{{Short description|Chinese cultural, philosophical, and political concept}} {{Redirect|T'ien Hsia|the magazine published in the 1930s and 1940s|T'ien Hsia Monthly|the 2007 TV series|Ming Dynasty (2007 TV series)}} {{Italic title}} {{Infobox Chinese |title=''Tianxia'' |c=天下 |l=under heaven<ref name="SullivanLiu-Sullivan2021">{{Cite book |last1=Sullivan |first1=Lawrence R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kIoTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA423 |title=Historical Dictionary of Chinese Culture |last2=Liu-Sullivan|first2=Nancy Y. |year=2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-4604-0 |page=423 }}</ref> |w=t'ien<sup>1</sup>-hsia<sup>4</sup> |p=tiānxià |gr=tianshiah |mi={{IPAc-cmn|t|ian|1|.|x|ia|4}} |j=tin1-haa6 |y=tīn-hah |ci={{IPAc-yue|t|in|1|.|h|aa|6}} |wuu=thie-ya |poj=thian-hā |buc=tiĕng-hâ |h=ien24 ha55 |kanji=天下 |kana={{ubl|てんか|てんげ|てんが|あめのした}} |romaji={{ubl|tenka|tenge|tenga|ame-no-shita}} |hanja=天下 |hangul=천하 |rr=cheonha |mr=ch'ŏnha |qn=thiên hạ |chuhan=天下 |zha={{ubl|[[File:Lajmbwn sawndip.png|class=skin-invert|30px]]|lajmbwn}} |pic= |piccap= }} {{Names of China}} '''{{translit|zh|Tianxia}}''' ({{lang-zh|c=天下|p=Tiānxià|l=[everything] under [[Tian|Heaven]]}}) is a term for a historical [[Chinese culture|Chinese cultural]] concept that denoted either the entire geographical world or the metaphysical realm of mortals, and later became associated with political sovereignty. In [[History of China#Ancient China|ancient China]] and [[History of China#Imperial China|imperial China]], ''tianxia'' denoted the lands, space, and area divinely appointed to the [[Chinese sovereign]] by universal and well-defined principles of order. The center of this land was directly apportioned to the Chinese court, forming the center of a world view that centered on the Chinese court and went concentrically outward to major and minor officials and then the common subjects, [[Tributary system of China|tributary states]], and finally ending with fringe [[Barbarian#China|barbarians]].
The larger concept of ''tianxia'' is closely associated with [[civilization]] and order in classical Chinese philosophy. Some contemporary Chinese scholars have attempted to apply the concept in the 21st century.
== Historical development == {{More citations needed section|date=May 2024}} The historical consensus is that a ''tianxia'' system existed at various points in Chinese history. Historical views differ, however, on exactly when it was in place.{{sfn|Tsang|Cheung|2024|pp=174–175}} According to academic Chenyang Song, in ancient times, ''tianxia'' represented a unity of the "supremacy" (maintaining interconnectedness between political entities), "heaven" (directing the fate of the people), and "ancestors" (who bestowed blessings on royal descendants).'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Chenyang |title=Nationalist and Popular Culture Practices on Social Media: A Digital Ethnography of Chinese Online Fandom Nationalists |date=2025 |publisher=Transcript |isbn=978-3-8376-7926-7 |edition= |location=Bielefeld}}</ref>'''{{Reference page|page=50}} How a system of ''tianxia'' operated varied over time, ranging from vassal states accepted the authority of a Chinese emperor to when vassal states nominally paid tribute while in fact exercising their own authority. In the most expansive historical view, a ''tianxia'' system existed between the Zhou (1027–256 BC) and Qing dynasties (1644–1911).{{sfn|Tsang|Cheung|2024|pp=174–175}}
According to political scientist [[Yan Xuetong]] of [[Tsinghua University]], "Given the then lack of a modern science of understanding geography, the Chinese notion of all under heaven meant all the land, sea, and people under heaven. The term all under heaven was virtually synonymous with the world."<ref>{{Cite book |first=Xuetong |last=Yan |author-link=Yan Xuetong |title=Ancient Chinese Thought, Modern Chinese Power |date=2013-12-31 |volume=5 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-1-4008-4895-9 |editor-first=Zhe |editor-last=Sun |page=218 |doi=10.1515/9781400848959 |jstor=j.ctt32bbm1}}</ref> As reconstructed by philosopher [[Zhao Tingyang]], ''tianxia'' presupposed "inclusion of all" and implied acceptance of the world's diversities, emphasizing harmonious reciprocal dependence and ruled by virtue as a means for lasting peace.{{sfn|Zhao|2023|p=120–121}} According to Zhao, in the ''tianxia'' system, rulers relied on humane authority, as opposed to tyranny and military force, to win the hearts and minds of the people.{{sfn|Zhao|2023|p=120–121}}
The ''tianxia'' [[world view]] was not fully developed during the [[Shang dynasty]]. During the [[Zhou dynasty]], it is first attested that Heaven took on anthropomorphic deity traits,{{relevance inline|date=July 2024}} and the concept of ''tianxia'' became common. Other political terms emerged during this time. These include {{zhl|c=四方|p=sìfāng|l=four quarters}}—referring to the territory established by the Zhou court and governed from the capital—and {{zhl|t=萬邦|s=万邦|p=wànbāng|l=ten thousand states}}, referring to both the territory as well as the [[Huaxia|Hua]] and [[Hua–Yi distinction|barbarian]] subjects residing on it. The Zhou kings received and empowered these "Ten Thousand States" by virtue of the [[Mandate of Heaven]].{{citation needed|date=May 2024}}
During the [[Spring and Autumn period|Spring and Autumn]] and [[Warring States period]]s comprising the latter half of the Zhou dynasty, the power of local rulers developed rapidly, and several regions outside the Zhou cultural sphere became powerful [[State (Ancient China)|states]] themselves.<ref>{{Cite thesis |first=Matti| last= Puranen |date=17 Jul 2020 |title=Warring States and Harmonized Nations: Tianxia Theory as a World Political Argument |url=https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/71032/978-951-39-8218-8_vaitos_2020_07_17_jyx.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214021008/https://jyx.jyu.fi/bitstream/handle/123456789/71032/978-951-39-8218-8_vaitos_2020_07_17_jyx.pdf |archive-date=14 Dec 2020 |institution=University of Jyväskylä| degree=PhD | isbn= 978-951-39-8218-8 |series=JYU Dissertations, no. 247}}</ref> As many of these states had shared cultural heritage and economic interests, the concept of a great nation centered on the [[Yellow River Plain]] gradually expanded. The term ''tianxia'' began to appear in classical texts such as the ''[[Zuozhuan]]''<ref>For ''tianxia'' in the ''Zuozhuan'', the first appearance in the text is in '''Zhuang''' 12, in the narrative portion; the first appearance in the annalistic portion is in '''Xi''' 24 (636 BCE).<br />{{cite book| pages=168, 372 |editor3-last= Schaberg | editor3-first= David | editor2-last= Li | editor2-first=Wai-yee <!-- | editor2-link=Wai-yee Li --> | editor1-last= Durrant | editor1-first= Stephen | editor1-link= Stephen Durrant | editor3-link= David Schaberg | publisher= University of Washington Press | title= Zuo Tradition. Zuozhuan. 左傳: Commentary on the "Spring and Autumn Annals" | isbn = 978-0-295-999159 | date= 2016}}</ref> and ''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]''.<ref>See for example ''[[Guoyu (book)|Guoyu]]'' {{strong|1}} in [[:zh:s:國語/卷01#內史過論晉惠公必無後|內史過論晉惠公必無後]].</ref>
The theme of unification applied to ''tianxia'' can be seen in [[Sun Tzu]]'s ''[[The Art of War]]'' where the supreme goal of offensive strategy was to conquer without destroying that which you sought to conquer:
{{Verse translation |2=Your aim must be to take All-under-Heaven intact. Thus your troops are not worn out and your gains will be complete. This is the art of offensive strategy. |1=必以全爭於{{serif|天下}}，故兵不頓而利可全，此謀攻之法也。 |lang1=zh|italicsoff= mos |attr1=Sun Tzu,''The Art of War''<br />Chapter III<ref>''Sunzi Bingfa'', [[:zh:s:孫子兵法#謀攻第三|謀攻第三]].</ref>|attr2=Griffith translation, 1963<ref>{{cite book | author=Sun Tzu| author-link= Sunzi |date=1963| orig-date =c. 300s BCE | title=The Art of War |translator= Samuel Griffith| place= New York|publisher =Oxford University Press|page= 79}}</ref>}}
During [[Qin's wars of unification]], the concept of ''tianxia'' was adapted to act as an actual geographic entity. [[Qin Shi Huang]]'s goal to 'unify all under Heaven' was in fact representative of his desire to control and expand Chinese territory. At the founding of the [[Han dynasty]], the equivalence of ''tianxia'' with the Chinese nation evolved due to the practice of [[enfeoffment]] of imperial relatives in return for military assistance. Although many areas enjoyed great autonomy, the practice established and spread Chinese language and culture throughout an even wider territory.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} Scholars including [[Dong Zhongshu]] sought to standardize the meaning of ''tianxia''.<ref name=":Laikwan2">{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=9781503638815 |location=Stanford, CA}}</ref>{{Rp|page=45}} Dong described ''tianxia'' as a world order in three concentric layers: "The nation is on the inside and the various feudal kingdoms are on the outside; the feudal kingdoms are on the inside while the barbarians are on the outside."<ref name=":Laikwan2" />{{Rp|page=45}}
Unified China fractured into many different dynasties during the [[Northern and Southern period]], and with it went the practical use of the term ''tianxia''. In the 7th century during the [[Tang dynasty]], some northern tribes of [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin, after being made vassal, referred to [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong]] as the "[[Khan of Heaven]]".<ref>{{ cite book | page = 79 | last= Liu | first= Yitang | author-mask = Liu Yitang | date= 1997 | title= Studies of Chinese Western Regions| place =Taipei|publisher =Cheng Chung Book Company | isbn= 957-09-1119-0}}</ref>
By the time of the [[Song dynasty]], northern China was ruled by the [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-led [[Liao dynasty]], the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-led [[Jin dynasty (1115-1234)|Jin dynasty]], and the [[Tangut people|Tangut]]-led [[Western Xia]] dynasty. After being threatened by these northern states and realizing the possible effects of a war to the country and people, the Song rulers invented a false concept of kinship with the Jurchens in an attempt to improve relations.{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}} The [[Mongols|Mongol]]-led [[Yuan dynasty]] divided Chinese subjects into two types: those of the south, and those of the north. When the [[Ming dynasty]] overthrew the Yuan dynasty and reunited China under [[Han people|ethnic Han]] rule, the concept of ''tianxia'' returned largely as it was during the Han dynasty.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
At the end of the Ming dynasty, criticisms of [[Neo-Confucianism]] and its mantras of 'cultivation of moral character, establishment of family, ordering the state, and harmonizing ''tianxia''{{'}}, a quote from the ''[[Great Learning]]'',<ref>{{cite book | script-title=zh:四書章句集註 | trans-title= Collected Passages from the Four Books, with Annotations | editor= Zhu Xi | editor-link= Zhu Xi | chapter= [[:zh:s:四書章句集註/大學章句|Passages from the ''Da Xue'']] | language=zh | quote=物格而后知至。知至而后意誠。意誠而后心正。心正而后身脩。身脩而后家齊。家齊而后國治。國治而后天下平。| date=1100s}}</ref> became widespread, producing large shifts in [[Confucianism]]. The philosopher [[Wang Fuzhi]] believed that ''tianxia'' was of a fixed, unchangeable dimension, notwithstanding the fact that the Great Learning's mentioning of harmonizing ''tianxia'' was actually in reference to government. Using these arguments, Wang was highly critical of Neo-Confucianism. On the other hand, the collapse of the Ming dynasty and the establishment of the [[Manchu people|Manchu]]-led [[Qing dynasty]] by the, people previously considered "fringe barbarians", heavily influenced people's views of ''tianxia''. [[Gu Yanwu]], a contemporary of Wang Fuzhi, wrote that the destruction of the State was not equivalent to the destruction of ''tianxia''. He argued that the Manchus simply filled the role of Emperor, and that the ''tianxia'' of traditional Chinese culture was thus carried on.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
The idea of the absolute authority of the Chinese emperor and the extension of ''tianxia'' by the assimilation of vassal states began to fade for good with [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|George Macartney]]'s embassy to China in 1793. George Macartney hoped to deal with China as [[Great Britain]] would with other European nations of the time, and to persuade the Emperor to reduce restrictions on trade. The [[Qianlong Emperor]] rejected his request, and stated that China was the foremost and most divine nation on Earth and had no interest in foreign goods. In the early 19th century, Britain's victory over Qing China in the [[First Opium War]] forced China to sign an [[unequal treaty]]. This marked the beginning of the end for the ''tianxia'' concept.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
Following their defeat in the [[Second Opium War]], China was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Tianjin]], in which China was made to refer to Great Britain as a "sovereign nation", equal to itself. This made it impossible for China to continue dealing with other nations under the traditional ''tianxia'' system, and forced it to establish [[Zongli Yamen|a foreign affairs bureau]].{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
Due to the [[liberal international order]] arguably being based on [[Westphalian sovereignty]], the idea that sovereign nations deal with each other as equals, China's traditional ''tianxia'' worldview collapsed.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Tingyang |last=Zhao |author-link=Zhao Tingyang |title=All under Heaven: The Tianxia System for a Possible World Order |date=2021-06-29 |volume=3 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-520-97421-0 |edition=1 |translator-last=Harroff |translator-first=Joseph E. |doi=10.2307/j.ctv1n9dkth |jstor=j.ctv1n9dkth}}</ref> After China's defeat in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], the Japanese terminated Korea's traditional status as a tributary state of China, and the system of feudal enfeoffment and vassalage that had been practiced since the Han dynasty came to an end, a move that greatly changed attitudes toward the ''tianxia'' concept. At the end of the 19th century, Chinese Ambassador to Britain [[Xue Fucheng]] took the traditional [[Hua-Yi distinction]] in the ''tianxia'' world view and replaced it with a Chinese-foreigner distinction.{{citation needed|date=March 2024}}
In the 21st century, some academics have criticized contemporary philosopher Zhao Tingyang for "aggrandising" the concept of ''tianxia'' and being vague on details of what it may entail in the contemporary world.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Dykmann |first1=Klaas |last2=Bruun |first2=Ole |date=May 31, 2021 |title=China's Pledge to Civilise "All Under Heaven" |journal=[[Journal of Current Chinese Affairs]] |language=en |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=227–247 |doi=10.1177/1868102621992775 |issn=1868-1026 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==Usage in the Sinosphere== {{See also|Little China (ideology)}}
=== Korea === Based on epitaphs dating to the 4th and 5th centuries, [[Goguryeo]] had concepts of [[Son of Heaven]] ({{lang|ko|天帝之子}}) and independent ''tianxia''.<ref>{{multiref2|{{Cite journal |first=Yeongkwang |last=Jo |author-mask = Jo Yeongkwang (조영광)|date=2015 |title=Status and Tasks for Study of the Foreign Relations and World View of Koguryo in the Gwanggaeto Stele |url=http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE06520451 |journal=Dongbuga Yeoksa Nonchong |language=ko |issue=49 |pages=70–76 |issn=1975-7840 |access-date=3 November 2018 | script-title=ko:광개토왕비에 보이는 대외 관계와 고구려 천하관에 대한 연구 현황과 과제}}|{{Cite web |script-title=ko:고구려의 천하관 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?treeId=010201&tabId=01&levelId=hm_013_0010 |access-date=3 November 2018 |website={{lang|ko|우리역사넷}} |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=ko}}|{{Cite web |script-title=ko:장수왕의 남진 정책 |url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/ta/view.do?levelId=ta_m71_0030_0020_0010_0020 |access-date=6 December 2018 |website={{lang|ko|우리역사넷}} |publisher=National Institute of Korean History |language=ko}}}}</ref> The rulers of [[Goryeo]] used the titles of emperor and Son of Heaven, and positioned Goryeo at the center of the {{Transliteration|ko|haedong}} 'east of the sea', which encompassed the historical domain of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Em |first=Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C&pg=PA24 |title=The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea |date=2013 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-822-35372-0 |pages=24–26 |access-date=3 November 2018}}</ref>
During the 17th century, with the fall of the Ming dynasty in China, a concept of Korea as the cultural center of Confucianism, or "[[Sojunghwa|Little China]]" emerged among the Confucian literati of the Joseon dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Berger |first=Stefan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qIODDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA126 |title=Writing the Nation: A Global Perspective |year=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-22305-9 |page=126 |access-date=4 November 2018}}</ref>
=== Contemporary China === Chinese [[state media]] frequently portrays [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party|general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] [[Xi Jinping]] as having the ''tianxia'' perspective to seek "rejuvenation of the Chinese nation and peaceful development of humanity".{{sfn|Zhao|2023|p=120–121}} Under this contemporary view, China's re-emergence as a great power presents an opportunity to reshape the [[liberal international order]] into a hub-and-spoke pattern around a single, central state.<ref>{{Citation |last=Babones |first=Salvatore |title=Taking China Seriously: Relationality, Tianxia, and the "Chinese School" of International Relations |date=2017-09-26 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |language=en |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.602 |isbn=978-0-19-022863-7 |doi-access=free |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Babones |first=Salvatore |date=25 September 2019 |title=From Tianxia to Tianxia: The Generalization of a Concept |journal=Chinese Political Science Review |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=131–147 |doi=10.1007/s41111-019-00139-9 |issn=2365-4244}}</ref> In this contemporary discourse on ''tianxia'', proponents argue that ''tianxia''{{'}}s moral appeal distinguishes it from ''[[realpolitik]]'', which they submit as creating discord. Similarly, this modern treatment toward ''tianxia'' purports to be superior to the [[United Nations]] system, which is characterized as more akin to a political market, in which political operations are limited and constrained by parochial national interests. Historian [[Steve Tsang]] states that the [[Chinese Communist Party]]'s concept of "[[Community of Common Destiny]]" presumes a vision of ''tianxia'' over and above the liberal international order.{{sfn|Tsang|Cheung|2024}}{{sfn|Zhao|2023|p=120–121}} At the [[CPC in Dialogue with World Political Parties High-level Meeting]] in 2017, Xi said:{{sfn|Tsang|Cheung|2024|p=172-173}}<blockquote>The Chinese nation has aspired for "all being one family under heaven<nowiki>''</nowiki> since ancient times. We believe in harmony between humankind and the world, harmony among all nations, and great harmony for all under tianxia. We long for the utopian world of "when the Great Way prevails, tianxia works for the common good:' ... People of different countries across the world should uphold the concept of 'we are all one family under heaven;' embrace each other with open arms, understand each other, seek commonalities and respect differences, and collectively work hard to build the common destiny for humankind.</blockquote>Applying the ''tianxia'' system to a modern framework, Chinese political scientist Yan Xuetong argues that great powers seeking international respect must use "humane authority" instead of seeking to impose hegemony.{{sfn|Zhao|2023|p=120–121}} These concepts influence the [[Chinese school of international relations]].<ref name=":Curtis&Klaus">{{Cite book |last1=Curtis |first1=Simon |title=The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order |last2=Klaus |first2=Ian |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=9780300266900 |location=New Haven and London |publication-date=2024 |pages=199 |doi=10.2307/jj.11589102 |jstor=jj.11589102}}</ref>
Various academics have noted that the current discourse of ''tianxia'' has been produced for domestic consumption and risks alienating foreigners.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Callahan |first=William A. |author-link=William A. Callahan |date=18 November 2008 |title=Chinese Visions of World Order: Post-hegemonic or a New Hegemony? |journal=[[International Studies Review]] |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=749–761 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2486.2008.00830.x|url=https://pure.manchester.ac.uk/ws/files/27692570/POST-PEER-REVIEW-PUBLISHERS-DOCUMENT.PDF }}</ref> Danish academics Klaas Dykmann and Ole Bruun state, "[f]oreign observers, particularly in democratic societies, will further note the glaring inconsistencies between the “harmonious world” conception and the tough realities of the domestic harmonious society, and between China's global media outreach and its increasing domestic control, digital surveillance, blacklisting, and media isolation of the Chinese public."<ref name=":0" />
== Western calques == The expression 'all under heaven' inspired literary expressions with reference to China in a number of Western languages, such as the Russian {{lang|ru|Поднебесная}} {{Transliteration|ru|Podnebesnaya}}. The English term "[[Celestial Empire]]" is possibly derived from the title "Son of Heaven".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Weekley |first=Ernest |url=https://archive.org/details/etymologicaldict00week |title=An etymological dictionary of modern English |year=1967 |publisher=Dover |page=270 |url-access=registration}}</ref>
== Other usage == In 2013, the Singaporean historian [[Wang Gungwu]] coined the term "[[American Tianxia|American ''Tianxia'']]" to refer to the contemporary world order led by the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Gungwu |title=Renewal: The Chinese State and the New Global History |url=https://www.thechinastory.org/2013/08/wang-gungwu-%E7%8E%8B%E5%BA%9A%E6%AD%A6-on-tianxia-%E5%A4%A9%E4%B8%8B/ |access-date=1 July 2017 |website=Australian Centre on China in the World |publisher=Chinese University Press}}</ref>
== See also == * [[Chinese unification]] * [[Chinese exceptionalism]] * [[Four Seas]] *{{anli|Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere}} * [[Huaxia]] * [[Heaven worship]] * [[Hero (2002 film)]] — 2002 film centered on the term with controversy on the translation of ''tianxia'' to ''All Under Heaven'' versus ''Our Land'' * [[Panarchy (political philosophy)|Panarchy]] * ''[[Pax Sinica]]'' * [[The Land of Fire]] * [[Zhao Tingyang]] * [[Universal monarchy]]
== References == === Citations === {{Reflist|20em}}
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{{Religious Confucianism}}
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