual bombings and [[targeted killings]] of members of the [[ruling class]], including [[regicide]]s and [[tyrannicide]]s, at times when such actions might garner sympathy from the population, such as during periods of heightened government repression or labor conflicts where workers were killed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gage |first=Beverly |author-link=Beverly Gage |url=https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage |title=The Day Wall Street Exploded: A Story of America in its First Age of Terror |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0199759286 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/daywallstreetexp0000gage/page/48 48] |url-access=registration}}</ref> From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal '[[Confiscation|expropriations]]'."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm|title=Zabalaza.Net|date=March 12, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090312022528/http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/txt_anok_comm_ap.htm|archive-date=March 12, 2009}}</ref> [[Illegalism]] as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("[[individual reappropriation]]") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be ''exemplary'' invitations to revolt.".<ref>{{cite book|last=Merriman|first=John M.|date=2016|title=The Dynamite Club: How a Bombing in Fin-de-Siècle Paris Ignited the Age of Modern Terror|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w8mtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|page=63|isbn=978-0300217926|access-date=October 21, 2020|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813171136/https://books.google.com/books?id=w8mtCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA63|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="illegalism">{{Cite web|url=http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908072801/http://recollectionbooks.com/siml/library/illegalistsDougImrie.htm|url-status=dead|title=The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed", Fall–Winter, 1994–95|archive-date=September 8, 2015}}</ref>

On September 6, 1901, the American anarchist [[Leon Czolgosz]] assassinated the President of the United States [[William McKinley]]. [[Emma Goldman]] was arrested on suspicion of being involved in the assassination but was released due to insufficient evidence. She later incurred a great deal of negative publicity when she published "The Tragedy at Buffalo". In the article, she compared Czolgosz to [[Marcus Junius Brutus]], the killer of [[Julius Caesar]], and called McKinley the "president of the money kings and trust magnates."<ref>[http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/exhibits/panam/law/images/tragedyatbuff.html "The Tragedy at Buffalo"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927085715/http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/exhibits/panam/law/images/tragedyatbuff.html |date=September 27, 2011 }}</ref> Other anarchists and radicals were unwilling to support Goldman's effort to aid Czolgosz, believing that he had harmed the movement.<ref>{{cite book | last = Goldman | first = Emma | author-link = Emma Goldman | year = 1931 | title = Living My Life | publisher = [[Alfred A. Knopf]] | location = New York |pages=311–319}}</ref>

[[Luigi Galleani]] was an Italian anarchist active in the United States from 1901 to 1919, viewed by historians as an anarcho-communist and an insurrectionary anarchist. He is best known for his enthusiastic advocacy of "propaganda of the deed", i.e. the use of violence to eliminate "tyrants" and "oppressors" and to act as a catalyst to the overthrow of existing government institutions.<ref name="AVR">[[Paul Avrich|Avrich, Paul]], ''[[Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]]'', Princeton: Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|0-691-02604-1}} (1991), pp. 81, 97–99, 135–141, 147, 149–156, 158, 172, 195, 214</ref><ref name="Galleani, Luigi 1914">[[Luigi Galleani|Galleani, Luigi]], ''Faccia a Faccia col Nemico'', Boston, MA: Gruppo Autonomo, (1914)</ref><ref>Wilkinson, Paul, ''Conflict Studies: Terrorism versus Liberal Democracy, the Problems of Response'', London: Institute for the Study of Conflict, Current Affairs Research Services Centre, Issues 67–68 (1976), p. 3</ref> From 1914 to 1932, Galleani's followers in the United States (known as ''Galleanists''), carried out a series of bombings and assassination attempts against institutions and persons they viewed as class enemies.<ref name="AVR" /> After Galleani was deported from the United States to Italy in June 1919, his followers are alleged to have executed the [[Wall Street bombing]] of 1920, which resulted in the deaths of 38 people. Galleani held forth at local anarchist meetings, assailed "timid" socialists, gave fire-breathing speeches, and continued to write essays and polemical treatises. The foremost proponent of "propaganda by the deed" in the United States, Galleani was the founder and editor of the anarchist newsletter ''[[Cronaca Sovversiva]]'' (''Subversive Chronicle''), which he published and mailed from offices in Barre.<ref name="Galleani, Luigi 1914" /> Galleani published the anarchist newsletter for fifteen years until the United States government closed it down under the [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. Galleani attracted numerous radical friends and followers known as "Galleanists", including Frank Abarno, Gabriella Segata Antolini, Pietro Angelo, Luigi Bacchetti, [[Mario Buda]] also known as "Mike Boda", Carmine Carbone, Andrea Ciofalo, Ferrucio Coacci, Emilio Coda, Alfredo Conti, Nestor Dondoglioalso known as "Jean Crones", Roberto Elia, Luigi Falzini, Frank Mandese, Riccardo Orciani, Nicola Recchi, Giuseppe Sberna, Andrea Salsedo, [[Raffaele Schiavina]], Carlo Valdinoci, and, most notably, [[Sacco and Vanzetti|Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti]].<ref name="AVR" />

[[File:sacvan.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Bartolomeo Vanzetti]] (left) and [[Nicola Sacco]] in handcuffs]] Sacco and Vanzetti were suspected anarchists who were convicted of murdering two men during the 1920 [[armed robbery]] of a shoe factory in [[South Braintree, Massachusetts]]. After a controversial trial and a series of appeals, the two Italian immigrants were executed on August 23, 1927.<ref name="NYTimes1927">[[#refNYTimes1927|New York Times, 1927-08-23]]</ref> Since their deaths, critical opinion has overwhelmingly felt that the two men were convicted largely on their anarchist political beliefs and [[wrongful execution|unjustly executed]].<ref name="Montgomery1960">[[#refMontgomery1960|Montgomery 1960 p. v]].</ref><ref name="Young1985">[[#refYoung1985|Young & Kaiser 1985 preface]].</ref> In 1977, Massachusetts Governor [[Michael Dukakis]] issued a proclamation that Sacco and Vanzetti had been unfairly tried and convicted and that "any disgrace should be forever removed from their names." Many famous socialists and intellectuals campaigned for a retrial without success. [[John Dos Passos]] came to Boston to cover the case as a journalist, stayed to author a pamphlet called ''Facing the Chair'',<ref>Watson, 277, 294</ref> and was arrested in a demonstration on August 10, 1927, along with [[Dorothy Parker]].<ref>Watson, 331</ref>

After being arrested while picketing the State House, [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] pleaded her case to the governor in person and then wrote an appeal: "I cry to you with a million voices: answer our doubt ... There is need in Massachusetts of a great man tonight."<ref>Watson, 345</ref> Others who wrote to Fuller or signed petitions included [[Albert Einstein]], [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[H. G. Wells]].<ref>Watson, 294</ref> The president of the [[American Federation of Labor]] cited "the long period of time intervening between the commission of the crime and the final decision of the Court" as well as "the mental and physical anguish which Sacco and Vanzetti must have undergone during the past seven years" in a telegram to the governor.<ref>''The New York Times'': [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0E15FA3C54177A93CBA91783D85F438285F9 "Green Begs Fuller to Extend Clemency to Sacco," August 9, 1927] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314040945/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0E15FA3C54177A93CBA91783D85F438285F9 |date=March 14, 2014 }}, accessed July 24, 2010</ref> In August 1927, the IWW called for a three-day nationwide walkout to protest the pending executions.<ref>Donald J. McClurg, "[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00236566308583916 The Colorado Coal Strike of 1927 – Tactical Leadership of the IWW] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220221022813/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00236566308583916 |date=February 21, 2022 }},"{{closed access}} ''Labor History'', vol. 4, no. 1, Winter 1963, 71</ref> The most notable response came in the [[Walsenburg, Colorado|Walsenburg]] coal district of Colorado, where 1,132 out of 1,167 miners participated, which led directly to the [[Industrial Workers of the World philosophy and tactics#Colorado coal strike (a case study)|Colorado coal strike of 1927]].<ref>Donald J. McClurg, The Colorado Coal Strike of 1927 – Tactical Leadership of the IWW, Labor History, Vol. 4, No. 1, Winter, 1963, p. 72. See also Charles J. Bayard, "The 1927–1928 Colorado Coal Strike," ''Pacific Historical Review'', vol. 32, no. 3, August 1963, 237–238</ref> [[Anarchism in Italy|Italian anarchist]] [[Severino Di Giovanni]], one of the most vocal supporters of Sacco and Vanzetti in Argentina, bombed the American embassy in Buenos Aires a few hours after Sacco and Vanzetti were condemned to death.<ref name="Pigna">[[Felipe Pigna]], ''Los Mitos de la historia argentina'', ed. Planeta, 2006, chapter IV "''Expropriando al Capital''", esp. 105–114</ref> A few days after the executions, Sacco's widow thanked Di Giovanni by letter for his support and added that the director of the tobacco firm ''Combinados'' had offered to produce a cigarette brand named "Sacco & Vanzetti".<ref name="Pigna" /> On November 26, 1927, Di Giovanni and others bombed a Combinados tobacco shop.<ref name="Pigna" />

The [[Modern School (United States)|Modern Schools]], also called Ferrer Schools, were American schools established in the early 20th century that were modeled after the [[Escuela Moderna]] of [[Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia]], the Catalan educator and [[anarchism|anarchist]]. They were an important part of the anarchist, [[Anarchistic free school|free schooling]], socialist, and labor movements in the United States, intended to educate the working-classes from a [[secular]], [[class consciousness|class-conscious]] perspective. The Modern Schools imparted day-time academic classes for children, and night-time continuing-education lectures for adults. The first and most notable of the Modern Schools was founded in New York City in 1911, two years after Guàrdia's execution for [[sedition]] in monarchist Spain on October 18, 1909. Commonly called the Ferrer Center, it was founded by notable anarchists, including [[Leonard Dalton Abbott|Leonard Abbott]], Alexander Berkman, Voltairine de Cleyre, and Emma Goldman, first meeting on [[St. Mark's Place]], in Manhattan's [[Lower East Side, Manhattan|Lower East Side]], but twice moved elsewhere, first within lower Manhattan, then to [[Harlem]]. Besides Berkman and Goldman, the Ferrer Center faculty included the [[Ashcan School]] painters [[Robert Henri]] and [[George Bellows]], and its guest lecturers included writers and political activists such as [[Margaret Sanger]], [[Jack London]], and [[Upton Sinclair]].<ref>{{harvnb|Avrich|2005b|p=212}}: At the Ferrer Center, Berkman was called "The Pope", Goldman was called "The Red Queen".</ref>

Student Magda Schoenwetter recalled that the school used [[Montessori]] methods and equipment, and emphasized academic freedom rather than fixed subjects, such as spelling and arithmetic.{{refn|{{harvnb|Avrich|2005a|p=230}}, "Interview with Magda Schoenwetter": "What everybody is yowling about now—freedom in education—we had then, though I still can't spell or do multiplication."}} ''The Modern School'' magazine originally began as a newsletter for parents, when the school was in New York City, printed with the manual [[printing press]] used in teaching printing as a profession. After moving to the Stelton Colony, New Jersey, the magazine's content expanded to poetry, prose, art, and libertarian education articles; the cover emblem and interior graphics were designed by [[Rockwell Kent]]. Acknowledging the urban danger to their school, the organizers bought 68 acres (275,000&nbsp;m²) in [[Piscataway Township, New Jersey]], and moved there in 1914, becoming the center of the Stelton Colony. Moreover, beyond New York City, the [[Ferrer Colony and Modern School]] was founded ({{circa|1910}}–1915) as a Modern School-based community, that endured some forty years. In 1933, James and [[Nellie Dick]], who earlier had been principals of the Stelton Modern School,{{sfn|Avrich|2005b|p=341}} founded the Modern School in [[Lakewood, New Jersey]],{{sfn|Avrich|2005a|p=195}} which survived the original Modern School, the Ferrer Center, becoming the final surviving such school, lasting until 1958.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.educationrevolution.org/aerogramme11.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929213939/http://www.educationrevolution.org/aerogramme11.html|url-status=dead|title=Aero-Gramme #11: The Alternative Education Resource Organization Newsletter|archive-date=September 29, 2011}}</ref>

[[File:The Modern School in New York City, circa 1911-12.jpg|thumb|left|190px|This photograph of the [[Ferrer Center and Colony|NYC Modern School]] (c. 1911–1912, Principal Will Durant and pupils) was the cover of the first issue of ''The Modern School'' magazine]] [[Ross Winn]] was an American [[anarchist]] writer and publisher from Texas who was mostly active within the Southern United States. Born in [[Dallas, Texas]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/0cfz4n |title="Ross Winn in the Anarchist Universe" by Robert P. Helms |access-date=May 4, 2013 |archive-date=August 5, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805062735/http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/0cfz4n |url-status=live }}</ref> Winn wrote articles for ''[[Free Society|The Firebrand]]'', a short-lived, but renowned weekly out of [[Portland, Oregon]]; ''The Rebel'', an anarchist journal published in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]; and Emma Goldman's ''Mother Earth''.<ref name="digging">Slifer, Shaun and Ally Reeves (Summer 2004). "Ross Winn: Digging Up a Tennessee Anarchist". ''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'', pp. 55–57.</ref> Winn began his first paper, known as ''Co-operative Commonwealth''. He then edited and published ''Coming Era'' for a brief time in 1898 and then ''Winn's Freelance'' in 1899. In 1902, he announced a new paper called ''Winn's Firebrand''. In 1901, Winn met Emma Goldman in [[Chicago]], and found in her a lasting ally. As she wrote in his obituary, Emma "was deeply impressed with his fervor and complete abandonment to the cause, so unlike most American revolutionists, who love their ease and comfort too well to risk them for their ideals."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Goldman |first=Emma |author-link=Emma Goldman |date=September 1912 |title=Obituary for Ross Winn |journal=The Anarchist |issue=27 |url=http://libcom.org/library/obituary-for-ross-winn-1871-1912-emma-goldman |access-date=2007-09-02 |archive-date=February 9, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209011046/http://libcom.org/library/obituary-for-ross-winn-1871-1912-emma-goldman |url-status=live }}</ref> Winn kept up a correspondence with Goldman throughout his life, as he did with other prominent anarchist writers at the time. [[Joseph Labadie]], a prominent writer and organizer in Michigan, was another friend to Winn, and contributed several pieces to ''Winn's Firebrand'' in its later years.<ref name="digging" /> [[Enrico Arrigoni]], pseudonym of Frank Brand, was an Italian American individualist anarchist Lathe operator, house painter, bricklayer, dramatist and political activist influenced by the work of [[Max Stirner]].<ref name="recollectionbooks.com">{{Cite web|url=http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm#EnricoArrigoni|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502052423/http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm#EnricoArrigoni|url-status=dead|title=Enrico Arrigoni at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia|archive-date=May 2, 2015}}</ref>{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}}

In the 1910s, he started becoming involved in anarchist and anti-war activism around Milan.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} From the 1910s until the 1920s he participated in anarchist activities and popular uprisings in various countries including Switzerland, Germany, Hungary, Argentina and Cuba.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} He lived from the 1920s onwards in New York City and there he edited the individualist anarchist eclectic journal ''Eresia'' in 1928. He also wrote for other American anarchist publications such as ''[[L' Adunata dei refrattari]]'', ''Cultura Obrera'', Controcorrente and Intessa Libertaria.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} During the Spanish Civil War, he went to fight with the anarchists but was imprisoned and was helped on his release by Emma Goldman.<ref name="recollectionbooks.com" />{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} Afterwards Arrigoni became a longtime member of the [[Libertarian League|Libertarian Book Club]] in New York City.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} ''Vanguard: A Libertarian Communist Journal'' was a monthly anarchist political and theoretical journal, based in New York City, published between April 1932 and July 1939, and edited by [[Samuel Weiner]], among others. ''Vanguard'' began as a project of the [[Vanguard Group (anarchist)|Vanguard Group]], composed of members of the editorial collective of the ''[[Road to Freedom (journal)|Road to Freedom]]'' newspaper, as well as members of the Friends of Freedom group. Its initial subtitle was "An Anarchist Youth Publication" but changed to "A Libertarian Communist Journal " after Issue 1. Within several issues ''Vanguard'' would become a central sounding board for the international anarchist movement, including reports of developments during the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|Spanish Revolution]] as well as movement reports by [[Augustin Souchy]] and Emma Goldman.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}}

[[File:Ross Winn restored.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Ross Winn]], Texan anarchist mostly active within the [[Southern United States]]]] [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]] and [[J. Edgar Hoover]], head of the [[United States Department of Justice]]'s [[FBI Index#General Intelligence Division|General Intelligence Division]], were intent on using the [[Anarchist Exclusion Act]] of 1918 to deport any non-citizens they could identify as advocates of anarchy or revolution. "Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman," Hoover wrote while they were in prison, "are, beyond doubt, two of the most dangerous anarchists in this country and return to the community will result in undue harm."<ref>Quoted in Drinnon, ''Rebel'', p. 215.</ref> At her deportation hearing on October 27, she refused to answer questions about her beliefs on the grounds that her American citizenship invalidated any attempt to deport her under the Anarchist Exclusion Act, which could be enforced only against non-citizens of the U.S. She presented a written statement instead: "Today so-called aliens are deported. Tomorrow Native Americans will be banished. Already some patrioteers are suggesting that native American sons to whom democracy is a sacred ideal should be exiled."<ref>{{cite news|title=Deportation Defied by Emma Goldman|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1919/10/28/archives/deportation-defied-by-emma-goldman-anarchist-leader-refuses-to.html|date=October 28, 1919|access-date=February 4, 2010|archive-date=April 30, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430083226/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D05E4DC1138EE32A2575BC2A9669D946896D6CF|url-status=live}}</ref> The Labor Department included Goldman and Berkman among 249 aliens it deported ''en masse'', mostly people with only vague associations with radical groups who had been swept up in [[Palmer Raids|government raids]] in November.<ref>McCormick, pp. 158–163.</ref>

Goldman and Berkman traveled around Russia during the time of the Russian civil War after the Russian revolution, and they found repression, mismanagement, and corruption instead of the equality and worker empowerment they had dreamed of. They met with [[Vladimir Lenin]], who assured them that government suppression of press liberties was justified. He told them: "There can be no free speech in a revolutionary period."<ref>Quoted in Drinnon, ''Rebel'', p. 235.</ref> Berkman was more willing to forgive the government's actions in the name of "historical necessity", but he eventually joined Goldman in opposing the Soviet state's authority.<ref>Drinnon, ''Rebel'', pp. 236–237.</ref> After a short trip to Stockholm, they moved to Berlin for several years; during this time she agreed to write a series of articles about her time in Russia for [[Joseph Pulitzer]]'s newspaper, the ''[[New York World]]''. These were later collected and published in book form as ''My Disillusionment in Russia'' (1923) and ''[[My Further Disillusionment in Russia]]'' (1924). The titles of these books were added by the publishers to be scintillating and Goldman protested, albeit in vain.<ref>Wexler, ''Exile'', pp. 56–58.</ref>

In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War started after an attempted ''[[coup d'état]]'' by parts of the [[Spanish Army]] against the government of the [[Second Spanish Republic]]. At the same time, the [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchists]], fighting against the [[National faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist forces]], started [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|an anarchist revolution]]. Goldman was invited to Barcelona and in an instant, as she wrote to her niece, "the crushing weight that was pressing down on my heart since Sasha's death left me as by magic".<ref>Drinnon, ''Rebel'', pp. 301–302.</ref> She was welcomed by the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (CNT) and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica]] (FAI) organizations and for the first time in her life lived in a [[Revolutionary Catalonia|community run by and for anarchists]], according to true anarchist principles. She would later write that "[i]n all my life I have not met with such warm hospitality, comradeship and solidarity."<ref>Quoted in Wexler, p. 232.</ref> After touring a series of collectives in the province of [[Huesca (province)|Huesca]], she told a group of workers that "[y]our revolution will destroy forever [the notion] that anarchism stands for chaos."<ref>Quoted in Drinnon, ''Rebel'', p. 303.</ref> She began editing the weekly ''CNT-FAI Information Bulletin'' and responded to English-language mail.<ref>Wexler, ''Exile'', p. 205.</ref>

The first prominent American to reveal his homosexuality was the poet [[Robert Duncan (poet)|Robert Duncan]]. This occurred when in 1944, using his own name in the anarchist magazine ''Politics'', he wrote that homosexuals were an oppressed minority.<ref>[http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15949 "Robert Duncan and Romantic Synthesis: A Few Notes"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906020604/http://www.poets.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/15949 |date=2010-09-06 }}. This article also republished as "On Robert Duncan" at Modern American Poetry website</ref>

=== Post-World War II period === {{main|Green anarchism in the United States|New Left in the United States}} [[File:Dorothy Day 1916.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Dorothy Day]], American [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchist]] and [[anarcho-pacifist]]]] An American [[anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifist]] current developed in this period as well as a related [[Christian anarchist]] one. For Andrew Cornell, "[m]any young anarchists of this period departed from previous generations both by embracing pacifism and by devoting more energy to promoting avant-garde culture, preparing the ground for the [[Beat Generation]] in the process. The editors of the anarchist journal ''Retort'', for instance, produced a volume of writings by WWII draft resistors imprisoned at Danbury, Connecticut, while regularly publishing the poetry and prose of writers such as [[Kenneth Rexroth]] and [[Norman Mailer]]. From the 1940s to the 1960s, then, the radical pacifist movement in the United States harbored both social democrats and anarchists, at a time when the anarchist movement itself seemed on its last legs."<ref>Andrew Cornell. [http://anarchiststudies.org/node/292 "Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518071734/http://www.anarchiststudies.org/node/292 |date=2013-05-18 }} Perspectives 2009. [[Institute for Anarchist Studies]]. Also {{harvnb|Graeber|2010}}.</ref> As such anarchism influenced writers associated with the Beat Generation such as [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Gary Snyder]].<ref>[http://www.bopsecrets.org/CF/garysnyder.htm "Buddhist Anarchism"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627154744/http://www.bopsecrets.org/CF/garysnyder.htm |date=June 27, 2013 }} by [[Gary Snyder]]</ref>

Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency within the anarchist movement which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change.<ref name="ppu.org.uk" />{{sfn|Woodcock|1962}} The main early influences were the thought of Henry David Thoreau<ref name="ppu.org.uk" /> and Leo Tolstoy while later the ideas of Mohandas Gandhi gained importance.<ref name="ppu.org.uk" />{{sfn|Woodcock|1962}} It developed "mostly in Holland, Britain, and the United States, before and during World War II.{{refn|{{harvnb|Woodcock|1962}}: "Finally, somewhat aside from the curve that runs from anarchist individualism to anarcho-syndicalism, we come to Tolstoyanism and to pacifist anarchism that appeared, mostly in Holland, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the United States, before and after the Second World War and which has continued since then in the deep in the anarchist involvement in the protests against nuclear armament."}} [[Dorothy Day]] was an American journalist, social activist and devout [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] convert who advocated the Catholic economic theory of [[distributism]]. She was also considered to be an anarchist<ref>[[Dorothy Day|Day, Dorothy.]] [http://www.catholicworker.org/dorothyday/daytext.cfm?TextID=540&SearchTerm=Marx ''On Pilgrimage – May 1974''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007005833/http://www.catholicworker.org/dorothyday/daytext.cfm?TextID=540&SearchTerm=Marx|date=October 7, 2012}}, "There was no time to answer the one great disagreement which was in their minds—how can you reconcile your Faith in the monolithic, authoritarian Church which seems so far from Jesus who "had no place to lay his head," and who said "sell what you have and give to the poor,"—with your anarchism? Because I have been behind bars in police stations, houses of detention, jails and prison farms, whatsoever they are called, eleven times, and have refused to pay Federal income taxes and have never voted, they accept me as an anarchist. And I in turn, can see Christ in them even though they deny Him, because they are giving themselves to working for a better social order for the wretched of the earth."</ref><ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionA3 ''Anarchist FAQ – A.3.7 Are there religious anarchists?''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123103313/http://www.infoshop.org/page/AnarchistFAQSectionA3 |date=November 23, 2010 }}, "Tolstoy's ideas had a strong influence on Gandhi, who inspired his fellow country people to use non-violent resistance to kick Britain out of India. Moreover, Gandhi's vision of a free India as a federation of peasant communes is similar to Tolstoy's anarchist vision of a free society (although we must stress that Gandhi was not an anarchist). The Catholic Worker Group in the United States was also heavily influenced by [[Tolstoy]] (and [[Proudhon]]), as was Dorothy Day a staunch Christian pacifist and anarchist who founded it in 1933."</ref><ref>Reid, Stuart (2008-09-08) [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2008/sep/08/00035/ Day by the Pool] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101026143118/http://amconmag.com/article/2008/sep/08/00035/ |date=October 26, 2010 }}, ''[[The American Conservative]]''</ref> and did not hesitate to use the term.<ref>[[Dorothy Day|Day, Dorothy]]. [http://www.catholicworker.org/dorothyday/daytext.cfm?TextID=538&SearchTerm=farming%20communes ''On Pilgrimage – February 1974''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006215351/http://www.catholicworker.org/dorothyday/daytext.cfm?TextID=538&SearchTerm=farming%20communes|date=October 6, 2012}}, "The blurb on the back of the book Small Is Beautiful lists fellow spokesmen for the ideas expressed, including "Alex Comfort, Paul Goodman and Murray Bookchin. It is the tradition we might call anarchism." We ourselves have never hesitated to use the word."</ref> In the 1930s, Day worked closely with fellow activist [[Peter Maurin]] to establish the [[Catholic Worker movement]], a nonviolent, pacifist movement that continues to combine direct aid for the poor and homeless with [[nonviolent direct action]] on their behalf. The cause for Day's [[canonization]] is open in the [[Catholic Church]]. [[Ammon Hennacy]] was an American [[Christian pacifism|pacifist]], Christian anarchist, [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]], social activist, member of the [[Catholic Worker Movement]] and a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]]. He practiced tax resistance and established the [[Joe Hill House]] of Hospitality in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]].

Anarchism continued to influence important American literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]], [[Dwight Macdonald]], Allen Ginsberg, [[Leopold Kohr]],<ref name="NYT-Obit">[https://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html Dr. Leopold Kohr, 84; Backed Smaller States] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118221044/http://www.nytimes.com/1994/02/28/obituaries/dr-leopold-kohr-84-backed-smaller-states.html |date=January 18, 2017 }}, [[The New York Times]] obituary, 28 February 1994.</ref><ref name="Sale-foreword">{{Cite web |url=http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html |title=Kirkpatrick Sale, foreword to E.P. Dutton 1978 edition of Leopold Kohr's ''Breakdown of Nations.'' |access-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-date=June 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613234422/http://www.ditext.com/kohr/foreword.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Judith Malina, [[Julian Beck]] and [[John Cage]].<ref name="cage">Cage self-identified as an anarchist in a 1985 interview: "I'm an anarchist. I don't know whether the adjective is pure and simple, or philosophical, or what, but I don't like government! And I don't like institutions! And I don't have any confidence in even good institutions." [http://www.ubu.com/papers/cage_montague_interview.html John Cage at Seventy: An Interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626203158/http://www.ubu.com/papers/cage_montague_interview.html |date=June 26, 2013 }} by Stephen Montague. ''American Music'', Summer 1985. Ubu.com. Accessed May 24, 2007.</ref> Paul Goodman was an American [[sociology|sociologist]], poet, writer, anarchist, and public intellectual. Goodman is now mainly remembered as the author of ''[[Growing Up Absurd]]'' (1960) and an activist on the [[pacifist]] left in the 1960s and an inspiration to that era's student movement. He is less remembered as a co-founder of [[Gestalt Therapy]] in the 1940s and 1950s. In the mid-1940s, together with [[C. Wright Mills]], he contributed to ''[[politics (magazine 1944–1949)|politics]]'', the journal edited during the 1940s by Dwight Macdonald.<ref>[http://karws.gso.uri.edu/JFK/History/WC_Period/Reactions_to_Warren_Report/Reactions_of_left/Bio_of_Macdonald.html ''Time'' April 4, 1994 Volume 143, No. 14 – "Biographical sketch of Dwight Macdonald" by John Elson] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130121192030/http://karws.gso.uri.edu/JFK/History/WC_Period/Reactions_to_Warren_Report/Reactions_of_left/Bio_of_Macdonald.html |date=January 21, 2013 }} (Accessed 4 December 2008)</ref> In 1947, he published two books, ''[[Kafka's Prayer]]'' and ''[[Communitas (book)|Communitas]]'', a classic study of urban design coauthored with his brother [[Percival Goodman]].

[[File:Murray Bookchin.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Murray Bookchin]], pioneering theorist of the American environmentalist movement]] Anarchism proved to be influential also in the early environmentalist movement in the United States. Leopold Kohr (1909–1994) was an [[economist]], [[jurist]] and [[political scientist]] known both for his opposition to the "cult of bigness" in social organization and as one of those who inspired the ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'' movement, mainly through his most influential work ''The Breakdown of Nations''. Kohr was an important inspiration to the [[Green movement|Green]], [[Bioregionalism|bioregional]], [[Fourth World]], [[Decentralization|decentralist]], and anarchist movements, Kohr contributed often to [[John Papworth]]'s "journal for the Fourth World", [[Resurgence & Ecologist|Resurgence]]. One of Kohr's students was economist [[E. F. Schumacher]], another prominent influence on these movements, whose best-selling book ''Small Is Beautiful'' took its title from one of Kohr's core principles.<ref name="NYT-Obit"/> Similarly, his ideas inspired [[Kirkpatrick Sale]]'s books ''Human Scale'' (1980) and ''Dwellers in the Land: The Bioregional Vision'' (1985).<ref name="Sale-foreword" /> In 1958, [[Murray Bookchin]] defined himself as an anarchist,<ref name="youtube2007">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vd0hxVUIQvk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/Vd0hxVUIQvk |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|title=''Anarchism In America'' documentary |publisher=Youtube.com |date=2007-01-09 |access-date=2012-05-11}}{{cbignore}}</ref> seeing parallels between anarchism and [[ecology]]. His first book, ''[[Our Synthetic Environment]],'' was published under the [[pseudonym]] Lewis Herber in 1962, a few months before [[Rachel Carson]]'s ''[[Silent Spring]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/bio1.html |title=''A Short Biography of Murray Bookchin'' by Janet Biehl |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |access-date=2012-05-11 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807055952/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/bio1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The book described a broad range of environmental ills but received little attention because of its political radicalism. His groundbreaking essay "Ecology and Revolutionary Thought" introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/ecologyandrev.html |title=Ecology and Revolution |publisher=Dwardmac.pitzer.edu |date=2004-06-16 |access-date=2012-05-11 |archive-date=August 29, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829114202/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bookchin/ecologyandrev.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1968, Bookchin founded another group that published the influential ''Anarchos'' magazine, which published that and other innovative essays on [[Post scarcity|post-scarcity]] and on ecological technologies such as solar and wind energy, and on decentralization and miniaturization. Lecturing throughout the United States, he helped popularize the concept of ecology to the [[counterculture]]. ''[[Post-Scarcity Anarchism]]'' is a collection of essays written by Murray Bookchin and first published in 1971 by [[Ramparts (magazine)|Ramparts Press]]. It outlines the possible form anarchism might take under conditions of post-scarcity. It is one of Bookchin's major works,<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Mark |title=Thinking through the Environment |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=0-415-21172-7 }}</ref> and its radical thesis provoked controversy for being utopian and [[Messianism|messianic]] in its faith in the liberatory potential of technology.<ref name="call" /> Bookchin argues that [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial societies]] are also post-scarcity societies, and can thus imagine "the fulfillment of the social and cultural potentialities latent in a technology of abundance".<ref name="call">{{cite book |author-link=Lewis Call |last=Call |first=Lewis |title=Postmodern Anarchism |publisher=Lexington Books |location=Lexington |year=2002 |isbn=0-7391-0522-1 }}</ref> The self-administration of society is now made possible by technological advancement and, when technology is used in an ecologically sensitive manner, the revolutionary potential of society will be much changed.<ref name="AK">{{cite web|url=http://www.akpress.org/2004/items/postscarcityanarchism|title=Post-Scarcity Anarchism|publisher=[[AK Press]]|access-date=2008-06-10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516054151/http://www.akpress.org/2004/items/postscarcityanarchism|archive-date=2008-05-16}}</ref> In 1982, his book ''The Ecology of Freedom'' had a profound impact on the emerging ecology movement, both in the United States and abroad. He was a principal figure in the Burlington Greens in 1986 to 1990, an ecology group that ran candidates for city council on a program to create neighborhood democracy. In ''From Urbanization to Cities'' (originally published in 1987 as ''The Rise of Urbanization and the Decline of Citizenship''), Bookchin traced the democratic traditions that influenced his political philosophy and defined the implementation of the [[libertarian municipalism]] concept. A few years later ''The Politics of Social Ecology'', written by his partner of 20 years, [[Janet Biehl]], briefly summarized these ideas.

[[File:Abbie Hoffman visiting the University of Oklahoma circa 1969.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Abbie Hoffman]], anarchist leader of the [[Yippies]] visiting the University of Oklahoma, circa 1969]] The [[Libertarian League]] was founded in New York City in 1954 as a political organization building on the [[Libertarian Book Club]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://thevillager.com/2012/01/19/the-left-libertarians-the-last-of-an-ancient-breed/ |title="The Left-Libertarians – the last of an ancient breed" by Bill Weinberg |date=January 25, 2012 |access-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-date=September 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902031925/http://thevillager.com/2012/01/19/the-left-libertarians-the-last-of-an-ancient-breed/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{sfn|Avrich|2005a|pp=471–472}} Members included [[Sam Dolgoff]],{{sfn|Avrich|2005a|p=419}} [[Russell Blackwell]], [[Dave Van Ronk]], [[Enrico Arrigoni]]{{sfn|Avrich|2005a}} and Murray Bookchin. Its central principle, stated in its journal ''Views and Comments'', was "equal freedom for all in a free socialist society". Branches of the League opened in a number of other American cities, including Detroit and San Francisco. It was dissolved at the end of the 1960s. [[Sam Dolgoff]] (1902–1990) was a Russian American anarchist and anarcho-syndicalist. After being expelled from the [[Young People's Socialist League (1907)|Young People's Socialist League]], Dolgoff joined the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] in the 1922 and remained an active member his entire life, playing an active role in the anarchist movement for much of the century.{{sfn|Avrich|2005a|p=420}} He was a co-founder of the [[Anarcho-Syndicalist Review|''Libertarian Labor Review'']] magazine, which was later renamed ''Anarcho-Syndicalist Review''. In the 1930s, he was a member of the editorial board of ''Spanish Revolution'', a monthly American publication reporting on the largest Spanish labor organization taking part in the Spanish Civil War. Among his books were ''Bakunin on Anarchy'', ''[[The Anarchist Collectives: Workers' Self-Management in the Spanish Revolution, 1936–1939]]'', and ''The Cuban Revolution'' (Black Rose Books, 1976), a denunciation of Cuban life under Fidel Castro.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/26/obituaries/sam-dolgoff-88-dies-organizer-for-iww.html Sam Dolgoff, 88, Dies; Organizer for I.W.W.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107120922/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/10/26/obituaries/sam-dolgoff-88-dies-organizer-for-iww.html |date=November 7, 2017 }} at ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref>

Anarchism was influential in the [[counterculture of the 1960s]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs |title='These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade—and a spree of publishing activity.' Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network' by John Patten |access-date=2013-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604120204/http://www.katesharpleylibrary.net/dnckhs |archive-date=2011-06-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>"Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade."[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406120402/http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SA/en/display/268 |date=April 6, 2013 }}</ref><ref>"While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as "[[The Tyranny of Structurelessness]]." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the [[Stonewall Rebellion]], the New York [[Gay Liberation Front]] based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." [http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in ''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419214254/http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Anarchism.pdf |date=April 19, 2012 |page=52}}</ref> and anarchists actively participated in the [[Protests of 1968|late sixties students and workers revolts]].<ref>"Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties&nbsp;... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular&nbsp;... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110317032203/http://www.monthlyreview.org/0901epstein.htm |date=March 17, 2011 }}</ref> The New Left in the United States also included anarchist, countercultural and [[hippie]]-related radical groups such as the [[Yippies]] who were led by [[Abbie Hoffman]] and [[Black Mask (anarchists)|Black Mask]]/[[Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers]]. For [[David Graeber]], "[a]s [[Students for a Democratic Society|SDS]] splintered into squabbling Maoist factions, groups like [[Diggers (theater)|the Diggers]] and Yippies (founded in '68) took the first option. Many were explicitly anarchist, and certainly, the late '60s turn towards the creation of autonomous collectives and institution building was squarely within the anarchist tradition, while the emphasis on free love, psychedelic drugs, and the creation of alternative forms of pleasure was squarely in the bohemian tradition with which Euro-American anarchism has always been at least tangentially aligned."{{sfn|Graeber|2010}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=McMillian |first1=John Campbell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_Ohks41z2IC&pg=PA112 |title=The new left revisited |last2=Buhle |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Buhle |publisher=Temple University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-56639-976-0 |pages=112– |access-date=28 December 2011}}</ref> By late 1966, the Diggers opened [[free stores]] which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.<ref name="Lytle2005">{{cite book|last=Lytle|first=Mark Hamilton|title=America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5w3iBwAAQBAJ|year=2005|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|isbn=978-0-19-029184-6|pages=213, 215|access-date=June 28, 2017|archive-date=April 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210427170704/https://books.google.com/books?id=5w3iBwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The Diggers took their name from the original [[Diggers|English Diggers]] led by [[Gerrard Winstanley]]<ref name="Digger Archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.diggers.org/overview.htm |title=Overview: who were (are) the Diggers? |access-date=2007-06-17 |work=The Digger Archives |archive-date=October 4, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004090440/http://www.diggers.org/overview.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.<ref name="American Experience doc">{{cite video|people=[[Gail Dolgin]]; Vicente Franco|date=2007|title=American Experience: The Summer of Love|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/index.html|publisher=PBS|access-date=2007-04-23|archive-date=March 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325104758/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> On the other hand, the Yippies employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig ("[[Pigasus (politics)|Pigasus]] the Immortal") as a candidate for president in 1968, to mock the social status quo.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419101355/pg_2 | encyclopedia=St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture | title=Yippies | first=David | last=Holloway | year=2002 | access-date=June 17, 2013 | archive-date=July 9, 2012 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20120709222430/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419101355/pg_2/ | url-status=live }}</ref> They have been described as a highly theatrical, [[anti-authoritarianism|anti-authoritarian]] and anarchist movement.<ref name="Abbie Hoffman page 128">[[Abbie Hoffman]], ''Soon to be a Major Motion Picture'', p. 128. Perigee Books, 1980.</ref> Since they were well known for street theater and politically themed pranks, many of the "old school" [[political left]] either ignored or denounced them. According to [[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]], "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the '[[Groucho Marx|Groucho]] [[Marxism|Marxists]]'."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/popup?id=3321269&contentIndex=1&page=9&start=false |title=ABC News |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |access-date=June 27, 2020 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812224154/https://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/popup?id=3321269&contentIndex=1&page=9&start=false |url-status=live }}</ref> By the 1960s, Christian anarchist Dorothy Day earned the praise of counterculture leaders such as Abbie Hoffman, who characterized her as the first hippie,<ref name="bulletin11-29-80">{{cite news|title=Dorothy Day dead at 83|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1243&dat=19801201&id=s9ZYAAAAIBAJ&pg=4367,6238981|work=[[The Bulletin (Bend)|The Bulletin]]|page=61|date=November 29, 1980|access-date=March 30, 2020|archive-date=January 4, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210104134924/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1243&dat=19801201&id=s9ZYAAAAIBAJ&pg=4367,6238981|url-status=live}}</ref> a description of which Day approved.<ref name="bulletin11-29-80" />

Another influential personality within American anarchism is [[Noam Chomsky]]. Chomsky's political ideology is aligned with [[anarcho-syndicalism]] and [[libertarian socialism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McGilvray |first1=James A. |title=Chomsky: Language, Mind, Politics |date=2014 |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=978-0-745-64990-0 |page=17 |edition=2nd}}</ref><ref name="Anarcho-Syndicalism 2004">Chomsky wrote the preface to an edition of [[Rudolf Rocker]]'s book ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice]]''. In it Chomsky wrote: "I felt at once, and still feel, that Rocker was pointing the way to a much better world, one that is within our grasp, one that may well be the only alternative to the 'universal catastrophe' towards which 'we are driving on under full sail'{{nbsp}}..." Rudolph Rocker, ''Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice'', [[AK Press]], 2004, p. ii.</ref> He is a member of the [[Campaign for Peace and Democracy]] and the Industrial Workers of the World international union.<ref>'[http://www.iww.org/en/history/biography Industrial Workers of the World&nbsp;– IWW Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317022105/http://www.iww.org/history/biography |date=March 17, 2016 }} Retrieved February 11, 2012</ref> Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a [[political dissident]], an anarchist,<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Chomsky on Anarchism'' (2005), [[AK Press]], p. 5</ref> and a [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] intellectual. After the publication of his first books on linguistics, Chomsky became a prominent critic of the Vietnam War, and since then has continued to publish books of political criticism. He has become well known for his critiques of [[foreign policy of the United States]],<ref>[http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20030505/30953-the-accidental-bestseller-.html "The Accidental Bestseller] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002051640/http://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/print/20030505/30953-the-accidental-bestseller-.html |date=October 2, 2012 }}, ''[[Publishers Weekly]]'', 5-5-03. Retrieved 05-03-11. "Chomsky's controversial political works ... became mainstream bestsellers."</ref> [[state capitalism]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Noam Chomsky interviewed by David Finkel |url=http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1991----02.htm |title=On Capitalism, Noam Chomsky interviewed by David Finkel |publisher=Chomsky.info |access-date=2013-05-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928043924/http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/1991----02.htm |archive-date=2013-09-28 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Arnove|first=Anthony|title=In Perspective: Noam Chomsky|journal=International Socialism|date=March 1997|url=http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj74/arnove.htm|access-date=October 29, 2011|archive-date=May 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190524082613/http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj74/arnove.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> and the mainstream [[news media]]. His [[media studies|media criticism]] has included ''[[Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media]]'' (1988), co-written with [[Edward S. Herman]], an analysis articulating the [[propaganda model]] theory for examining the media.

=== Late 20th century and contemporary times ===

[[File:Anarchylogo.jpg|thumb|Logo of ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]'', influential contemporary American anarchist publication]] Andrew Cornell reports that "[[Sam Dolgoff]] and others worked to revitalize the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), alongside new syndicalist formations like the Chicago-based Resurgence group and Boston's Root & Branch; Bookchin's Anarchos collective deepened the theoretical links between ecological and anarchist thought; the ''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'' drew heavily on French [[ultra-left]]ist thinking and began pursuing a critique of technology by decade's end. Meanwhile, the Social Revolutionary Anarchist Federation connected individuals and circles across the country through a mimeographed monthly discussion bulletin. Just as influential to the anarchist milieu that has taken shape in the decades which have followed, however, were the efforts of the [[Movement for a New Society]] (MNS), a national network of feminist radical pacifist collectives that existed from 1971 to 1988."<ref name="anarchiststudies.org">Andrew Cornell. {{cite web|url=http://anarchiststudies.org/node/292 |title=Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s |access-date=2013-07-08 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518071734/http://www.anarchiststudies.org/node/292 |archive-date=2013-05-18 }} Perspectives 2009. [[Institute for Anarchist Studies]]</ref>

[[David Graeber]] reports that in the late 1970s in the northeast "[t]he main inspiration for anti-nuclear activists—at least the main organizational inspiration—came from a group called the Movement for a New Society (MNS), based in Philadelphia. MNS was spearheaded by a gay rights activist named George Lakey, who—like several other members of the group—was both an anarchist, and a [[Quaker]] ... Many of what have now become standard features of formal consensus process—the principle that the facilitator should never act as an interested party in the debate, for example, or the idea of the "block"—were first disseminated by MNS trainings in Philadelphia and Boston."{{sfn|Graeber|2010}} For Andrew Cornell, "MNS popularized consensus decision-making, introduced the spokescouncil method of organization to activists in the United States, and was a leading advocate of a variety of practices—communal living, unlearning oppressive behavior, creating co-operatively owned businesses—that are now often subsumed under the rubric of "[[prefigurative politics]]."<ref name="anarchiststudies.org"/>

[[Fredy Perlman]] was a Czech-born, naturalized American author, publisher, and militant. His most popular work, the book ''[[Against His-Story, Against Leviathan]]!'', details the rise of state domination with a retelling of history through the [[Hobbesian]] metaphor of the [[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|Leviathan]]. The book remains a major source of inspiration for anti-civilization perspectives in [[contemporary anarchism]], most notably on the thought of philosopher John Zerzan.<ref>{{cite book | editor=[[John Moore (anarchist)|John Moore]] |last=Purkis | first = Johnathan |chapter=Anarchy Unbound | title = I Am Not a Man, I Am Dynamite! Friedrich Nietzsche and the Anarchist Tradition | publisher = Autonomedia | location = Brooklyn | year = 2004 | isbn = 1-57027-121-6 |pages=6}}</ref> Zerzan is an American anarchist and primitivist philosopher and author. His five major books are ''Elements of Refusal'' (1988), ''[[Future Primitive and Other Essays]]'' (1994), ''Running on Emptiness'' (2002), ''Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections'' (2005) and ''Twilight of the Machines'' (2008). Zerzan was one of the editors of ''[[Green Anarchy]]'', a controversial journal of anarcho-primitivist and insurrectionary anarchist thought. He is also the host of ''Anarchy Radio'' in Eugene on the [[University of Oregon]]'s radio station [[KWVA]]. He has also served as a contributing editor at ''[[Anarchy Magazine]]'' and has been published in magazines such as ''[[AdBusters]]''. ''[[The Match!]]'' is an [[atheist]]/anarchist journal published since 1969 in [[Tucson, Arizona]]. ''The Match!'' is edited, published, and printed by Fred Woodworth. ''The Match!'' is published irregularly; new issues usually appear once or twice per year. Over 100 issues have been published to date. ''[[Green Anarchy]]'' was a [[magazine]] published by a collective located in [[Eugene, Oregon]]. It had a circulation of 8,000, partly in prisons, the prison subscribers given free copies of each issue as stated in the magazine.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pghcitypaper.com/news-2/wild-times-ahead-1337295/|title=Wild Times Ahead|last=O'Driscoll|first=Bill|website=[[Pittsburgh City Paper]]|date=July 13, 2006|access-date=June 17, 2013}}</ref> Author John Zerzan was one of the publication's editors.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.johnzerzan.net/greenanarchy |title=Link label |access-date=June 17, 2013 |archive-date=August 10, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120810192530/http://johnzerzan.net/greenanarchy/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Fifth Estate (periodical)|Fifth Estate]]'' is an American periodical based in Detroit established in 1965, but with remote staff members across North America. Its editorial collective sometimes has divergent views on the topics the magazine addresses but generally shares an anarchist, [[anti-authoritarian]] outlook and a non-dogmatic, action-oriented approach to change. The title implies that the periodical is an alternative to the [[fourth estate]] (traditional print journalism). ''Fifth Estate'' is frequently cited as the longest running English language [[list of anarchist periodicals|anarchist publication]] in North America, although this is sometimes disputed since it became only explicitly anti-authoritarian in 1975 after ten years of publishing as part of the 1960s Underground Press movement. ''[[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]]'' is a North American anarchist magazine and was one of the most popular anarchist publications in North America in the 1980s and 1990s. Its influences could be described as a range of post-left anarchism and various strains of [[insurrectionary anarchism]] and sometimes [[anarcho-primitivism]]. It was founded by members of the Columbia Anarchist League of [[Columbia, Missouri]], and continued to be published there for nearly fifteen years, eventually under the sole editorial control of [[Jason McQuinn]] (who initially used the pseudonym "[[Lev Chernyi]]"), before briefly moving to New York City in 1995 to be published by members of the [[Autonomedia]] collective. The demise of independent distributor [[Fine Print]] nearly killed the magazine, necessitating its return to the Columbia collective after just two issues. It remained in Columbia from 1997 to 2006, after which a [[Berkeley, California]]-based group continued to publish bi-annually.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[Hartford Courant]] |first=Mary K. |last=Feeney |title=Voices You May Not Want to Hear|date=November 22, 2001}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |agency=[[Associated Press]] |work=NBC News |date=July 1, 2005 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna8437578 |title=Embattled prof files complaint against himself |access-date=November 14, 2019 |archive-date=April 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200414074404/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/8437578 |url-status=live }}</ref> The magazine is noted for spearheading the [[Post-left anarchy]] critique ("beyond the confines of ideology"), as articulated by such writers as [[Hakim Bey]], [[Lawrence Jarach]], John Zerzan, [[The Abolition of Work|Bob Black]], and Wolfi Landstreicher (formerly Feral Faun/Feral Ranter among other [[pen name]]s).

[[File:Black bloc at RNC running.jpg|thumb|left|American anarchists at the protests of the [[2008 Republican National Convention]] in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul, Minnesota]].]] Anarchists became more visible in the 1980s, as a result of publishing, protests and conventions. In 1980, the First International Symposium on Anarchism was held in Portland, Oregon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5896151564855675002&q=Anarchism+in+America|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070301114534/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5896151564855675002&q=Anarchism%2Bin%2BAmerica|url-status=dead|title=Anarchism in America|archive-date=March 1, 2007}}</ref> In 1986, the Haymarket Remembered conference was held in Chicago,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://recollectionbooks.com/anow/arch/mob/index.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222162429/http://recollectionbooks.com/anow/arch/mob/index.html|url-status=dead|title=Mob Action Against The State: Haymarket Remembered|archive-date=December 22, 2010}}</ref> to observe the centennial of the infamous [[Haymarket Riot]]. This conference was followed by annual, continental conventions in Minneapolis (1987), Toronto (1988), and San Francisco (1989). Recently there has been a resurgence in anarchist ideals in the United States.<ref name="autogenerated1">Sean Sheehan Published 2004 Reaktion Books [https://books.google.com/books?id=G0PnKy_W2IwC Anarchism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=G0PnKy_W2IwC |date=August 3, 2020 |year= 2020 }} 175 pages {{ISBN|978-1-86189-169-3}}</ref> In 1984, the Workers Solidarity Alliance (WSA) was founded.<ref name=hlatky>{{cite journal|title=Radical Politics in a Conservative Capital: Anarchist Groups and Projects in Edmonton|author=Robert Hlatky|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.2353798.11|date=2015|pages=199–248|journal=New Developments in Anarchist Studies|doi=10.2307/jj.2353798.11 |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="Kinna2012">{{cite book|last=Kinna|first=Ruth|authorlink=Ruth Kinna|title=The Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNuoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA357|year=2012|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-4270-2|page=357}}</ref> An [[anarcho-syndicalist]] political organization, the WSA published ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20100512204904/http://ideasandaction.info/ Ideas and Action]}}'' and affiliated to the [[IWA–AIT|International Workers Association]] (IWA-AIT), an international federation of anarcho-syndicalist unions and groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://anarkismo.net/article/1101|title=A Brief History of the Workers' Solidarity Alliance – Anarkismo|website=anarkismo.net|access-date=2017-06-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810131643/https://anarkismo.net/article/1101|archive-date=August 10, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the late 1980s, [[Love and Rage (organization)|{{vanchor|Love and Rage}}]] started as a newspaper and in 1991 expanded into a continental federation. It brought new ideas to the movement's mainstream, such as [[white privilege]], and new people, including anti-imperialists and former members of the Trotskyist [[Revolutionary Socialist League (U.S.)|Revolutionary Socialist League]]. It collapsed in 1998 amid disagreements about the organization's [[racial justice]] tenets and the viability of anarchism.<ref name="Milstein2015">{{cite book|last=Milstein|first=Cindy|title=Taking Sides: Revolutionary Solidarity and the Poverty of Liberalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRfSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT17|year=2015|publisher=AK Press|isbn=978-1-84935-233-8|pages=17–18|access-date=June 29, 2017|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813171908/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRfSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT17|url-status=live}}</ref> Love and Rage involved hundreds of activists across the country at its peak{{sfn|Graeber|2010|p=129}} and included a section based in Mexico City, Amor Y Rabia, which published a newspaper of the same name.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://libcom.org/files/handbook.pdf|title=Love & Rage Membership Handbook|date=c. 1997|website=www.libcom.org|access-date=June 29, 2017|archive-date=March 8, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190308193009/https://libcom.org/files/handbook.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Contemporary anarchism, with its shift in focus from class-based oppression to all forms of oppression, began to address race-based oppression in earnest in the 1990s with Black anarchists [[Lorenzo Ervin]] and [[Kuwasi Balagoon]], the journal ''[[Race Traitor (journal)|Race Traitor]]'', and movement-building organizations including Love and Rage, {{vanchor|Anarchist People of Color}}, {{vanchor|Black Autonomy}}, and {{vanchor|Bring the Ruckus}}.<ref name="Olson">{{cite book|last=Olson|first=Joel|editor-first=Randall|editor-last=Amster|title=Contemporary Anarchist Studies: An Introductory Anthology of Anarchy in the Academy|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cmx8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|year=2009|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-02643-2|pages=35, 43|chapter=The Problem with Infoshops and Insurrection|access-date=July 10, 2017|archive-date=August 14, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814164511/https://books.google.com/books?id=cmx8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the mid-1990s, an insurrectionary anarchist tendency also emerged in the United States mainly absorbing southern European influences.<ref name="joeblack">"Insurrectionary anarchism has been developing in the English language anarchist movement since the 1980s, thanks to translations and writings by Jean Weir in her "Elephant Editions" and her magazine "Insurrection". .. In [[Vancouver]], British Columbia, Canada, local comrades involved in the [[Anarchist Black Cross]], the local anarchist social center, and the magazines "No Picnic" and "Endless Struggle" were influenced by Jean's projects, and this carried over into the always developing practice of insurrectionary anarchists in this region today ... The anarchist magazine "Demolition Derby" in Montreal also covered some insurrectionary anarchist news back in the day"".[http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html "Anarchism, insurrections and insurrectionalism" by Joe Black] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206162459/http://www.ainfos.ca/06/jul/ainfos00232.html|date=2010-12-06}}</ref> [[CrimethInc.]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crimethinc.com/texts/atoz/afterthefall.php|title=After the Fall: Analysis of the Events of September 11th 2001|access-date=2007-10-31|author=The CrimethInc Ex-Workers Ex-Collective Revolutionary Task Force on Terrorism|work=Crimethinc.com|archive-date=February 26, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226142555/http://www.crimethinc.com/texts/atoz/afterthefall.php|url-status=dead}}</ref> is a decentralized anarchist collective of autonomous [[Clandestine cell system|cells]].<ref name="gordon">{{Cite conference|first=Uri|last=Gordon|author-link=Uri Gordon (anarchist)|title=Liberation Now: Present-tense Dimensions of Contemporary Anarchism|book-title=Thinking the Present : The Beginnings and Ends of Political Theory|date=27–28 May 2005|location=University of California, Berkeley}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Thompson|first=Stacy|date=October 2004|title=Crass Commodities|journal=Popular Music & Society|volume=27|issue=3|pages=307–322(16)|doi=10.1080/03007760410001733152|s2cid=219728124}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.athensnews.com/issue/article.php3?story_id=28894|title=Melee breaks out uptown at end of anarchist confab|last=Ludwig|first=Mike|date=2007-07-30|access-date=2007-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928130453/http://www.athensnews.com/issue/article.php3?story_id=28894|archive-date=September 28, 2007|work=The Athens News}}</ref> CrimethInc. emerged during this period initially as the [[hardcore punk]] [[zine]] ''[[Inside Front]]'', and began operating as a collective in 1996.<ref name="thompson">{{cite book|title=Punk Productions: Unfinished Business|last=Thompson|first=Stacy|publisher=SUNY Press|year=2004|isbn=0-7914-6187-4|location=Albany|pages=109}}</ref> It has since published widely read articles and zines for the anarchist movement and distributed posters and books of its own publication.<ref name="brandt">{{cite web|url=http://burning.typepad.com/burningman/2006/03/crimethinc_is_i.html|title=Crimethinc: In Love With Love Itself|last=Brandt|first=Jed|work=[[Clamor (magazine)|Clamor]]|access-date=January 14, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319002635/http://burning.typepad.com/burningman/2006/03/crimethinc_is_i.html|archive-date=March 19, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> CrimethInc. cells have published books, released records and organized national campaigns against [[globalization]] and [[representative democracy]] in favor of radical [[community organizing]].

American anarchists increasingly became noticeable at protests, especially through a tactic known as the [[Black bloc]]. U.S. anarchists became more prominent as a result of the [[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|anti-WTO protests]] in Seattle.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Common Struggle – Libertarian Communist Federation or Lucha Común – Federación Comunista Libertaria (formerly the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists (NEFAC) or the Fédération des Communistes Libertaires du Nord-Est) was a [[platformism|platformist]]/[[Anarchist communism|anarchist communist]] organization based in the northeast region of the United States which was founded in 2000 at a conference in Boston following the 1999 World Trade Organization protests in Seattle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.leftturn.org/interview-roundhouse-collective-nefac|title=Interview with Roundhouse Collective of NEFAC {{!}} Left Turn – Notes from the Global Intifada|website=www.leftturn.org|access-date=2019-07-09|archive-date=July 9, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190709084411/http://www.leftturn.org/interview-roundhouse-collective-nefac|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|issue =# 3|date= Fall–Winter 2001|title=This is NEFAC! An Introduction to the Northeastern Federation of Anarcho-Communists|journal=The Northeastern Anarchist}}</ref> Following months of discussion between former Atlantic Anarchist Circle affiliates and ex-Love and Rage members in the United States and ex-members of the Demanarchie newspaper collective in [[Quebec City]]. Founded as a bi-lingual French and English-speaking federation with member and supporter groups in the northeast of the United States, southern Ontario and the Quebec province, the organization later split up in 2008. The Québécoise membership reformed as the Union Communiste Libertaire (UCL)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ainfos.ca/en/ainfos21743.html |title=(en) Canada, Quebec: Founding of the Union Communiste Libertaire – UCL |access-date=2013-06-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222031953/http://www.ainfos.ca/en/ainfos21743.html |archive-date=2014-02-22 }}</ref> and the American membership retained the name NEFAC, before changing its name to Common Struggle in 2011 before merging into [[Black Rose Anarchist Federation]]. Former members based in Toronto went on to help found an Ontario-based platformist organization known as Common Cause.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=6553|title=Founding of Common Cause – Ontario – Anarkismo|access-date=June 17, 2013|archive-date=March 2, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302044149/http://www.anarkismo.net/newswire.php?story_id=6553|url-status=live}}</ref> The Green Mountain Anarchist Collective, which a local affiliate of NEFAC following Seattle, supported leftist causes in [[Vermont]] such as unionization, the living wage campaign, and access to social services.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Picard |first1=Ken |title=Power to the People |work=[[Seven Days (newspaper)|Seven Days]] |date=2004-02-11 |url=https://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/power-to-the-people/Content?oid=2129086 |language=en |access-date=2022-02-21 |df=mdy-all |archive-date=March 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306044314/https://www.sevendaysvt.com/vermont/power-to-the-people/Content?oid=2129086 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]], anarchist activists were visible as founding members of the [[Common Ground Collective]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akpress.org/2007/items/whatliesbeneath|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611014407/http://www.akpress.org/2007/items/whatliesbeneath|url-status=dead|title=What Lies Beneath: Katrina, Race, And The State Of The Nation :: AK Press|archive-date=June 11, 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/inews/article.php?story=20060313145800704 Scott Crow: Anarchy and the Common Ground Collective – Infoshop News] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060522162952/http://www.infoshop.org/inews/article.php?story=20060313145800704 |date=2006-05-22 }}</ref> Anarchists also had an early role in the [[Occupy movement]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Graeber |first=David |author-link=David Graeber |date=November 15, 2011 |title=Occupy and anarchism's gift of democracy |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/nov/15/occupy-anarchism-gift-democracy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001055429/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/nov/15/occupy-anarchism-gift-democracy |archive-date=October 1, 2013 |access-date=December 11, 2016 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref><ref>"The cornerstone for the occupation of Zuccotti Park was laid by anarchists, who also developed the consensus procedures by which the movement participants made (or occasionally failed to make) decisions." [http://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/cheerleaders-for-anarchism "Cheerleaders for Anarchism" by Nikil Saval] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803143526/http://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/cheerleaders-for-anarchism |date=August 3, 2013 }} in ''[[Dissent (American magazine)|Dissent]] magazine''</ref> In November 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine credited American anarchist and scholar [[David Graeber]] with giving the [[Occupy Wall Street]] movement its theme: "[[We are the 99 percent]]". ''Rolling Stone'' reported that Graeber helped create the first [[New York City General Assembly]], with only 60 participants, on August 2, 2011.<ref>Sharlet, Jeff (10 November 2011). [https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/occupy-wall-street-welcome-to-the-occupation-20111110 "Inside Occupy Wall Street: How a bunch of anarchists and radicals with nothing but sleeping bags launched a nationwide movement"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111205031650/http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/occupy-wall-street-welcome-to-the-occupation-20111110 |date=December 5, 2011 }}. ''[[Rolling Stone]]''. Retrieved 4 December 2011.</ref> He spent the next six weeks involved with the burgeoning movement, including facilitating general assemblies, attending working group meetings, and organizing legal and medical training and classes on nonviolent resistance.<ref name=businessweek>{{cite news|last=Bennett|first=Drake|title=David Graeber, the Anti-Leader of Occupy Wall Street: Meet the anthropologist, activist, and anarchist who helped transform a hapless rally into a global protest movement|url=http://www.businessweek.com/printer/magazine/david-graeber-the-antileader-of-occupy-wall-street-10262011.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120721103417/http://www.businessweek.com/printer/magazine/david-graeber-the-antileader-of-occupy-wall-street-10262011.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 21, 2012|access-date=4 December 2011|newspaper=Business Week|date=26 October 2011}}</ref> Following the Occupy Wall Street movement, author [[Mark Bray (historian)|Mark Bray]] wrote ''Translating Anarchy: The Anarchism of Occupy Wall Street'', which gave a firsthand account of anarchist involvement.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bray |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Bray (historian) |title=Translating Anarchy: The Anarchism of Occupy Wall Street |publisher=[[Zero Books]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-78279-126-3}}</ref>

[[File:Entering Free Capitol Hill.jpg|thumb|An entrance to the [[Capitol Hill Autonomous Zone]], a [[Temporary Autonomous Zone|temporary autonomous zone]] established during the [[George Floyd protests]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bernstein|first=David Eliot|year=2020|title=The Right to Armed Self-Defense in the Light of Law Enforcement Abdication|journal=Liberty & Law Center|location=Fairfax, Virginia|publisher=George Mason University|issue=20–23<!--|pages=1–42-->|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3703927|ssrn=3703927|s2cid=224881475|page=3|doi-access=free}}</ref>]] In the period before and after the Occupy movement several new organizations and efforts became active. A series invitational conferences called the Class Struggle Anarchist Conference, initiated by [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]] and joined by others, aimed to bring together a number of local and regional based anarchist organizations.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anarkismo.net/article/14863|title=A Reportback From the Class Struggle Anarchist Conference – Anarkismo|website=www.anarkismo.net|access-date=2017-06-28|archive-date=August 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828024125/http://www.anarkismo.net/article/14863|url-status=live}}</ref> The conference was first held in New York City in 2008 and brought together hundreds of activists<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zcomm.org/znetarticle/anarchism-class-struggle-and-political-organization-by-tom-wetzel/|website=ZCommunications| title=Anarchism, Class Struggle and Political Organization |date=July 22, 2009 |language=en-US|access-date=2017-06-28|archive-date=August 30, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830012016/https://zcomm.org/znetarticle/anarchism-class-struggle-and-political-organization-by-tom-wetzel/|url-status=live}}</ref> and subsequent conferences were held in Detroit in 2009, Seattle in 2010 and Buffalo in 2012.<ref name="libcom.org">{{Cite web|url=https://libcom.org/library/brief-history-rapprochement-process-us-class-struggle-anarchist-organizations|title=A brief history of the rapprochement process of US class struggle anarchist organizations|website=libcom.org|language=en|access-date=2017-06-28|archive-date=May 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501192653/http://libcom.org/library/brief-history-rapprochement-process-us-class-struggle-anarchist-organizations|url-status=live}}</ref> One group that was founded during this period was May First Anarchist Alliance in 2011 with members in Michigan and Minnesota<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.anarkismo.net/article/19559|title=New anarchist organization: First of May Anarchist Alliance|date=May 14, 2011|website=Anarkismo.net|access-date=June 28, 2017|archive-date=August 27, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827190135/http://www.anarkismo.net/article/19559|url-status=live}}</ref> which defines itself as having a working class orientation and promoting a non-doctrinaire anarchism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m1aa.org/?page_id=57|title=Our Anarchism: {{!}} First of May Anarchist Alliance|website=m1aa.org|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628083356/http://m1aa.org/?page_id=57|archive-date=June 28, 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> Another group founded during this period is [[Black Rose Anarchist Federation]] (BRRN) in 2013 which combined a number of local and regional groups including Common Struggle, formerly known as the&nbsp;Northeastern Federation of Anarchist Communists&nbsp;(NEFAC), Four Star Anarchist Organization in Chicago, Miami Autonomy and Solidarity, Rochester Red and Black, and Wild Rose Collective based in Iowa City. Some individual members of the&nbsp;[[Workers Solidarity Alliance]]&nbsp;joined the new group but the organization voted to remain separate.<ref name="libcom.org"/><ref>{{Cite web |title=A History of Black Rose/Rosa Negra |url=https://www.blackrosefed.org/about/history/ |access-date=2025-11-10 |website=Black Rose/Rosa Negra Anarchist Federation |language=en}}</ref> The group has a variety of influences, most&nbsp;notably [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[especifismo]] and [[platformism]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://blackrosefed.org/mission-statement/|title=Mission Statement – Black Rose Anarchist Federation|work=Black Rose Anarchist Federation|access-date=2017-06-28|language=en-US|archive-date=June 27, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627091509/http://blackrosefed.org/mission-statement/|url-status=live}}</ref> Early activity of the group was coordinating the "Struggling to Win: Anarchists Building Popular Power In Chile" tour in 2014 of two anarchist organizers from Chile which had events in over 20 cities. In 2016, the organization published the online booklet&nbsp;''Black Anarchism: A Reader''. In May 2017, a member published an op-ed in&nbsp;''The Oregonian''&nbsp;responding to police repression of the Portland International Workers Day march<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/index.ssf/2017/05/may_day_protest_the_view_from.html|title=May Day protest: The view from the back of the march (Guest opinion)|work=OregonLive.com|access-date=2017-06-28|language=en-US|archive-date=June 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619022103/http://www.oregonlive.com/opinion/index.ssf/2017/05/may_day_protest_the_view_from.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and was also featured in a [[Vice News]] segment looking at left-wing [[Antifa (United States)|antifa]] protests in Portland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/young-radicals-fighting-alt-right-in-americas-streets/|title=Young radicals are fighting the alt-right in America's streets|last=Kang|first=Jay Caspian|date=Jun 15, 2017|website=Vice News|access-date=June 28, 2017|archive-date=June 15, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170615232519/https://news.vice.com/story/young-radicals-fighting-alt-right-in-americas-streets|url-status=live}}</ref> The group released the first version of their ''[https://www.blackrosefed.org/about/program/ Turning the Tide: An Anarchist Program for Popular Power]'' document in 2023. In November 2025, the group was mentioned in a report titled "Infiltrated: The Ideological Capture of Homelessness Advocacy" published by the right-wing think tank Capitol Research Group and presented to President Donald Trump.<ref>{{Cite web |title=INFILTRATED: THE IDEOLOGICAL CAPTURE OF HOMELESSNESS ADVOCACY |url=https://capitalresearch.org/article/infiltrated-the-ideological-capture-of-homelessness-advocacy/ |access-date=2025-11-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Radical Activists Are Hijacking Homelessness Charities To Fund Anti-Cop, Anti-Capitalist Campaigns: REPORT |url=https://dailycaller.com/2025/10/22/homelessness-nonprofits-left-wing-groups-hijack-crc/ |access-date=2025-11-10 |website=dailycaller.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== 2020s === In June 2020, the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] reported that while [[far-right terrorism]] remains the major threat, having "significantly outpaced terrorism from other types of perpetrators", anarchists "could present a potential threat" in the United States.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Doxsee|first1=Catrina|last2=Harrington|first2=Nicholas|last3=Jones|first3=Seth G.|date=17 June 2020|url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/escalating-terrorism-problem-united-states|title=The Escalating Terrorism Problem in the United States|publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies|access-date=29 September 2020|archive-date=June 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200629003504/https://www.csis.org/analysis/escalating-terrorism-problem-united-states|url-status=live}}</ref> During the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States]], anarchists participated in a proliferation of [[Mutual aid (organization theory)|mutual aid]] organizations, exemplifying both the alleged failure of government to provide for people's needs and the practice of anarchism in a "peaceful and lawful" way.<ref>{{cite web |title=What Is Anarchism? |url=https://the1a.org/segments/what-is-anarchy-anarchism/ |date=October 12, 2020 |website=1A |publisher=WAMU |access-date=April 7, 2021 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812222557/https://the1a.org/segments/what-is-anarchy-anarchism/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2021, the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] listed anarchists among the "anti-government and anti-authority violent extremists" which it claimed posed a threat of domestic terrorism.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/National-Strategy-for-Countering-Domestic-Terrorism.pdf|title=National Strategy for Countering Domestic Terrorism|author-link=United States National Security Council|author=National Security Council|publisher=[[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]|page=8|date=June 2021|location=[[Washington, D.C.]]|access-date=June 19, 2021|archive-date=June 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210619122254/https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/National-Strategy-for-Countering-Domestic-Terrorism.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In January 2023, Atlanta police shot and [[Killing of Manuel Esteban Paez Terán|killed eco-anarchist Manuel Esteban Paez Terán]] as part of the [[Stop Cop City]] protests.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-29 |title=Protesters question circumstances surrounding 'Stop Cop City' activist's death |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/nation/protesters-question-circumstances-surrounding-stop-cop-city-activists-death |access-date=2024-03-09 |website=PBS NewsHour |language=en-us}}</ref> In February 2024, anarchist and [[United States Air Force]] serviceman [[Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell|Aaron Bushnell self-immolated]] outside the Israeli embassy in Washington DC.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Luscombe |first=Richard |date=2024-02-27 |title=US airman who burned himself to death at Israeli embassy had anarchist past |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/feb/27/aaron-bushnell-israel-embassy-anarchist-community-of-jesus |access-date=2024-03-09 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== See also == {{Portal|Anarchism|United States}} * [[:Category:American anarchists]] * [[List of anarchist movements by region]] * [[American Left]] * [[Socialism in the United States|History of the socialist movement in the United States]]

== References == {{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|last1=Avrich|first1=Paul|author-link=Paul Avrich|title=Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America|orig-date=1995|year=2005|isbn=978-1-904859-27-7|publisher=[[AK Press]]|location=Oakland|df=mdy-all|oclc=68772773|ref={{harvid|Avrich|2005a}}|title-link=Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America}}<!-- see intros to chapters, such as p. 415– for contemporary anarchism --> * {{cite book|last1=Avrich|first1=Paul|title=The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States|orig-date=1980|year=2005|isbn=978-1-904859-09-3|publisher=[[AK Press]]|location=Oakland|df=mdy-all|oclc=85828215|ref={{harvid|Avrich|2005b}}|title-link=The Modern School Movement: Anarchism and Education in the United States}} * {{cite journal|last1=Graeber|first1=David|author-link=David Graeber|title=The Rebirth of Anarchism in North America, 1957–2007|journal=HAOL|issue=21|pages=123–131|date=2010|url=http://www.historia-actual.org/Publicaciones/index.php/haol/article/view/419/361|issn=1696-2060|df=mdy-all}}<!-- journal abbreviation expands to Historia Actual Online http://www.historia-actual.org/index.php/hao.html --> * {{cite book|last1=Woodcock|first1=George|author-link=George Woodcock|title=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements|date=1962|publisher=[[World Publishing Company]]|location=Cleveland|df=mdy-all|oclc=911230882|title-link=Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements}} {{refend}}

== Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last=Beswick |first=Spencer |url=https://journals.lwbooks.co.uk/anarchiststudies/vol-30-issue-2/abstract-9598/ |title=From the Ashes of the Old: Anarchism Reborn in a Counterrevolutionary Age (1970s–1990s) |journal=[[Anarchist Studies]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |year=2022 |issn=2633-8270 |doi=10.3898/AS.30.2.02 |pages=31–54 |s2cid=252748012 |url-access=subscription}} * {{cite book |last1=Creagh |first1=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Creagh |chapter=Anarchism in the United States to 1945 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00ness/page/n312 155]–158 |editor1-last=Ness |editor1-first=Immanuel |editor-link=Immanuel Ness |title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00ness |url-access=limited |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-8464-9 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |df=mdy-all |doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0077}} * {{Cite journal |issn=0026-3079 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=55–78 |last=Goldstein |first=Robert J. |title=The Anarchist Scare of 1908: A Sign of Tensions in the Progressive Era |journal=American Studies |date=1974 |jstor=40644042}} * {{cite book |last1=Kuhn |first1=Gabriel |last2=Cohn |first2=Jesse |chapter=Anarchism in the United States, 1946–present |pages=[https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00ness/page/n315 158]–160 |editor1-last=Ness |editor1-first=Immanuel |editor-link=Immanuel Ness |title=The International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest: 1500 to the Present |url=https://archive.org/details/internationalenc00ness |url-access=limited |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-8464-9 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |df=mdy-all |doi=10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0078}} * {{Cite book |last1=Shaffer |first1=Kirk |editor1-last=Hirsch |editor1-first=Steven |editor2-last=van der Walt |editor2-first=Lucien |chapter=Tropical Libertarians: Anarchist Movements and Networks in the Caribbean, Southern United States, and Mexico, 1890s–1920s |title=Anarchism and Syndicalism in the Colonial and Postcolonial World, 1870–1940 |pages=273–320 |date=2010 |isbn=978-90-04-18849-5 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |series=Studies in Global Social History |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004188495.i-432.80}} * [[Paul Avrich]] and Karen Avrich. ''[[Sasha and Emma: The Anarchist Odyssey of Alexander Berkman and Emma Goldman]]''. 2012.{{ISBN|9780674065987}} * Andrew Cornell. [http://libcom.org/history/new-anarchism-emerges-1940%E2%80%931954 "A new anarchism emerges, 1940–1954"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721000144/http://libcom.org/history/new-anarchism-emerges-1940%E2%80%931954 |date=July 21, 2015 }}. * Andrew Cornell. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130518071734/http://www.anarchiststudies.org/node/292 "Anarchism and the Movement for a New Society: Direct Action and Prefigurative Community in the 1970s and 80s."] Perspectives 2009. [[Institute for Anarchist Studies]]. * {{Cite book |last1=Cornell |first1=Andrew |title=[[Unruly Equality: U.S. Anarchism in the Twentieth Century]] |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-520-28675-7 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Oakland <!--|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laowDwAAQBAJ-->}} * [[James J. Martin (historian)|James J. Martin]] [https://archive.org/download/menagainststatee00martrich/menagainststatee00martrich.pdf ''Men Against the State: the State the Expositors of Individualist Anarchism'']. The Adrian Allen Associates, Dekalb, Illinois, 1953. * Eunice Minette Schuster. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160214200513/http://www.againstallauthority.org/NativeAmericanAnarchism.html ''Native American Anarchism: A Study of Left-Wing American Individualism'']. * Jessica Moran. "[http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/jessica-moran-the-firebrand-and-the-forging-of-a-new-anarchism-anarchist-communism-and-free-lov The Firebrand and the Forging of a New Anarchism: Anarchist Communism and Free Love] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416131634/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/jessica-moran-the-firebrand-and-the-forging-of-a-new-anarchism-anarchist-communism-and-free-lov |date=April 16, 2021 }}". * Max Nettlau, ''A Short History of Anarchism.'' Freedom Press, 1996. * William O. Reichert, ''[[Partisans of Freedom: A Study in American Anarchism]]''. Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1976.{{ISBN|0879721189}} * [[Rudolf Rocker|Rocker, Rudolf]]. ''[[Pioneers of American Freedom]]: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America''. Rocker Publishing Committee. 1949. * Steve J. Shone. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf9AAQAAQBAJ American Anarchism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813205400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zf9AAQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover |date=August 13, 2021 }}.'' Brill. Leiden and Boston. 2013. * Kenyon Zimmer, ''[[Immigrants Against the State: Yiddish and Italian Anarchism in America]].'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-252-03938-6}} {{refend}}

== External links == {{commons category}} * {{spunk|places/us/}} * [http://anarchymag.org/ Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]. * [http://blackrosefed.org/ Black Rose Anarchist Federation (BRRN)]. * [http://www.commongroundrelief.org/ Common Ground Collective]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20191028100021/http://m1aa.org/ First of May Anarchist Alliance]. * [https://anarchiststudies.org/ Institute for Anarchist Studies]. * [https://workersolidarity.org/ Workers Solidarity Alliance].

{{Anarchism by region}} {{North America in topic|Anarchism in}} {{Portal bar|Anarchism|United States}}

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