Albolafia

{{Short description|Islamic era watermill in Córdoba, Spain}} {{For|the Arabic surname|Abulafia (surname)}} [[File:Córdoba 2015 10 23 2593 (25944141760) (cropped).jpg|thumb|The Albolafia's [[noria]] today]] The '''Albolafia''', also known as the '''''Molino de la Albolafia''''' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ('the Albolafia's mill'), is a medieval [[noria]] (or [[Water wheel|waterwheel]]) on the [[Guadalquivir|Guadalquivir River]] in the [[Historic centre of Córdoba|historic center]] of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]]. It is one of several [[Mills of the Guadalquivir|historic watermills of Cordoba]] and is located close to the [[Roman bridge of Córdoba|Roman Bridge]] and to the [[Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos|Christian Alcazar]]. It is commonly believed to date from the [[Al-Andalus|Islamic era]] of the city, though its exact origins are uncertain.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Córdoba de la Llave|first=Ricardo|date=1997|title=La noria fluvial en la provincia de Córdoba. Historia y tecnología|url=https://helvia.uco.es/xmlui/handle/10396/13558#:~:text=La%20noria%20fluvial%20ha%20sido,uso%20hasta%20el%20siglo%20XX.|journal=Meridies|publisher=Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad y Edad Media, Universidad de Córdoba|volume=4|pages=149–190}}</ref>

== Etymology == According to Spanish scholar Felix Hernández Giménez, the name ''Albolafia'', with an [[Arabic]] meaning equivalent to "good luck" or "good health",<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Roldan|first1=Jose|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jS7MBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR5|title=Water Engineering and Management through Time: Learning from History|last2=Moreno|first2=Maria Fatima|publisher=CRC Press|year=2010|editor-last=Cabrera|editor-first=Enrique|chapter=Water engineering and management in Al-Andalus|isbn=9780203836736|editor-last2=Arregui|editor-first2=Francisco}}</ref> came from an architect called Abu l-Afiya who renovated and improved the noria in the 12th century.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Castro-García|first1=Miguel|last2=Rojas-Sola|first2=José Ignacio|last3=de la Morena-de la Fuente|first3=Eduardo|date=2015|title=Technical and functional analysis of Albolafia waterwheel (Cordoba, Spain): 3D modeling, computational-fluid dynamics simulation and finite-element analysis|journal=Energy Conversion and Management|volume=92|pages=207–214|doi=10.1016/j.enconman.2014.12.047}}</ref> The name Abu al-Afiya is also attributed to "a Jewish merchant tasked to create a more efficient chain pump that would allow for easier transportation of water to Alcazar Palace Gardens by Abd al-Rahman II."<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Murad |first1= Mahmoud |last2= Batirbaygil |first2= Mehmet |last3= Pilehavrian |first3= Nuran |date= 2019 |title= The layers of Cordoba: an analytical historical study for the effect of religion conflict on architectural and urban features |journal= Journal of Architecture and Urbanism |volume= 43 |issue= 2 |pages= 158–165 |url= http://earsiv.cankaya.edu.tr:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/20.500.12416/6134/Article.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |access-date= Jan 17, 2025 }} </ref>

The word ''noria'', in turn, is derived from Arabic ''nā‘ūra'' (ناعورة), which comes from the Arabic verb meaning to "groan" or "grunt", in reference to the sound it made when turning.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

== History ==

=== Origins === [[File:Córdoba maravillosa.jpg|thumb|View of the noria from the city side: the [[horseshoe arch]] on the left is all that remains of the former aqueduct which brought water from the wheel to the palace]] The exact history and origins of the Noria of Albolafia are not clear,<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Albolafia (2 o 2) - Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs {{!}} Virtual Tour|url=https://alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es/?id=666&lang=3|access-date=2021-02-20|website=alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es}}</ref> although it is known that norias of this kind were a common feature of hydraulic technology across much of the historic [[Islam]]ic world, including [[Al-Andalus]].<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Barrucand|first1=Marianne|title=Moorish architecture in Andalusia|last2=Bednorz|first2=Achim|publisher=Taschen|year=1992|isbn=3822896322|location=|pages=35}}</ref> The Albolafia noria may well have [[Roman Empire|Roman]] foundations<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Headworth|first=H. G.|date=2004|title=Early Arab Water Technology in Southern Spain|journal=Water and Environment Journal|volume=18|issue=3|pages=161–165|doi=10.1111/j.1747-6593.2004.tb00519.x|s2cid=108444717 |doi-access=free}}</ref> as Romans also used hydraulic mills on the river.<ref name=":3" /> Four Roman mills are believed to have existed here and were connected by a [[weir]] that helped to control the water and direct it to the mills.<ref name=":4" />

Some authors cite the Albolafia's origins as early as 9th century at the time of [[Abd al-Rahman II|Abd ar-Rahman II]],<ref name=":4" /> who was responsible for improving the gardens of the [[Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos|Alcázar]] (royal palace) and improving the city's water supply.<ref name=":24">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last=M. Bloom|editor-first=Jonathan|chapter=Córdoba|editor-last2=S. Blair|editor-first2=Sheila}}</ref> In particular, the 16th-century writer [[Ambrosio de Morales]] claimed that the waterwheel existed in the early 9th century, but it's unclear what evidence he had to support this date.<ref name=":0" /> Sources from the 10th century mention the existence of water mills along this part of the Guadalquivir River.<ref name=":2" /> The [[Morocco|Moroccan]] historian [[Ibn Idhari]], writing in 1306, likewise claimed that a large noria was built here in the 10th century (presumably during the time of [[Abd al-Rahman III|Abd ar-Rahman III]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Miranda|first=Adriana de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6rsB59RRZkC&q=cordoba&pg=PA55|title=Water Architecture in the Lands of Syria: The Water-wheels|publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider|year=2007|isbn=9788882654337|pages=55}}</ref>

Modern scholars have differed on the most likely origins of the structure. [[Leopoldo Torres Balbás]], a 20th-century Spanish scholar, supported earlier claims by [[Évariste Lévi-Provençal|Lévi-Provençal]] that the noria was built in 1136-37 by Tashufin, the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravid]] governor of Cordoba during the reign of [[Ali ibn Yusuf]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Torres Balbás |first=Leopoldo |date=1942 |title=La Albolafia de Córdoba y la gran noria toledana |url=https://oa.upm.es/34084/1/1942_albolafia.pdf |journal=Al-Andalus |language=es |volume=VII |pages=176}}</ref> This 12th-century Almoravid origin is considered one of the most plausible and frequently repeated hypotheses.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last1=León Muñoz |first1=Alberto |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u-yyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA205 |title=A Companion to Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Cordoba: Capital of Roman Baetica and Caliphate of al-Andalus |last2=Montejo Córdoba |first2=Alberto Javier |publisher=Brill |year=2023 |isbn=978-90-04-52415-6 |editor-last=Monferrer-Sala |editor-first=Juan Pedro |pages=205–207 |language=en |chapter=The Medina: The Old City of Cordoba |editor-last2=Monterroso-Checa |editor-first2=Antonio}}</ref> Manuel Ocaña Jiménez, another 20th-century scholar, believed that the 9th-century ruler Abd ar-Rahman II was most likely responsible for its construction.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ocaña Jiménez |first=Manuel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C1F6PwAACAAJ |title=Córdoba: colonia romana, corte de los califas, luz de occidente |publisher=Everest |year=1975 |isbn=978-84-241-4010-6 |editor-last=Bernier Luque |editor-first=Juan |location=Léon |language=es |chapter=Córdoba musulmana |editor-last2=Juárez |editor-first2=José María Ortiz |editor-last3=Hierro |editor-first3=Miguel Salcedo}}</ref> More recently, archeologists Alberto León Muñoz and Alberto Javier Montejo Córdoba agree with this, arguing that 19th-century photographs of the structure (before later changes) show architectural elements characteristic of the 9th century and indicative of a construction during the reigns of Abd ar-Rahman II or his successor, [[Muhammad I of Córdoba|Muhammad I]].<ref name=":5" /> Felix Hernández Giménez, who restored the structure in the 20th century, claimed that large parts of the structure could be dated to the time of [[Alfonso XI of Castile|Alfonso XI]] in the 14th century, with additional restorations in the 15th century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hernández Giménez |first=Feliz |date=1961–1962 |title=Restauración en el molino de la Albolafia de Córdoba |url=https://dokumen.tips/documents/restauracion-de-la-albolafia.html?page=13 |journal=Al-Mulk |volume=2 |pages=161–173}}</ref> Adding to this, Ricardo Córdoba de la Llave argues that historic Muslim sources are not explicit in their mention of the Albolafia noria in particular and that the evidence of the building's masonry and of nearby medieval structures suggests that the current structure was built in the 14th century, though it could have been a reconstruction over an earlier Islamic noria.<ref name=":0" />

=== Later history === [[File:Molino de La Albolafia, Narciso Sentenach Cabañas.jpg|thumb|The Albolafia mill in a 1907 painting. The arches of the former aqueduct are visible on the right side and a house for the more recent mill is attached on the left side; but both elements were demolished in the 20th century.]] The noria was clearly featured in some 14th-century [[Seal (emblem)|seals]] of the [[City council|council]] of Cordoba that depict the city's riverbank along with the [[Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba|Mosque-Cathedral]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The wheel of the noria was dismantled in 1492 on the orders of [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella]], who complained of the noise it made as she lay sick inside the [[Alcázar de los Reyes Cristianos|Christian-era Alcázar]].<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> It is possible that the creation of new water supplies also made the noria redundant or dispensable.<ref name=":0" />

At some point in the 16th or 17th century, the noria was converted into a [[Gristmill|flour mill]] which remained operational until the 20th century.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> Between 1904 and 1910, a dam was built around the area of the mill in order to contain the river during floods. The dam's construction resulted in the demolition of a part of the historic mill building as well as the demolition of two of the three remaining arches of the former aqueduct which delivered water from the wheel to the city.<ref name=":0" />

In the 1960s, the architect and scholar Felix Hernández Giménez was tasked by the city council to conduct a restoration of the noria, including a reconstruction of its medieval waterwheel.<ref name=":0" /> In order to rebuild the waterwheel, Hernández Giménez had to demolish more of the former mill, in particular a house that had been built on the side of the structure facing the river. This uncovered the original southern facade of the noria building, though Hernández Giménez had to further expand the central arch of the structure in order to create fittings for the axis of the replica wheel. In the decades after this restoration, the wooden wheel began to warp out of shape, and between 1993 and 1994 it was replaced again with an exact replica.<ref name=":0" />

== Description and function == The noria's original purpose is believed to have been to raise water from the river and into an aqueduct that delivered water to the city and to the nearby Alcazar (royal palace). The wheel, which has a diameter of 15 meters, was propelled by the force of the river's current. Buckets around its circumference collected water and dropped it into the aqueduct's channel.<ref name=":4" />

After the 15th century, following the original wheel's dismantlement, the noria was no longer used to supply water and the aqueduct which connected it to the city was dispensable. A part of the aqueduct, consisting of three [[horseshoe arch]]es, was still standing and attached to the structure up until the beginning of the 20th century. Today, only one of its arches, standing perpendicular to the river and to the main axis of the building, is still visible.<ref name=":0" />

== References == {{Commons category}} {{Reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Córdoba, Spain]] [[Category:Historic centre of Córdoba, Spain]] [[Category:Watermills in Spain]] [[Category:Moorish architecture in Spain]]