{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] --> {{use dmy dates|date=February 2025}} {{Redirect|African Music|the music journal|African Music (journal)}} [[File:Umm_Kulthum_1969.jpg|thumb|[[Umm Kulthum]]]] The '''continent of [[Africa]] and its music''' is vast and highly diverse, with different [[Regions of Africa|regions]] and [[List of African countries|nations]] maintaining distinct [[music]]al traditions. African music includes genres such as makwaya, [[highlife]], [[Mbube (genre)|mbube]], [[township music]], [[Jùjú music|jùjú]], [[Fuji music|fuji]] water, [[jaiva]], [[afrobeat]], [[Afro fusion|afrofusion]], [[mbalax]], [[Congolese rumba]], [[soukous]], [[ndombolo]], [[makossa]], [[kizomba]], and [[taarab]], among others.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Collins |first=Professor John |year=2002 |title=African Popular Music |url=https://sites.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/African%20Music_Site/AfricanPopularMusicCollins.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028112943/https://sites.ualberta.ca/~michaelf/African%20Music_Site/AfricanPopularMusicCollins.htm |archive-date=28 October 2021 |access-date=13 December 2023 |website=University of Alberta}}</ref> African music also uses a wide variety of instruments from across the continent.
The music and dance traditions of the [[African diaspora]], shaped to varying degrees by African musical traditions, include [[music of the United States|American genres]] such as [[Dixieland jazz]], [[blues]], and [[jazz]], as well as [[Caribbean music|Caribbean]] styles such as [[calypso music|calypso]] (see [[kaiso]]), and [[soca music|soca]]. [[Latin American music]] genres including [[cumbia]], [[salsa music|salsa]], [[son cubano]], [[Cuban rumba|rumba]], [[conga (music)|conga]], [[Bomba (Puerto Rico)|bomba]], [[samba]], and [[Zouk (musical movement)|zouk]] developed from the music of [[Trans-Atlantic slave trade|enslaved Africans]] and have, in turn, influenced contemporary [[African popular music]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Columbia University" />
{{Multiple image | total_width = 250 | image1 = François Luambo Luanzo Makiadi se produisant au Zaïre (cropped).jpg | caption1 = [[Franco Luambo]] | caption_align = center }}
Like the music of Asia, India, and the [[Middle East]], African music is highly rhythmic. Its complex rhythmic patterns often involve one rhythm played against another to create a [[polyrhythm]]. A common example is the three-against-two rhythm, comparable to a triplet played against straight notes. [[Sub-Saharan African music traditions]] frequently rely on a wide array of [[Percussion|percussion instruments]], including [[xylophone]]s, [[djembe]]s, [[drums]], and tone-producing instruments such as the [[mbira]] or "thumb piano".<ref name="Columbia University">{{cite web|title=Definitions of Styles and Genres: Traditional and Contemporary African Music|url=http://www.colum.edu/cbmr/Resources/style-genre-definitions.html|work=CBMR|publisher=Columbia University|access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Estrella|first=Espie|title=African music|url=http://musiced.about.com/od/historyofmusic/a/africanmusic.htm|work=Music Education|publisher=about.com|access-date=1 March 2014}}</ref>
Another distinguishing feature of African music is its [[call-and-response]] style, in which one voice or instrument plays a short melodic phrase, and that phrase is echoed by another voice or instrument. This interaction also extends to the rhythm, with one drum playing a rhythmic pattern that is echoed or complemented by another. African music is also highly improvised. A core rhythmic pattern is typically played, with drummers then improvising new patterns over the established foundation.
Traditional music in much of the continent is passed down through [[oral tradition]]. Subtle differences in pitch and intonation that do not easily translate to Western notation. African music most closely adheres to Western [[tetratonic scale|tetratonic]] (four-note), [[pentatonic scale|pentatonic]] (five-note), [[hexatonic scale|hexatonic]] (six-note), and [[heptatonic scale|heptatonic]] (seven-note) scales. [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony|Harmonization of the melody]] is accomplished by singing in parallel thirds, fourths, or fifths.
Music is an integral part of [[African communalism|communal life in Africa]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Takyiwaa |first1=Manuh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6KyAwAAQBAJ&dq=Music+in+Africa+is+embedded+into+every+aspect+of+life&pg=PA430 |title=Africa in Contemporary Perspective: A Textbook for Undergraduate Students |last2=Esi |first2=Sutherland-Addy |date=2014-05-08 |publisher=Sub-Saharan Publishers |isbn=978-9988-647-37-7 |pages=430 |language=en}}</ref> It is created for both public enjoyment and public participation, and it is this social bonding over music that informed [[Christopher Small]]'s idea of ''[[musicking]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Crossley |first=Nick |date=2022 |title=Musicking to Music Worlds: On Christopher Small's Important Innovation |url=https://musicresearchannual.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Crossley%E2%80%94Musicking-to-Music-Worlds.pdf |journal=Music Research Annual |volume=3}}</ref> Music serves as an avenue for social commentary and [[moralism]], taking forms such as work songs, love songs, [[Lullaby|lullabies]], boasting songs, praise songs, narrative songs, and satirical songs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Darkwa |first=Asante |date=1987 |title=Culture and communication: music, song and dance as medium of communications in África. |journal=Revista África |volume=10 |issue=10 |pages=131–139 |doi=10.11606/issn.2526-303X.v0i10p131-139 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Music is also important to religion, where rituals and religious ceremonies use music to pass down stories across generations and to accompany singing and dancing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Floyd |first=Samuel A. |title=The Power of Black Music: Interpreting Its History from Africa to the United States |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |pages=14–34}}</ref>
== Music by regions == === North Africa and the Horn of Africa === {{Main|Middle Eastern and North African music traditions|Arabic music|Middle Eastern music}}
[[North Africa]] is the seat of [[ancient Egypt]] and [[Carthage]], civilizations with strong ties to the [[ancient Near East]] and which influenced the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] cultures. [[Egypt]] later came under [[History of Persian Egypt|Persian]], then [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Greek]] and [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman]] rule, while Carthage was later ruled by the [[Africa (Roman province)|Romans]] and the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]]. The region was subsequently [[Early Muslim conquests|conquered]] by [[Caliphate|Arab forces]], who incorporated the region into the [[Maghreb]] of [[Arab Africa]] ''(sky-blue and dark green region on map)''.<ref name="Mdacacos">{{cite book|last=Abdullahi|first=Mohamed Diriye|title=Culture and customs of Somalia|publisher=Greenwood|year=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/170 170–171]|isbn=978-0-313-31333-2|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00diri/page/170}}</ref> Its music maintains close ties with [[Middle Eastern music]] and utilizes similar melodic [[Mode (music)|modes]] (''maqamat'').<ref name="Hoppenstand">{{cite book|last=Hoppenstand|first=Gary|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Popular Culture, Volume 4|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|isbn=978-0-313-33255-5|page=205}}</ref>
North African music encompasses a wide range of styles, from the [[Music of Egypt|music of ancient Egypt]] to the [[Berber music|Berber]] and [[Tuareg music]] of the desert nomads. For centuries, the region's art music has followed the conventions of [[Arab classical music|Arabic]] and [[Andalusian classical music]], while its popular contemporary genres include the Algerian [[raï]].
The [[music of Sudan]] and the Horn of Africa, including the [[music of Eritrea]], [[Music of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]], [[Music of Djibouti|Djibouti]] and [[Music of Somalia|Somalia]], may be grouped with those of North Africa. Somali music is typically [[Pentatonic scale|pentatonic]], using five [[Pitch (music)|pitches]] per [[octave]] in contrast to a [[Heptatonic scale|heptatonic]] (seven note) scale such as the [[major scale]].<ref name="Mdacacos" /> The music of the Ethiopian highlands is based on a modal system called ''[[qenet]]'', which includes four main modes: ''tezeta'', ''bati'', ''[[Ambassel scale|ambassel]]'', and ''anchihoy''.<ref name=Grove356>{{cite NewGrove2001|title=Ethiopia|last=Shelemay|first=Kay Kaufman|volume=viii|page=356}}</ref> Three additional modes are variations on the above: tezeta minor, bati major, and bati minor.<ref name="Barihun">[[Abatte Barihun]], liner notes of the album [[Abatte Barihun#Ras Deshen|Ras Deshen]], 200.</ref> Some songs take the name of their ''qenet'', such as ''[[tizita]]'', a song of reminiscence.<ref name=Grove356 /> {{clear}}
=== West, Central, Southeast and South Africa === [[Arthur Morris Jones]] (1889–1980), an [[ethnomusicological]], observed that the shared rhythmic principles of Bantu African musical traditions form a single overarching system.<ref name="Jones">Jones, A. M. (1959). ''Studies in African Music''. London: Oxford University Press. 1978 edition: {{ISBN|0-19-713512-9}}.</ref> Similarly, master drummer and scholar C. K. Ladzekpo affirms the "profound homogeneity" of Bantu African rhythmic principles.<ref>Ladzekpo, C. K. (1996). [http://www.richardhodges.com/ladzekpo/Developmental.html "Cultural Understanding of Polyrhythm"]. Foundation Course in African Music.</ref>
African [[traditional music]] is frequently functional in nature. Performances may be long and often involve the participation of the audience.<ref name="Study, Coordination Group Publications 2006, page 36">''GCSE Music – Edexcel Areas of Study'', Coordination Group Publications, UK, 2006, p. 36.</ref> There are specialized songs for [[work song|work]], childbirth, marriage, hunting, and political activities, as well as music intended to ward off evil spirits or honor benevolent spirits, the dead, and the ancestors. These forms are not typically performed outside their intended social contexts, and many are associated with specific dances. In some situations, professional musicians perform [[religious music|sacred]], ceremonial, or courtly music at royal courts.
Outside the greater Horn of Africa, as categorized above, the remainder of Sub-Saharan Africa can be divided into four musicological regions:<ref name="Jones" /> * '''Eastern''' region ''(light green on map)'': includes the [[music of Uganda]], [[Music of Kenya|Kenya]], [[Music of Rwanda|Rwanda]], [[Music of Burundi|Burundi]], [[Music of Tanzania|Tanzania]], [[Music of Malawi|Malawi]], [[Music of Mozambique|Mozambique]], and [[Music of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]], as well as the islands of [[Music of Madagascar|Madagascar]], [[Music of the Seychelles|the Seychelles]], [[Music of Mauritius|Mauritius]], [[Music of Somalia|Somalia]] (which can also be considered to be part of East Africa), and [[Comorian music|Comoros]]. Many of these traditions have been influenced by [[Arabic music]] and by the [[music of India]], [[Music of Indonesia|Indonesia]], and [[music of Polynesia|Polynesia]], although the region's indigenous styles are primarily in the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]/[[Niger–Congo language|Niger–Congo-]] speaking world. * '''Southern''' region ''(brown on map)'': includes the [[music of South Africa]], [[Music of Lesotho|Lesotho]], [[Music of Swaziland|Swaziland]], [[Music of Botswana|Botswana]], [[Music of Namibia|Namibia]], and [[Music of Angola|Angola]]. * '''Central''' region ''(dark blue on map)'': includes the [[music of Chad]], [[Music of the Central African Republic|the Central African Republic]], [[Music of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|the Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and [[Music of Zambia|Zambia]], including the traditions of [[Pygmy music]]. * '''[[West African music|Western region]]''' ''(yellow on map)'': includes the [[music of Senegal]] and [[Music of The Gambia|the Gambia]]; [[Music of Guinea|Guinea]] and [[Music of Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]]; [[Music of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] and [[Music of Liberia|Liberia]]; the inland plains of [[Music of Mali|Mali]], [[Music of Niger|Niger]] and [[Music of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]; the coastal nations of [[Music of Cote d'Ivoire|Cote d'Ivoire]], [[Music of Ghana|Ghana]], [[Music of Togo|Togo]], [[Music of Benin|Benin]], [[Music of Nigeria|Nigeria]], [[Music of Cameroon|Cameroon]], [[Music of Gabon|Gabon]], and [[Music of the Republic of the Congo|the Republic of the Congo]]; and island nations such as [[Music of Sao Tome and Principe|São Tomé and Príncipe]].
[[Southern Africa|Southern]], [[Central Africa|Central]] and [[West Africa]] share many features of the broader Sub-Saharan musical tradition, while also exhibiting additional influences from [[Islamic world|Muslim regions]] of Africa and, in modern times, from the [[Americas]] and [[Western Europe]]. [[File:PDP-CH_-_Dominique_Manzadi_-_Muatubaba_Kungbekinga_-_African_music_in_Azande_language_-_Ngoma-1493-j2990.flac|left|thumb|Azande song from the Congo performed with xylophone.]] Afrobeat, jùjú, fuji, highlife, makossa, and kizomba are among the genres performed in West Africa. [[West African music]] varies regionally, with [[Muslim]] regions incorporating elements of [[Islamic music]] and non-Muslim regions drawing more heavily on indigenous traditions, according to the historian [[Sylviane Diouf]] and ethnomusicologist [[Gerhard Kubik]].<ref name="Curiel">{{cite news |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL |title=Muslim Roots of the Blues |work=[[SFGate]] |publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |access-date=24 August 2005 |first=Jonathan |last=Curiel |author-link=Jonathan Curiel |date=15 August 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050905161734/http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fchronicle%2Farchive%2F2004%2F08%2F15%2FINGMC85SSK1.DTL |archive-date=5 September 2005 }}</ref> Diouf notes that traditional Muslim West African Music incorporates elements of the [[Adhan|Islamic call to prayer]] (originating from [[Bilal ibn Rabah]], an [[Abyssinian people|Abyssinian]] African Muslim in the early 7th century), including lyrics praising God, melodic and pitch variations, "words that seem to quiver and shake" in the vocal cords, dramatic shifts in [[musical scale|scale]], and nasal [[Intonation (music)|intonation]]. Kubik similarly observes that the vocal style of Muslim West African singers "using [[melisma]], wavy intonation, and so forth" reflect the musical heritage of the region's long contact with the Arabic-Islamic world of the Maghreb which began in the seventh and eighth centuries. In terms of instrumentation, Kubik notes that string instruments (including ancestors of the [[banjo]]) were traditionally favored in Muslim West African communities, while drumming was more characteristic of non-Muslim West Africans.<ref name="Curiel"/> {{clear}}
== Musical instruments == [[File:Abderrahmane Abdelli.jpg|thumb|right|[[Algeria]]n musician [[Abderrahmane Abdelli]] playing the [[mandole]]]]
Besides vocalisation, which uses various techniques such as complex, hard melisma and [[yodel]]ing, a wide variety of musical instruments are also used. African instruments include a wide range of [[drum (musical instrument)|drums]], [[slit gong]]s, [[Rattle (percussion instrument)|rattles]], and [[double bell]]s; [[harp]]s and harp-like instruments such as the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]] and the [[Ngoni (instrument)|ngoni]]; [[fiddle]]s; various [[xylophone]]s and [[lamellophone]]s such as the [[mbira]]; and [[wind instrument]] including [[flute]]s and [[trumpet]]s. String instruments are also used, with [[lute]]-like instruments such as the [[oud]] and the ngoni serving as accompaniment in some regions.
[[Sub-Saharan Africa]]n musical instruments are grouped into five categories: membranophones, chordophones, aerophones, idiophones, and percussion. Membranophones include drums such as kettles, clay pots, and barrels. Chordophones are stringed instruments like harps and fiddles. Aerophones are wind instruments, including flutes and trumpets, similar to those found in American music. In Northern Nigeria, Niger, and Northern [[Cameroon]], the [[algaita]] – a double reed instrument – is commonly played at festivals and seasonal celebrations.
Idiophones are rattles and shakers, while percussion also includes body-produced sounds such as foot-stomping and hand-clapping.<ref name="contemporary-african-art.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.contemporary-african-art.com/african-musical-instruments.html|title=African musical instruments|website=Contemporary African Art}}</ref> Many wooden instruments are carved with shapes or figures that represent ancestry, and some are decorated with feathers or beads.<ref name="contemporary-african-art.com"/>
Drums used in African traditional music include [[talking drum]]s, ''[[bougarabou]]'' and ''[[djembe]]'' in West Africa, [[water drum]]s in Central and West Africa, and the different types of [[ngoma drums|''ngoma'']] (or ''engoma'') drums of Central and Southern Africa. Other percussion instruments include rattles and [[Shaker (musical instrument)|shakers]], such as the ''[[kashaka]]'' (or ''kosika''), [[rain stick]]s, bells, and wooden sticks. Africa also has many other types of drums, flutes, string, and wind instruments.
Polyrhythmic playing is one of the most widespread characteristics of Sub-Saharan music, in contrast to [[polyphony]] in Western music. Several uniquely designed instruments evolved over time to facilitate the playing of simultaneous contrasting rhythms. The mbira, [[kalimba]], kora, ngoni and dousn'gouni organize their notes not in a single linear arrangement from bass to treble, but in two separated rank arrays, allowing performers to more easily produce [[cross rhythm]]s. The continuing influence of this design principle can be seen in the 20th-century American instruments the [[gravi-kora]] and [[gravikord]], which are modern adaptations of traditional instruments.
== Relationship to language == Many [[Languages of Africa|African languages]] are [[tonal language|tonal]], leading to a close relationship between music and language in some local cultures. In these communities, vocal sounds and physical movements accompany musical performance. In singing, the tonal patterns of the language impose constraints on the melodic patterns. Conversely, in instrumental music, native speakers can often perceive implied text or meanings within the music. This is also the basis of [[drum (communication)|drum languages]], or "talking drums".<ref>''GCSE Music – Edexcel Areas of Study'', Coordination Group Publications, UK, 2006, p. 35, quoting examination board syllabus.</ref>
== Influences on African music == [[File:Drumming (7250728078).jpg|thumb|right|Traditional drummers in [[Ghana]]]] Historically, several factors have influenced the [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony|traditional music of Africa]]. Language, environment, diverse cultural practices, politics, and population movement have all contributed to its development. Each African group evolved in a different area of the continent, they experienced different climates, foods, and interactions with neighboring peoples. Each group moved at different rates and to different places than others, and thus each was influenced by different people and circumstances. In addition, these communities operated under different forms of governance, which further contributed to the diversity of the music that was created throughout Africa.<ref>Nketia, J. H. Kwabena. ''The Music of Africa''. New York: Norton and Company, 1974. Print.</ref>
== Influence on North American music == {{See also|African-American music}} African music has played a significant role in the shaping of what we know today as [[Dixieland]], the [[blues]], and [[jazz]]. These genres have all borrowed from African rhythms and sounds brought across the Atlantic by enslaved Africans. While Sub-Saharan African music is typically upbeat [[polyrhythm]]s and joyful in character, the blues developed as an aesthetic response to the conditions of slavery in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Fleming |first=Esther |date=2020-01-01 |title=What was the origin of African popular music? – SidmartinBio |url=https://www.sidmartinbio.org/what-was-the-origin-of-african-popular-music/ |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=www.sidmartinbio.org}}</ref> [[The blues]] has likely evolved as a fusion of an African [[blue note]] scale with European [[Chromatic scale|twelve tone]] musical instruments.<ref>Kubik, Gerhard, 1934- (1999). Africa and the blues. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of Mississippi. {{ISBN|0-585-20318-0}}. OCLC 44959610</ref> The musical traditions of Irish and Scottish settlers later blended with African-American musical elements, contributing to the development of [[Old-time music|old-time]], [[Blue grass music|bluegrass]], and other similar genres.
[[File:Traffic 1973.jpg|thumb|right|[[Steve Winwood|Steve Winwood's]] [[progressive rock]]/[[jazz rock]] band [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]] often used West African rhythms]]
On his album ''[[Graceland (album)|Graceland]]'', American folk musician [[Paul Simon]] employed South African bands, rhythms, and melodies as the musical backdrop for his lyrics, featuring artists such as [[Miriam Makeba]], [[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]] and [[Ray Phiri]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pareles |first=Jon |author-link=The New York Times |date=11 February 2020 |title=Joseph Shabalala, Ladysmith Black Mambazo Founder, Dies at 78 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/11/arts/music/joseph-shabalala-dead.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200211175202/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/11/arts/music/joseph-shabalala-dead.html |archive-date=11 February 2020 |access-date=15 January 2024 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> In the early 1970s, [[Remi Kabaka]], an [[Afro-rock]] avant-garde drummer, developed foundational drum patterns that shaped the Afro-rock sounds in bands such as [[Ginger Baker's Air Force]], [[The Rolling Stones]], and Steve Winwood's [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]]. He continued to collaborate with Winwood, [[Paul McCartney]], and [[Mick Jagger]] throughout the decade.<ref>Azam, O. A. (1993), [http://azam.org/archives/geocities/www.geocities.com/omarazam/papers/afrMusic.htm "The recent influence of African Music on the American music scene and music market".]</ref>
Certain Sub-Saharan African musical traditions also significantly influenced works such as Disney's ''[[The Lion King]]'' and ''[[The Lion King II: Simba's Pride]]'', which blend traditional African and Western musical styles. Songs like "[[The Lion Sleeps Tonight]]" and "[[He Lives in You]]" combine [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and English lyrics and incorporate traditional South African ''[[isicathamiya]]'' and [[Mbube (genre)|''mbube'']] with more modern western styles.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Browne |first=David |author-link=Rolling Stone |date=7 November 2019 |title='The Lion Sleeps Tonight': The Ongoing Saga of Pop's Most Contentious Song |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/lion-sleeps-tonight-lion-king-update-879663/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521142327/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/lion-sleeps-tonight-lion-king-update-879663/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=15 January 2024 |magazine=Rolling Stone}}</ref> The films additionally include numerous [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] words: for example, ''hakuna matata'' is an actual Swahili phrase meaning "no worries", while characters such as ''[[Simba]]'', ''Kovu'', and ''Zira'' mean "lion," "scar," and "hate," respectively.<ref>"The Characters." ''Lion King Pride.'' 2008. Disney, 1997–2008. Web. 1 February 2010.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionking.org/characters/TLK_Character_List.html |title=The Lion King Pride: The Characters |publisher=Lionking.org | access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>
Miriam Makeba, [[Hugh Masekela]], and [[Babatunde Olatunji]] were among the earliest African artists to develop sizable fan bases in the United States. During the 1960s and 1970s, non-commercial African-American radio stations promoted African music as part of their cultural and political missions. African music also found enthusiastic audiences at Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and held particular appeal for activists in the civil rights and Black Power movements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Joshua Clark |title=African Sounds in the American South: Community Radio, Historically Black Colleges, and Musical Pan-Africanism |journal=Journal of Popular Music Studies |date=December 2015 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=437–447 |doi=10.1111/jpms.12150 |hdl=11603/7377 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
== Afro-pop == {{Main|African popular music}}
[[File:Miriam Makeba 2011.jpg|thumb|right|[[Miriam Makeba]] during a performance]] [[File:انغام محمد علي سليمان.jpg|thumb|[[Angham]], pop star]] African popular music – commonly referred to as African pop or afro-pop – is as vast and varied as Africa's traditional music.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last1=Conteh |first1=Mankaprr |last2=Makinde |first2=Tami |last3=Madzadza |first3=Miya |last4=Saraki |first4=Seni |last5=Wangeci |first5=Tela |date=28 December 2022 |title=The 40 Best Afropop Songs of 2022 |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-afropop-songs-of-2022-1234650065/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221228164413/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-afropop-songs-of-2022-1234650065/ |archive-date=28 December 2022 |access-date=15 January 2024 |magazine=Rolling Stone}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Braun |first=Ken |newspaper=The New York Times |date=9 January 1994 |title=POP MUSIC; The Rise and Rise Of Irresistible Afropop |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/09/arts/pop-music-the-rise-and-rise-of-irresistible-afropop.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524153710/http://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/13/arts/with-the-traditional-and-the-exotic-africa-invigorates-pop.html |archive-date=24 May 2015 |access-date=7 April 2024 }}</ref> Most contemporary African popular genres have developed through cross-pollination with Western popular music. Many Western genres, including blues, jazz, and [[African Rumba|rumba]], derive in part from African musical traditions carried to the Americas by enslaved Africans. These rhythms and sounds have subsequently been adapted by newer genres like [[Rock music|rock]], soul, and [[rhythm and blues]]. In turn, African popular music has adopted elements of Western music, particularly musical instruments and [[recording studio]] techniques.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pareles |first=Jon |newspaper=The New York Times |date=13 May 1984 |title=With The Traditional And The Exotic, Africa Invigorates Pop |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/13/arts/with-the-traditional-and-the-exotic-africa-invigorates-pop.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524153710/http://www.nytimes.com/1984/05/13/arts/with-the-traditional-and-the-exotic-africa-invigorates-pop.html |archive-date=24 May 2015 |access-date=7 April 2024 }}</ref>
In 1933, Solomon Linda formed [[Solomon Linda's Original Evening Birds]]. Although Linda was illiterate, he composed songs from an early age while guarding cattle. The group's most internationally acclaimed hit, "[[Mbube (song)|Mbube]]," released in 1939, became the first African record to sell more than 100,000 copies.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zoldan |first=Sheldon |author-link=WGCU (TV) |date=16 November 2023 |title='The Lion Sleeps Tonight' Song of the Day for November 17. |url=https://news.wgcu.org/arts-and-culture/2023-11-16/the-lion-sleeps-tonight-song-of-the-day-for-november-17 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115115802/https://news.wgcu.org/arts-and-culture/2023-11-16/the-lion-sleeps-tonight-song-of-the-day-for-november-17 |archive-date=15 January 2024 |access-date=15 January 2024 |work=WGCU}}</ref> Another 20th-century South African singer was Miriam Makeba, who played a key-role in the 1960s in drawing global attention to African music and its meaning. Beginning in the 1950s, Zenzile Miriam Makeba became one of Africa's most influential and celebrated musicians.{{cn|date=November 2025}} She performed in three groups, including one all-female band, and sang a wide range of styles, including jazz, traditional African music, and music that was popular in Western Africa at the time. Much of Makeba's work was ''mbube'', "a style of vocal harmony which drew on American jazz, [[ragtime]], and [[Anglican church music|Anglican church hymns]], as well as indigenous styles of music." After moving to the United States, passport complications forced her to remain there, and she incorporated American influences into her African repertoire.<ref>[[Miriam Makeba#Musical style]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=November 2025}} "The Empress of African Music" died at the age of 76.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 November 2008 |title=Obituary: Miriam Makeba |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/nov/11/miriam-makeba-obituary|first=Graeme |last=Ewens |website=[[TheGuardian.com]]}}</ref>
In West Africa, [[Fela Kuti]] and [[Tony Allen (musician)|Tony Allen]] performed Afrobeat music.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/tony-allen-the-veteran-afrobeat-drummer-is-shaking-his-sticks-as-hard-and-as-brilliantly-as-ever-770993.html |title=Tony Allen: The veteran Afrobeat drummer is shaking his sticks as hard and as brilliantly as ever|first=Nigel |last=Williamson |newspaper=The Independent|date= 18 January 2008 |access-date=4 March 2022}}</ref> [[Femi Kuti]] and [[Seun Kuti]] followed their father Fela Kuti.<ref>{{cite web|last=Anikulapo |first=Seun |url=https://www.npr.org/2011/07/05/137449484/femi-and-seun-kuti-keep-their-fathers-rebellious-beat |title=Femi And Seun Kuti Keep Their Father's Rebellious Beat |website=NPR.org |date=5 July 2011 |publisher=NPR | access-date=13 May 2022}}</ref> The Afro-Euro hybrid Cuban ''[[son (music)|son]]'' also influenced African popular music; some of Africa's earliest guitar bands performed Cuban covers.<ref name="ReferenceA">Roberts, John Storm (1986: cassette) ''Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music'', Original Music.</ref> Early guitar-based bands from the [[Congo Basin|Congo]] referred to their music as ''rumba'', though it was ''son'' rather than Cuban ''rumba''. This Congolese style eventually evolved into ''[[soukous]]''. In 1972, Cameroonian songwriter and saxophonist [[Manu Dibango]] released "[[Soul Makossa]]" which has since become the most sampled African record in history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Durosomo |first=Damola |author-link=OkayAfrica |date=8 May 2020 |title=This video explores the countless songs that sample Manu Dibango's 'Soul Makossa' |url=https://www.okayafrica.com/songs-that-sample-soul-makossa-manu-dibango-african-music-history/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231213034141/https://www.okayafrica.com/songs-that-sample-soul-makossa-manu-dibango-african-music-history/ |archive-date=13 December 2023 |access-date=15 January 2024 |website=Okay Africa}}</ref>
The 2010 FIFA World Cup [[Afro fusion|afro-fusion]] and ''[[Soca music|soca]]'' theme song, "[[Waka Waka (This Time for Africa)]]" performed by [[Shakira]] and [[Freshlyground]], sampled the [[makossa]]-influenced, presumably soldier-tribute melody "[[Zamina mina (Zangaléwa)]]" by the group [[Golden Sounds]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thapa |first=Shaurya |date=6 September 2022 |title=The African song that inspired Shakira's Waka Waka is back, thanks to Instagram Reels |url=https://www.dailyo.in/lifestyle/the-african-song-that-inspired-shakiras-waka-waka-is-back-thanks-to-instagram-reels-37216 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230205163943/https://www.dailyo.in/lifestyle/the-african-song-that-inspired-shakiras-waka-waka-is-back-thanks-to-instagram-reels-37216 |archive-date=5 February 2023 |access-date=15 January 2023 |website=Dailyo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Flores |first=Griselda |author-link=Billboard (magazine) |date=30 November 2022 |title=Why Shakira Remains the Queen of World Cup Music |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/shakira-world-cup-music-queen-waka-waka-1235178183/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103222517/https://www.billboard.com/music/latin/shakira-world-cup-music-queen-waka-waka-1235178183/ |archive-date=3 January 2024 |access-date=15 January 2024 |magazine=Billboard}}</ref>
== Kalpop == [[Kalpop]] is a music genre that originated in the Klassikan royal communities under the Klassik Nation record label.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-08|title=Klassik Nation|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/klassik-nation|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Music In Africa|language=en}}</ref> It blends Klassikan, African, multilingual (multicultured), and popular music. Kalpop originated in its modern form during the mid-1990s in Kenya before later spreading to the United States and the United Kingdom. Kalpop has developed a growing fan base, with numerous locally established and emerging bands – more than thirteen active groups in Nairobi alone – helping to solidify the genre through a variety of individually hosted and collaboratively organized Kalpop-themed events.<ref name="Analyst">{{Cite web|last=Analyst|first=Upbeat|date=2021-03-31|title=Why Kalpop Music Is A Revolutionary Genre|url=https://www.nairobiupbeat.com/post/why-kalpop-music-is-a-revolutionary-genre|access-date=2021-09-11|website=The Nairobi Upbeat|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Spotify |url=https://open.spotify.com/episode/5Z3zBh9eHm9hKvM2Dl26kx?si=NgUBlZykQv2QdB8OejvAaA |access-date=2025-04-22 |website=open.spotify.com}}</ref> Artists performing Kalpop in Kenya include DON SANTO,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reviewer|first=Upbeat|date=2021-04-01|title=BIOGRAPHY AND CAREER OF DON SANTO|url=https://www.nairobiupbeat.com/post/biography-and-career-of-don-santo|access-date=2021-09-11|website=The Nairobi Upbeat|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Artists & Industry|url=https://www.musicinafrica.net/directory/don-santo|access-date=2021-09-11|website=Music In Africa|language=en}}</ref> Badman Killa, Blessed Paul,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reviewer|first=Upbeat|date=2021-04-01|title=Biography and Career of Blessed Paul|url=https://www.nairobiupbeat.com/post/biography-and-career-of-blessed-paul|access-date=2021-09-11|website=The Nairobi Upbeat|language=en}}</ref> Cash B, Jay Nuclear, Rekless, G-Youts (Washu B and Nicki Mulla), Sleek Whizz, and Chizei, among others.<ref name="Analyst" />
== Music industry == For African artists, live concerts have traditionally been one of the few reliable sources of income. Declining record sales, driven by piracy and changing consumer behavior, have made recorded music a less viable revenue stream. The enforcement of [[copyright law]] remains weak in many parts of Africa. MusikBi, the first legal [[music download]] platform in Africa, offers downloads but not [[music streaming|streaming]] and is limited by Africa's generally slow internet speeds.<ref>{{Cite news| url = https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/feb/24/africas-first-music-download-service-launches-in-senegal| title = Africa's first music download service launches in Senegal| agency = Agence France-Presse| date = 24 February 2016| newspaper = The Guardian| language = en-GB| issn = 0261-3077| access-date = 1 March 2016}}</ref> Some African countries, including Kenya, Gambia, and South Africa, have experienced protests over what is perceived as excessive airtime given to American music. In [[Zimbabwe]], regulations require that 75% of airtime be dedicated to local music. These protective actions have contributed to the growth of new genres like [[Music of Zimbabwe|Urban Grooves]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://musicinafrica.net/south-african-artists-fume-over-lack-radio-airplay| title = South African artists fume over lack of radio airplay| date = 26 February 2016| publisher = musicinafrica.net| access-date = 1 March 2016}}</ref> In 2016, Sony Music expanded into Africa by opening an office in Nigeria. Traditionally, services provided by major Western recording studios were not available in Africa, and local demand for their music was largely met through piracy.<ref>{{cite magazine| url = http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/6890795/sony-music-lagos-nigeria-office| title = Sony Music's New Office in Africa Signals a Promising Near-Future for the Continent| magazine = Billboard| access-date = 1 March 2016}}</ref>
Since 2014, the festival [[Visa for Music]] has been held annually in [[Morocco]], presenting musical artists with African roots through performances, music videos, and professional marketing aimed at creative-industries worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-04-19 |title=With 1505 musicians applying, Visa For Music 2023 receives a record number of submissions |url=https://en.hespress.com/62503-with-1505-musicians-applying-visa-for-music-2023-receives-a-record-number-of-submissions.html |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=HESPRESS English - Morocco News |language=en-US}}</ref>
== See also == {{div col|colwidth=23em}} * [[Music of the African diaspora]] * [[African heavy metal]] * [[African popular music]] * [[Umm Kulthum]] * [[Victor Kofi Agawu]] * [[Paul Berliner (ethnomusicologist)|Paul Berliner]] * [[Ian Brennan (music producer)]] * [[Clave (rhythm)]] * [[Gravikord]] * [[International Library of African Music]] * [[Arthur Morris Jones]] * [[Ashenafi Kebede]] * [[Gerhard Kubik]] * [[List of African guitarists]] * [[Mine bengidzakiwe]] * [[Polyrhythm]] * [[Hugh Tracey]] * [[Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony]] * [[World music]] {{div col end}}
{{Portal bar|Africa|Society|Music}}
== References == {{Reflist|30em}}
== Further reading == * Graeme Ewens. ''Africa O-Yé: a Celebration of African Music''. 1992, cop. 1991. New York: Da Capo Press. {{ISBN|0-306-80461-1}} * Ruth M. Stone, ed. ''The Garland handbook of African Music'' 2nd edn, 2008. NY & Oxford: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-96102-8}} (Abridged paperback edition of vol."Africa", vol. 1 of ''The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music'' with additional articles) * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/rhythms/index.shtml Rhythms of the Continent] from the [[BBC]] * [http://www.ru.ac.za/ilam/ International Library of African Music] at [[Rhodes University]] * [http://sounds.bl.uk/World-and-traditional-music/ Recordings of African music from the British Library's collections]
== External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} * [http://archive.kubatana.net/html/archive/artcul/030521music.asp?sector=ARTCUL Glossary of African music styles] * [http://imslp.org/wiki/User:Clark_Kimberling/Historical_Notes_11 Historical Notes on African Melodies] * [https://archive.today/20121215121058/http://ias.umn.edu/2012/10/11/skinner-ryan/ Lecture on music and politics in contemporary Mali] * [https://furtherafrica.com/2020/05/24/african-music-industry-can-spark-billions-worth-of-investments/ African music industry can spark billions worth of investments]
{{Div col end}} {{Africa in topic|Music of}} {{Africa topics}} {{Genres of African popular music}} {{authority control}}
[[Category:Music of Africa| ]]