Alvin Gouldner

{{Short description|American sociologist and social theorist (1920–1980)}} {{Infobox academic | honorific_prefix =  | name = Alvin Ward Gouldner | honorific_suffix = | image = | image_size = | alt = | caption = | native_name = | native_name_lang = | birth_name =  | birth_date = July 29, 1920 | birth_place = New York City, US | death_date = {{death date and age|1980|12|15|1920|07|29}} | death_place = [[Madrid, Spain]] | region = | nationality = | citizenship = | residence = | other_names = | occupation = | period = | known_for = Reflexive sociology Culture of Critical Discourse ”New Class” theory | home_town = | title = | boards =  | spouse = | partner = | children = | parents = | relatives = | awards =  | website = | alma_mater = [[Baruch College]] [[Columbia University]] | thesis_title = Industry and Bureaucracy | thesis_url = https://www.proquest.com/docview/301971802 | thesis_year = 1954 | school_tradition = | doctoral_advisor = [[Robert K. Merton]]<ref name="diss">{{cite thesis |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin Ward |date=1954 |title=Industry and Bureaucracy |type=PhD |publisher=Columbia University |page=ii |oclc= 216894962 |id={{ProQuest|301971802}} }}</ref> | academic_advisors = | influences =  | era = | discipline = Sociologist | workplaces = [[University at Buffalo]] [[Antioch College]] [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]] [[Washington University in St. Louis]] [[University of Amsterdam]] }}

'''Alvin Ward Gouldner''' (July 29, 1920 – December 15, 1980) was an American [[sociologist]] and social theorist. Trained under [[Robert K. Merton]] at [[Columbia University]], he began his career in industrial sociology with two studies of a gypsum plant, ''Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy'' (1954) and ''Wildcat Strike'' (1954), that became foundational texts in the sociology of organizations.<ref name="chriss2001">{{cite journal |last=Chriss |first=James J. |year=2001 |title=Alvin W. Gouldner and Industrial Sociology at Columbia University |journal=Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=241–259 |doi=10.1002/jhbs.1033|url=https://engagedscholarship.csuohio.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1023&&context=clsoc_crim_facpub}}</ref>{{rp|241}}

Gouldner’s most widely read work, ''The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology'' (1970), argued that American sociology was in crisis and called for a “reflexive sociology” that would subject sociologists’ own assumptions to critical scrutiny.<ref name="chriss2000"/>{{rp|200}} In a subsequent series of books published under the general title “The Dark Side of the Dialectic,” he developed the concept of the “Culture of Critical Discourse” and argued that a “New Class” of intellectuals and technical professionals was emerging as a historically significant force. Gouldner termed this class a “flawed universal class”, contending that it claimed to speak for humanity while pursuing its own interests.<ref name="szelenyi1988"/>{{rp|645, 649}} He also founded the journal ''[[Theory and Society]]'' in 1974.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|735}}

Gouldner spent most of his career at [[Washington University in St. Louis]], where he held the Max Weber Research Professorship of Social Theory, with a period at the [[University of Amsterdam]] (1972–1976). He died of a heart attack in Madrid at the age of 60.

== Early life and education ==

Gouldner was born in New York City. He earned a Bachelor of Business Administration from [[Baruch College]] and went on to receive M.A. (1945) and Ph.D. (1953) degrees from [[Columbia University]], where he trained under [[Robert K. Merton]].<ref name="obit" /><ref name="chriss2001"/>{{rp|241}} Merton’s influence oriented him toward the Columbia school of industrial sociology, a field that had grown substantially from the [[Hawthorne effect|Hawthorne experiments]] of the late 1920s and early 1930s.<ref name="chriss2005">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Chriss |first=James J. |year=2005 |title=Gouldner, Alvin |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Social Theory |publisher=SAGE Publications |pages=341–342}}</ref>{{rp|341}}

== Career ==

While finishing his doctorate, Gouldner held a succession of positions: resident sociologist at the [[American Jewish Committee]] (1945–1947), assistant professor at the [[University at Buffalo]] (1947–1951), consulting sociologist at Standard Oil of New Jersey (1951–1952), and associate professor at [[Antioch College]] (1952–1954).<ref name="chriss2005"/>{{rp|341}} During this period he conducted the fieldwork at a gypsum plant in upstate New York that would form the basis of his two early monographs, ''Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy'' (1954) and ''Wildcat Strike'' (1954).<ref name="chriss2001"/>{{rp|245}}

After a period at the [[University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign]], Gouldner joined the joint Department of Anthropology and Sociology at [[Washington University in St. Louis]] in 1957, becoming professor and chair in 1959.<ref name="chriss2005"/>{{rp|341}} In 1968 he was appointed to the endowed Max Weber Research Professorship of Social Theory.<ref name="obit">{{cite news |title=Alvin Gouldner, 60, A Radical Sociologist, Dies of Heart Attack |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/10/obituaries/alvin-gouldner-60-a-radical-sociologist-dies-of-heart-attack.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=January 10, 1981}}</ref>

Through the late 1950s and into the 1960s, Gouldner began shifting from empirical industrial sociology toward theoretical critique. His 1960 article “The Norm of Reciprocity,” published in the ''[[American Sociological Review]]'', became one of the most frequently cited articles in sociology.<ref name="chriss2005"/>{{rp|341}} His 1962 essay “Anti-Minotaur: The Myth of Value-Free Sociology” marked a more public break with the [[Positivism|positivist]] mainstream, arguing that a fully value-free sociology was neither achievable nor desirable, and that [[Max Weber]]’s position had been misread by later sociologists.<ref name="chriss2001"/>{{rp|253}}

''The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology'' (1970) brought Gouldner to attention beyond the discipline. In it he argued that American sociology was entering a period of crisis brought on by its own internal contradictions, its uncritical service to liberal welfare-state institutions, and the rebellion of younger radical scholars against the dominant [[structural functionalism|functionalist]] paradigm.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lemert |first=Charles |last2=Piccone |first2=Paul |year=1982 |title=Gouldner’s Theoretical Method and Reflexive Sociology |journal=Theory and Society |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=733–757 |doi=10.1007/BF00173628}}</ref>{{rp|734}} The book inaugurated what Gouldner called “reflexive sociology”, in which he demanded that sociologists subject their own assumptions and social positions to the same critical scrutiny they applied to their objects of study.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chriss |first=James J. |year=2000 |title=Alvin W. Gouldner and the Tragic Vision in Sociology |journal=Social Thought and Research |volume=23 |pages=199–226|doi=10.17161/STR.1808.5169}}</ref>{{rp|200}}

Gouldner subsequently held a professorship at the [[University of Amsterdam]] before returning to Washington University, where he continued work on a projected multi-volume study of ideology, intellectuals, and Marxism. The first volume, ''The Dialectic of Ideology and Technology'' (1976), was followed by ''The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class'' (1979) and ''The Two Marxisms'' (1980). These works argued that a “New Class” of technical intelligentsia and humanistic intellectuals had emerged as a historically significant force, though one defined by its “flawed universalism”, since it claimed to speak for humanity while pursuing its own class interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Szelenyi |first=Ivan |last2=Martin |first2=Bill |year=1988 |title=The Three Waves of New Class Theories |journal=Theory and Society |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=645–667|doi=10.1007/BF00162614}}</ref>{{rp|649}} A posthumous volume, ''Against Fragmentation'' (1985), was completed from his manuscripts by his wife Janet Gouldner and colleague Cornelis Disco.<ref>{{cite book |last=Disco |first=Cornelis |last2=Gouldner |first2=Janet |year=1985 |chapter=Preface |title=Against Fragmentation |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=vii–viii|ol=5912025W}}</ref>

Gouldner died of a heart attack at age 60 in [[Madrid]] on December 15, 1980, while on a European lecture tour.<ref name="obit"/> == Legacy and reception ==

Gouldner’s influence on sociology was broad but diffuse. His call for reflexive sociology became part of the discipline’s general self-understanding rather than generating a distinct school of followers, and his specific formulations were largely overtaken by later theorists, most notably [[Pierre Bourdieu]], whose concept of reflexivity differed from Gouldner’s in important respects.<ref name="hollands2009">{{cite journal |last=Hollands |first=Robert |last2=Stanley |first2=Liz |year=2009 |title=Rethinking ‘Current Crisis’ Arguments: Gouldner and the Legacy of Critical Sociology |journal=Sociological Research Online |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=13–25 |doi=10.5153/sro.1839}}</ref> By the 1990s, [[C. Wright Mills]] rather than Gouldner had become the figure more commonly invoked by sociologists seeking a model of engaged scholarship.<ref name="hollands2009" /> Pedraza argues that Gouldner’s difficult personality contributed to this decline, by alienating him from the scholarly community and preventing him from generating students who could carry his work forward.<ref name="pedraza2002">{{cite journal |last=Pedraza |first=Silvia |year=2002 |title=A Sociology for Our Times: Alvin Gouldner’s Message |journal=The Sociological Quarterly |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=73–79 |doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2002.tb02384.x}}</ref>{{rp|78}}

Nonetheless, the intellectual issues Gouldner engaged—the limits of value-free inquiry, the relationship between social theory and politics, and the need for reflexivity—have continued to attract scholarly attention. [[Anthony Giddens]] assessed Gouldner’s work at length in “Social Theory and Modern Sociology“ (1987),<ref>{{cite book |last=Giddens |first=Anthony |year=1987 |chapter=Alvin Gouldner and the Intellectuals |title=Social Theory and Modern Sociology |publisher=Polity Press |location=Cambridge |pages=253–274}}</ref> and a 1982 memorial issue of ''Theory and Society'' argued that problems widely debated among social theorists at that time—particularly the effort to transcend the classical subject–object dichotomy—had been tackled by Gouldner a generation before Foucault, Bourdieu, and Giddens themselves took up the same question.<ref name="lemert1982">{{cite journal |last=Lemert |first=Charles |last2=Piccone |first2=Paul |year=1982 |title=Gouldner’s Theoretical Method and Reflexive Sociology |journal=Theory and Society |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=733–757 |doi=10.1007/BF00173628}}</ref>{{rp|752}} A 2002 special issue of ''[[The Sociological Quarterly]]'' further reassessed his legacy, with contributions arguing that his work constituted “a sociology for our times” and that his 1965 study “Enter Plato“, long overshadowed by “The Coming Crisis“, represented a pioneering contribution to the sociology of ideas that successfully answered [[Robert K. Merton|Merton’s]] earlier call for work bridging the theory–research divide in the sociology of knowledge.<ref name="pedraza2002" />{{rp|73, 75}}<ref name="camic2002">{{cite journal |last=Camic |first=Charles |last2=Gross |first2=Neil |year=2002 |title=Alvin Gouldner and the Sociology of Ideas: Lessons from Enter Plato |journal=The Sociological Quarterly |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=97–110 |doi=10.1111/j.1533-8525.2002.tb02386.x}}</ref>{{rp|97–98, 104}}

His 1960 article “The Norm of Reciprocity,” which argued that the obligation to return benefits received functions as a universal moral norm underpinning social stability, became one of the most cited articles in the history of sociology and has continued to generate research across social psychology, organizational behavior, and related fields.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1960 |title=The Norm of Reciprocity: A Preliminary Statement |journal=American Sociological Review |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=161–178 |doi=10.2307/2092623}}</ref> Gouldner himself later reflected that the article’s frequent citation owed in part to its anticipation of the shift away from functionalist orthodoxy that would define the following decade.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://garfield.library.upenn.edu/classics1979/A1979HT60900001.pdf |title=This Week’s Citation Classic: The Norm of Reciprocity |publisher=Current Contents |access-date=2026-04-08}}</ref>

''[[Theory and Society]]'', which Gouldner founded in 1974, operated for nearly fifty years, with his wife, [[Janet Gouldner]], serving as executive editor for decades. In late 2023, [[Springer Nature]] replaced the journal’s editorial leadership. When several former editors subsequently launched a new open-access journal, ''[[Theory and Social Inquiry]]'', they explicitly described it as a continuation of the project Gouldner had begun.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://scatter.wordpress.com/2024/01/10/questions-for-the-new-theory-society-editorial-board/ |title=Questions for the new Theory & Society editorial board |last=Hirschman |first=Dan |date=January 10, 2024 |website=Scatterplot |access-date=2026-04-08}}</ref> == Writings ==

=== Early industrial sociology (1954) === Based on fieldwork at a gypsum plant in upstate New York, ''Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy'' identified three distinct patterns by which workplace rules are established and enforced. In mock bureaucracy, rules imposed from outside are ignored by both management and workers. In representative bureaucracy, rules are mutually endorsed and enforced with little conflict. In punishment-centered bureaucracy, rules are imposed by one party and resisted by the other, generating ongoing tension.<ref name="burawoy1982">{{cite journal |last=Burawoy |first=Michael |year=1982 |title=The Written and the Repressed in Gouldner’s Industrial Sociology |journal=Theory and Society |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=831–851 |doi=10.1007/BF00173633 |url=http://burawoy.berkeley.edu/Labor%20and%20Politics/Written&Repressed%20in%20Gouldner’s.pdf}}</ref> The book is considered a foundational text in the sociology of organizations.<ref name="chriss2001"/>{{rp|241}}

The companion volume, ''Wildcat Strike'', examined an unauthorized work stoppage at the same plant. Gouldner argued that when management abruptly overturned informal workplace expectations, like reassigning supervisors or speeding up machinery, workers responded with demands outside the formal grievance structure, producing a self-reinforcing cycle of conflict.<ref name="burawoy1982"/> Together the two books demonstrated the limits of purely formal accounts of bureaucratic authority and established Gouldner’s reputation in industrial sociology.<ref name="chriss2001"/>{{rp|255}}

=== ''The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology'' (1970) === ''The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology'' argued that American sociology was entering a period of crisis brought on by its own internal contradictions, its uncritical service to liberal welfare-state institutions, and the rebellion of younger radical scholars against the dominant [[structural functionalism|functionalist]] paradigm.<ref name="lemert1982">{{cite journal |last=Lemert |first=Charles |last2=Piccone |first2=Paul |year=1982 |title=Gouldner’s Theoretical Method and Reflexive Sociology |journal=Theory and Society |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=733–757 |doi=10.1007/BF00173628}}</ref>{{rp|734}} The book brought Gouldner to wide attention beyond the discipline.<ref name="chriss2005"/>{{rp|341}}

The book’s concluding section set out what Gouldner called “reflexive sociology”: the demand that sociologists turn the same critical scrutiny on their own assumptions and social positions that they applied to their objects of study.<ref name="chriss2000">{{cite journal |last=Chriss |first=James J. |year=2000 |title=Alvin W. Gouldner and the Tragic Vision in Sociology |journal=Social Thought and Research |volume=23 |pages=199–226|doi=10.17161/STR.1808.5169}}</ref>{{rp|200}} A reflexive social theory, in Gouldner’s formulation, would take into account not only external forces shaping intellectual life but also the internal social organization and subculture of intellectuals themselves.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|733}} Central to this program was his recurring question about the position of the theorist in relation to what is being observed, which he framed as asking where “the cameraman” fits in.<ref name="szelenyi1988">{{cite journal |last=Szelenyi |first=Ivan |last2=Martin |first2=Bill |year=1988 |title=The Three Waves of New Class Theories |journal=Theory and Society |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=645–667|doi=10.1007/BF00162614}}</ref>{{rp|649}}

=== “The Dark Side of the Dialectic” (1976–1985) === Gouldner conceived his final major project as a multi-volume study of ideology, intellectuals, and Marxism under the general title “The Dark Side of the Dialectic.”<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|753}} Three volumes appeared in his lifetime, followed by a posthumous fourth completed from his manuscripts by his wife Janet Gouldner and colleague Cornelis Disco.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Disco |first=Cornelis |last2=Gouldner |first2=Janet |year=1985 |chapter=Preface |title=Against Fragmentation |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=vii–viii|ol=5912025W}}</ref>

==== ''The Dialectic of Ideology and Technology'' (1976) ==== The first volume of the project examined ideology and social science as post-traditional symbol systems that arose in response to the crisis of traditional authority.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|748}} The volume introduced what Gouldner termed the “Culture of Critical Discourse” (CCD): a mode of speech and thought in which claims are justified by argument and evidence rather than by the speaker’s social position or inherited authority.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|747}}

Gouldner identified a tension within CCD that he considered fundamental. He argued that CCD’s reflexivity about the grounds of speech was a source of emancipatory potential, but its insistence on context-free rules also produced rigidity—what he called its “dark side.” This included a tendency toward inflexibility across concrete contexts and a tendency to obscure the social position of the speaker behind the impersonal form of the discourse.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|747–748}} The tension between the critical and the objectivizing tendencies of rational discourse became a central preoccupation of the subsequent volumes.

==== ''The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class'' (1979) ==== The second volume argued that a “New Class” of technical intelligentsia and humanistic intellectuals had emerged as a historically significant force. What unified this otherwise diverse group, in Gouldner’s account, was their shared possession of “cultural capital” acquired through education and expressed through the Culture of Critical Discourse. This cultural capital enabled them to challenge both the bureaucratic elites of state socialism and the owners of financial capital in the West.<ref name="szelenyi1988"/>{{rp|649}}<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|747}}

Gouldner characterized this New Class as a “flawed universal class.” He argued that, because its power would be grounded in theoretical knowledge, it would carry the most universal claim for legitimacy of any class in history. At the same time, the New Class, like any other historical agent, pursued its own interests, and its universalism was therefore fundamentally compromised.<ref name="szelenyi1988"/>{{rp|645}} He described the New Class as potentially the most progressive force in modern society, while insisting that its progressive character could not be taken on faith.<ref name="szelenyi1988"/>{{rp|645}}

Szelenyi and Martin placed Gouldner’s theory within a century-long tradition of “New Class” theorizing and assessed it as the most comprehensive of the knowledge-class theories of the 1900s.<ref name="szelenyi1988" />{{rp|645}} Critics objected that the phenomenon of middle-class radicalism it reflected upon was already in decline, and that the concept of “class” was poorly suited to the phenomenon Gouldner was describing.<ref name="szelenyi1988" />{{rp|646}} Lemert and Piccone noted that the New Class theory represented an uncharacteristic turn toward objectivism in Gouldner’s otherwise voluntarist thought.<ref name="lemert1982" />{{rp|746–748}}

==== ''The Two Marxisms'' (1980) ==== The third volume distinguished two recurring tendencies within the Marxist tradition. In Gouldner’s categorization, “Scientific Marxism” emphasized objective laws of historical development, structural determination, and the primacy of economic forces, while “Critical Marxism” emphasized subjective agency, moral commitment, and the possibility of conscious political action. Gouldner traced Scientific Marxism through the later Engels, Kautsky, and the Second International, and Critical Marxism through the early [[Georg Lukács|Lukács]], [[Antonio Gramsci|Gramsci]], and the [[Frankfurt School]].<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|738–739}}

While presenting the distinction analytically, Gouldner favored the Critical tendency because he believed social life is irreducibly indeterminate, meaning that neither structure nor will can be assessed independently of their encounter with each other.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|738}} He noted particular admiration for the early Lukács of ‘’[[History and Class Consciousness]]“, whose insistence on totality as the fundamental category of social analysis Gouldner regarded as the origin of modern Critical Marxism.<ref name="lemert1982"/>{{rp|739}}

==== ''Against Fragmentation'' (1985) ==== The posthumous fourth volume examined the origins of Marxism in relation to the sociology of intellectuals. It was assembled from Gouldner’s manuscripts after his death in 1980.<ref name=":0" />

== References == <references />

== Further reading == === Secondary literature === * {{cite journal |last=Berger |first=Bennett M. |year=1970 |title=The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology |journal=Social Problems |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=275–280 |doi=10.2307/799587 |jstor=799587}} ''Contemporary review of The Coming Crisis; questions Gouldner's account of Parsons's dominance.'' * {{cite book |last=Chriss |first=James J. |year=1999 |title=Alvin W. Gouldner: Sociologist and Outlaw Marxist |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-31480-1 |ol=56668M}} ''The main intellectual biography.'' * {{cite journal |last=Jay |first=Martin |year=1986 |title='Against Fragmentation' Against Itself: Contradictions and Anomalies in the Development of Gouldner's Theory |journal=Theory and Society |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=583–591 |doi=10.1007/BF00159269}} * {{cite journal |last=Lemert |first=Charles |last2=Piccone |first2=Paul |year=1982 |title=Gouldner's Theoretical Method and Reflexive Sociology |journal=Theory and Society |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=733–757 |doi=10.1007/BF00173628 |url=https://www.academia.edu/128432932/Gouldners_theoretical_method_and_reflexive_sociology}} * {{cite journal |last=Rhoads |first=John K. |year=1972 |title=On Gouldner's Crisis of Western Sociology |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=136–154 |doi=10.1086/225298}} * {{cite journal |last=Szelenyi |first=Ivan |last2=Martin |first2=Bill |year=1988 |title=The Three Waves of New Class Theories |journal=Theory and Society |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=645–667 |doi=10.1007/BF00162614 |url=https://www.academia.edu/19296023/The_three_waves_of_New_Class_theories}}

=== By Gouldner === * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1954 |title=Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy |publisher=Free Press |location=Glencoe, IL |isbn=978-0029127308 |ol=6154723M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1954 |title=Wildcat Strike: A Study in Worker-Management Relationships |publisher=Harper Torchbooks |location=New York |edition=1965 paperback |isbn=978-0061311765 |ol=6153192M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1970 |title=The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0465012787 |ol=4574929M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1973 |title=For Sociology: Renewal and Critique in Sociology Today |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0465024957 |ol=5473404M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1976 |title=The Dialectic of Ideology and Technology: The Origins, Grammar, and Future of Ideology |publisher=Seabury Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0816492756 |ol=21309864M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1979 |title=The Future of Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class |publisher=Seabury Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0816493586 |ol=4735136M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1980 |title=The Two Marxisms: Contradictions and Anomalies in the Development of Theory |publisher=Seabury Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0816491384 |ol=4414251M}} * {{cite book |last=Gouldner |first=Alvin W. |year=1985 |title=Against Fragmentation: The Origins of Marxism and the Sociology of Intellectuals |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0195033038 |ol=3502095M}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gouldner, Alvin Ward}} [[Category:1920 births]] [[Category:1980 deaths]] [[Category:American expatriates in the Netherlands]] [[Category:Antioch College faculty]] [[Category:Baruch College alumni]] [[Category:Columbia University alumni]] [[Category:University at Buffalo faculty]] [[Category:University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign faculty]] [[Category:Washington University in St. Louis faculty]] [[Category:20th-century American sociologists]]