{{Short description|Altered state of consciousness}} {{For|the book|The Psychedelic Experience{{!}}''The Psychedelic Experience''}} {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | image1 = | alt1 = | image2 = | alt2 = | footer = Simulation of some visual phenomena of a psychedelic experience | image3 = }} {{Psychedelic sidebar|expanded=Effects}}
A '''psychedelic experience''', also known colloquially as a "'''trip'''", is a temporary [[altered state of consciousness]] induced by the consumption of a [[psychedelic]] substance. Classic psychedelics include semisynthetic ergolines such as [[Lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]], [[psilocybin]] contained in several mushroom species, [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] contained in the [[ayahuasca]] brew, or [[mescaline]] contained in several cacti.<ref name="Nichols2016">{{cite journal | last = Nichols | first = David E. | year = 2016 | title = Psychedelics | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 68 | pages = 264–355 | doi = 10.1124/pr.115.011478 | pmc = 4813425 }}</ref><ref name="Geyer2009">{{cite encyclopedia | last1 = Geyer | first1 = Mark A. | last2 = Nichols | first2 = David E. | last3 = Vollenweider | first3 = Franz X. | year = 2009 | title = Serotonin‑Related Psychedelic Drugs | editor-last = Squire | editor-first = Larry R. | encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Neuroscience | publisher = Academic Press | location = Oxford | pages = 731–738 | isbn = 978-0-08-045046-9 | doi = 10.1016/B978-008045046-9.01160-8 }}</ref>
For example, an '''acid trip''' is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of LSD, while a '''mushroom trip''' is a psychedelic experience brought on by the use of psilocybin. Psychedelic experiences feature alterations in normal [[perception]] such as visual distortions and a subjective [[ego dissolution|loss of self-identity]], sometimes interpreted as [[mystical experience]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Psychedelic Mystical Experiences Are Authentic |last=Van Eyghen |first=Hans |journal=Religions |date=2025 |volume=16 |issue=10 |page=1294 |doi=10.3390/rel16101294 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Psychedelic experiences lack predictability, as they can range from being highly pleasurable (known as a good trip) to frightening (known as a [[bad trip]]). The outcome of a psychedelic experience is heavily influenced by the person's mood, personality, expectations, and environment (also known as [[set and setting]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.uofmhealth.org/health-library/uq2451|title=LSD | Michigan Medicine}}</ref>
Researchers have interpreted psychedelic experiences in light of a range of scientific theories, including [[Psychotomimetic|model psychosis]] theory, filtration theory, [[psychoanalytic theory]], entropic brain theory, [[integrated information theory]], and [[predictive processing]]. Psychedelic experiences are also induced and interpreted in religious and spiritual contexts.
Along with psilocybin's unique effect on the state of mind, psilocybin has been subject to the idea of being used for therapeutic treatments. This rapidly developing field of psilocybin-assisted therapy has produced promising results in studies targeting mental disorders like depression,<ref name="Costa">{{cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=Sabrina Correa da |last2=Oesterle |first2=Tyler |last3=Rummans |first3=Teresa A. |last4=Richelson |first4=Elliot |last5=Gold |first5=Mark |title=Psychedelic drugs for psychiatric disorders |journal=Journal of the Neurological Sciences |date=15 September 2022 |volume=440 |article-number=120332 |doi=10.1016/j.jns.2022.120332 |pmid=35841696 |language=English |issn=0022-510X}}</ref> post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),<ref name="Henner">{{cite journal |last1=Henner |first1=Ryan L. |last2=Keshavan |first2=Matcheri S. |last3=Hill |first3=Kevin P. |title=Review of potential psychedelic treatments for PTSD |journal=Journal of the Neurological Sciences |date=15 August 2022 |volume=439 |article-number=120302 |doi=10.1016/j.jns.2022.120302 |pmid=35700643 |language=English |issn=0022-510X}}</ref> and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).<ref name="Khan">{{cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Iman |last2=Jaura |first2=Taimoor Asif |last3=Tukruna |first3=Alaa |last4=Arif |first4=Aabiya |last5=Tebha |first5=Sameer Saleem |last6=Nasir |first6=Sameen |last7=Mukherjee |first7=Dattatreya |last8=Masroor |first8=Nadia |last9=Yosufi |first9=Abubakr |title=Use of Selective Alternative Therapies for Treatment of OCD |journal=Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment |date=5 April 2023 |volume=19 |pages=721–732 |doi=10.2147/NDT.S403997 |doi-access=free |pmid=37041856 |pmc=10083036 |language=English}}</ref>
==Etymology== The term ''[[wiktionary:psychedelic|psychedelic]]'' was coined by the psychiatrist [[Humphrey Osmond]] during written correspondence with author [[Aldous Huxley]] and presented to the New York Academy of Sciences by Osmond in 1957.<ref name="tanne-osmond">{{cite journal |last1=Tanne |first1=Janice Hopkins |title=Humphrey Osmond |journal=BMJ |date=2004 |volume=328 |issue=7441 |page=713 |doi=10.1136/bmj.328.7441.713 |pmc=381240}}</ref> It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{langx|egy|ψυχή|translit=psychḗ|lit=soul, mind|label=none}} and {{langx|egy|δηλείν|translit=dēleín|lit=to manifest|label=none}} thus meaning "mind manifesting," the implication being that psychedelics can develop untapped potentials of the human mind.<ref>A. Weil, W. Rosen. (1993), ''From Chocolate To Morphine: Everything You Need To Know About Mind-Altering Drugs''. New York, Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 93</ref> The term ''trip'' was first coined by US Army scientists during the 1950s when they were experimenting with LSD.<ref name="Lee1985">{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Martin A.|title=Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, The Sixties, and Beyond|year=1985|publisher=Grove Press|isbn=0-802-13062-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/aciddreamscomple00leem/page/39 39]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/aciddreamscomple00leem/page/39}}</ref>
==Phenomenology== Despite several attempts that have been made, starting in the 19th and 20th centuries, to define common [[Phenomenology (psychology)|phenomenological]] structures of the effects produced by classic psychedelics, a universally accepted taxonomy does not yet exist.<ref name="bnsd-phenom">{{Cite book|last1=Preller|first1=Katrin H.|title=Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs|last2=Vollenweider|first2=Franz X.|date=2016|publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg|isbn=978-3-662-55878-2|editor1=Adam L. Halberstadt |editor2=Franz X. Vollenweider |editor3=David E. Nichols |volume=36|location=Berlin, Heidelberg|pages=221–256|chapter=Phenomenology, Structure, and Dynamic of Psychedelic States| series = Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences|doi=10.1007/7854_2016_459|pmid=28025814}}</ref><ref name="swanson">{{Cite journal|last=Swanson|first=Link R.|date=2018-03-02|title=Unifying Theories of Psychedelic Drug Effects|journal=Frontiers in Pharmacology|volume=9|article-number=172|doi=10.3389/fphar.2018.00172|pmid=29568270|pmc=5853825|issn=1663-9812|doi-access=free}}</ref>
===Visual alteration=== A prominent element of psychedelic experiences is visual alteration.<ref name="bnsd-phenom"/> Psychedelic visual alteration often includes spontaneous formation of complex flowing geometric visual patterning in the visual field.<ref name="swanson"/> When the eyes are open, the visual alteration is overlaid onto the objects and spaces in the physical environment; when the eyes are closed the visual alteration is seen in the "inner world" behind the eyelids.<ref name="swanson"/> These visual effects increase in complexity with higher dosages, and also when the eyes are closed.<ref name="swanson"/> The visual alteration does not normally constitute [[hallucination]]s, because the person undergoing the experience can still distinguish between real and imagined visual phenomena, though in some cases, true hallucinations are present.<ref name="bnsd-phenom"/> More rarely, psychedelic experiences can include complex hallucinations of objects, animals, people, or even whole landscapes.<ref name="bnsd-phenom"/> Visual alterations also include other effects such as [[afterimage]]s, shifting of color hues, and [[pareidolia]]. The appearance of [[color]]s and [[photophobia|light]] are usually enhanced.
[[Psychedelic replication]]s, or reproductions of the visual/perceptual effects of psychedelics, have been created.<ref name="Friedler2022">{{cite web | last=Friedler | first=Delilah | title=AI Can Now Generate DMT Visuals, Thanks To This Online Community | website=DoubleBlind Mag | date=15 June 2022 | url=https://doubleblindmag.com/ai-can-now-generate-dmt-visuals/ | access-date=15 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="Magee2023">{{cite web | last=Magee | first=Tamlin | title=DMT Users Are Using AI to Draw the Strange Beings They Meet While Tripping | website=VICE | date=24 April 2023 | url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/dmt-users-are-using-ai-to-draw-the-strange-beings-they-meet-while-tripping/ | access-date=15 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="Bilderbeck2022">{{cite web | last=Bilderbeck | first=Poppy | title=Video shows 'most accurate' representation of what psychedelic visuals look like | website=UNILAD | date=23 November 2022 | url=https://www.unilad.com/news/most-accurate-representation-psychedelic-visuals-20221123 | access-date=15 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="French2023">{{cite web | last=French | first=Kristen | title=What Hallucinogens Will Make You See | website=Nautilus | date=2 June 2023 | url=https://nautil.us/what-hallucinogens-will-make-you-see-308247/ | access-date=15 March 2025}}</ref><ref name="Rosa2022">{{cite web | last=Rosa | first=Tomáš | title=Jak člověk vidí svět pod vlivem halucinogenů? Vědkyně vytvořila přesná videa | trans-title=How does one see the world under the influence of hallucinogens? A scientist created accurate video | website=Deník.cz | date=25 November 2022 | url=https://www.denik.cz/veda/halucinogeny-drogy-uzivani-video.html?utm_source=www.seznam.cz&utm_medium=sekce-z-internetu#dop_ab_variant=0&dop_source_zone_name=hpfeed.sznhp.box | language=cs | access-date=15 March 2025}}</ref>
===Mystical experiences=== {{Further|Ego death}}
A number of studies by [[Roland R. Griffiths]] and other researchers have concluded that high doses of [[psilocybin]] and other classic psychedelics trigger [[mystical experience]]s in most research participants.<ref name="Griffiths2006">{{cite journal | title = Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance | journal = Psychopharmacology | date = 7 July 2006 | author = R. R. Griffiths |author2=W. A. Richards |author3=U. McCann |author4=R. Jesse | volume = 187 | issue = 3 | pages = 268–283| doi=10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5 | pmid=16826400| s2cid = 7845214 }}</ref><ref name="barrett-et-al-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Barrett |first1=Frederick S. |last2=Johnson |first2=Matthew W. |last3=Griffiths |first3=Roland R. |title=Validation of the revised Mystical Experience Questionnaire in experimental sessions with psilocybin |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |date=2015 |volume=29 |issue=11 |pages=1182–1190 |doi=10.1177/0269881115609019 |pmid=26442957 |pmc=5203697}}</ref><ref name="5-meo-dmt-mystical">{{cite journal |last1=Barsuglia |first1=Joseph |last2=Davis |first2=Alan K. |last3=Palmer |first3=Robert |last4=Lancelotta |first4=Rafael |last5=Windham-Herman |first5=Austin-Marley |last6=Peterson |first6=Kristel |last7=Polanco |first7=Martin |last8=Grant |first8=Robert |last9=Griffiths |first9=Roland R. |title=Intensity of Mystical Experiences Occasioned by 5-MeO-DMT and Comparison With a Prior Psilocybin Study |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2018 |volume=9 |article-number=2459 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02459 |pmid=30574112 |pmc=6292276|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="johnson-et-al-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Hendricks |first2=Peter S. |last3=Barrett |first3=Frederick S. |last4=Griffiths |first4=Roland R. |title=Classic psychedelics: An integrative review of epidemiology, therapeutics, mystical experience, and brain network function |journal=Pharmacology & Therapeutics |date=2019 |volume=197 |pages=83–102 |doi=10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010|pmid=30521880 |s2cid=54467870 }}</ref> Mystical experiences have been measured by a number of [[psychometric]] scales, including the [[Ralph W. Hood|Hood]] Mysticism Scale, the Spiritual Transcendence Scale, and the Mystical Experience Questionnaire.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2019"/> The revised version of the Mystical Experience Questionnaire, for example, asks participants about four dimensions of their experience, namely the "mystical" quality, positive mood such as the experience of amazement, the loss of the usual sense of time and space, and the sense that the experience cannot be adequately conveyed through words.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2019"/> The questions on the "mystical" quality in turn probe multiple aspects: the sense of "pure" being, the sense of unity with one's surroundings, the sense that what one experienced was real, and the sense of sacredness.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2019"/> Some researchers have questioned the interpretation of the results from these studies and whether the framework and terminology of mysticism are appropriate in a scientific context, while other researchers have responded to those criticisms and argued that descriptions of mystical experiences are compatible with a scientific worldview.<ref name="sanders-zijlmans-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Sanders |first1=James W. |last2=Zijlmans |first2=Josjan |title=Moving Past Mysticism in Psychedelic Science |journal=ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=1253–1255 |doi=10.1021/acsptsci.1c00097 |pmid=34151217 |pmc=8205234}}</ref><ref name="breeksema-van-elk-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Breeksema |first1=Joost J. |last2=van Elk |first2=Michiel |title=Working with Weirdness: A Response to "Moving Past Mysticism in Psychedelic Science" |journal=ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1471–1474 |doi=10.1021/acsptsci.1c00149 |pmid=34423279 |pmc=8369678}}</ref><ref name="jylkka-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Jylkkä |first1=Jussi |title=Reconciling Mystical Experiences with Naturalistic Psychedelic Science: Reply to Sanders and Zijlmans |journal=ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science |date=2021 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1468–1470 |doi=10.1021/acsptsci.1c00137 |pmid=34423278 |pmc=8369668}}</ref>
A group of researchers concluded in a 2011 study that psilocybin "occasions personally and spiritually significant mystical experiences that predict long-term changes in behaviors, attitudes and values".<ref name=Openness-psilocybin2011>{{cite journal |first1=Katherine A. |last1=MacLean |first2=Matthew W. |last2=Johnson |first3=Roland R. |last3=Griffiths |date=2011 |title=Mystical experiences occasioned by the hallucinogen psilocybin lead to increases in the personality domain of openness |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |volume=25 |issue=11 |pages=1453–1461 |doi=10.1177/0269881111420188 |pmc=3537171 |pmid=21956378}}</ref>
Some research has found similarities between psychedelic experiences and non-ordinary forms of consciousness experienced in [[meditation]]<ref name="psych-meditation-self">{{cite journal |last1=Millière |first1=Raphaël |last2=Carhart-Harris |first2=Robin L. |last3=Roseman |first3=Leor |last4=Trautwein |first4=Fynn-Mathis |last5=Berkovich-Ohana |first5=Aviva |title=Psychedelics, Meditation, and Self-Consciousness |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2018 |volume=9 |article-number=1475 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01475 |pmid=30245648 |pmc=6137697|doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[near-death experience]]s.<ref name="dmt-nde">{{cite journal |last1=Timmermann |first1=Christopher |last2=Roseman |first2=Leor |last3=Williams |first3=Luke |last4=Erritzoe |first4=David |last5=Martial |first5=Charlotte |last6=Cassol |first6=Héléna |last7=Laureys |first7=Steven |last8=Nutt |first8=David |last9=Carhart-Harris |first9=Robin |title=DMT Models the Near-Death Experience |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |date=2018 |volume=9 |article-number=1424 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424 |pmid=30174629 |pmc=6107838|doi-access=free }}</ref> The phenomenon of [[ego dissolution]] is often described as a key feature of the psychedelic experience.<ref name="letheby-gerrans">{{cite journal |last1=Letheby |first1=Chris |last2=Gerrans |first2=Philip |title=Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience |journal=Neuroscience of Consciousness |date=2017 |volume=3 |issue=1 |article-number=nix016 |doi=10.1093/nc/nix016 |pmid=30042848 |pmc=6007152}}</ref><ref name="mason-et-al-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Mason |first1=N. L. |last2=Kuypers |first2=K. P. C. |last3=Müller |first3=F. |last4=Reckweg |first4=J. |last5=Tse |first5=D. H. Y. |last6=Toennes |first6=S. W. |last7=Hutten |first7=N. R. P. W. |last8=Jansen |first8=J. F. A. |last9=Stiers |first9=P. |last10=Feilding |first10=A. |last11=Ramaekers |first11=J. G. |title=Me, myself, bye: regional alterations in glutamate and the experience of ego dissolution with psilocybin |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |date=2020 |volume=45 |issue=12 |pages=2003–2011 |doi=10.1038/s41386-020-0718-8 |pmid=32446245 |pmc=7547711}}</ref><ref name="nour-et-al-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Nour |first1=Matthew M. |last2=Evans |first2=Lisa |last3=Nutt |first3=David |last4=Carhart-Harris |first4=Robin L. |title=Ego-Dissolution and Psychedelics: Validation of the Ego-Dissolution Inventory (EDI) |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |date=2016 |volume=10 |page=269 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2016.00269 |pmid=27378878 |pmc=4906025|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Individuals who have psychedelic experiences often describe what they experienced as "more real" than ordinary experience. For example, the psychologist [[Benny Shanon]], after observing [[ayahuasca]] trips, referred to "the assessment, very common with ayahuasca, that what is seen and thought during the course of intoxication defines the real, whereas the world that is ordinarily perceived is actually an illusion."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shanon|first1=Benny|title=The antipodes of the mind: charting the phenomenology of the Ayahuasca experience|date=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-925292-3|page=205|edition=Reprinted}}</ref> Similarly, the psychiatrist [[Stanislav Grof]] described the LSD experience as "complex revelatory insights into the nature of existence… typically accompanied by a sense of certainty that this knowledge is ultimately more relevant and 'real' than the perceptions and beliefs we share in everyday life."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bennett|first1=Stanislav Grof with Hal Zina|title=The holotropic mind: the three levels of human consciousness and how they shape our lives|date=2006|publisher=HarperSanFrancisco|location=San Francisco, Calif.|isbn=978-0-06-250659-7|pages=38|edition=1st paperback ed., [Nachdr.]}}</ref>
===Bad trips=== {{Main|Bad trip}}
A "bad trip" is a highly unpleasant psychedelic experience.<ref name="bnsd-phenom"/><ref name="roberts-et-al">{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=Carl A. |last2=Osborne-Miller |first2=Isaac |last3=Cole |first3=Jon |last4=Gage |first4=Suzanne H. |last5=Christiansen |first5=Paul |title=Perceived harm, motivations for use and subjective experiences of recreational psychedelic 'magic' mushroom use |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |date=2020 |volume=34 |issue=9 |pages=999–1007 |doi=10.1177/0269881120936508|pmid=32674668 |s2cid=220607863 }}</ref> A bad trip on psilocybin, for instance, often features intense anxiety, confusion, agitation, or even [[psychotic]] episodes.<ref name="van-amsterdam-et-al">{{cite journal |last1=van Amsterdam |first1=Jan |last2=Opperhuizen |first2=Antoon |last3=van den Brink |first3=Wim |title=Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review |journal=Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology |date=2011 |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=423–429 |doi=10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006|pmid=21256914 }}</ref> Bad trips can be connected to the anxious ego-dissolution (AED) dimension of the [[APZ questionnaire]] used in research on psychedelic experiences.<ref name="bnsd-phenom"/> As of 2011, exact data on the frequency of bad trips are not available.<ref name="van-amsterdam-et-al"/> Some research suggests that the risk of a bad trip on psilocybin is higher when multiple drugs are used, when the user has a history of certain mental illnesses, and when the user is not supervised by a sober person.<ref name="roberts-et-al"/>
In clinical research settings, precautions including the screening and preparation of participants, the training of the session monitors who will be present during the experience, and the selection of appropriate physical setting can minimize the likelihood of psychological distress.<ref name="johnson-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Matthew W. |last2=Richards |first2=William A. |last3=Griffiths |first3=Roland R. |title=Human Hallucinogen Research: Guidelines for Safety |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |date=2008 |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=603–620 |doi=10.1177/0269881108093587 |pmid=18593734 |pmc=3056407}}</ref> Researchers have suggested that the presence of professional "[[trip sitter]]s" (i.e., session monitors) may significantly reduce the negative experiences associated with a bad trip.<ref name="gashi-et-al-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Gashi |first1=Liridona |last2=Sandberg |first2=Sveinung |last3=Pederson |first3=Willy |title=Making "bad trips" good: How users of psychedelics narratively transform challenging trips into valuable experiences |journal=International Journal of Drug Policy |date=2021 |volume=87 |article-number=102997 |doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102997|pmid=33080454 |hdl=10852/81144 |s2cid=224821288 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In most cases in which anxiety arises during a supervised psychedelic experience, reassurance from the session monitor is adequate to resolve it; however, if distress becomes intense it can be treated pharmacologically, for example with the [[benzodiazepine]] [[diazepam]].<ref name="johnson-et-al-2008"/>
Research shows that preparing for the psychedelic experience, as well as the set and setting of the individual and environment they will be in, can help mitigate "bad trips<nowiki>''</nowiki>.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fadiman |first=James |title=The psychedelic explorer's guide: safe, therapeutic, and sacred journeys |date=2011 |publisher=Park Street Press |isbn=978-1-59477-402-7 |location=Rochester, Vt}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Pollan |first=Michael |title=How to change your mind |date=2018 |publisher=Penguin Press |isbn=978-1-59420-422-7 |location=New York}}</ref> Harvard Psychologist [[Timothy Leary]] has said that "set" and "setting" are important to the experience.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Waldman |first=Ayelet |title=A Really Good Day |publisher=Knopf |year=2017 |edition=1st}}</ref> Set refers to the participants' internal state – their mental, emotional and physical state, as well as their intentions for the experience (whether they want to solve a complex problem, discover the underlying secrets of the universe, or heal from a past trauma) – the better these preliminary conditions, the better the experience usually goes.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Setting refers to the environment the experience will take place in. Leary and others have found that, due to the highly suggestible nature of the psychedelic experience, the environment the participant is in plays a critical role.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Albert |title=LSD My Problem Child: Reflections on Sacred Drugs, Mysticism and Science |publisher=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies |year=2017 |edition=4th}}</ref> For example, a warmly decorated room with a comfortable couch, nice music and an overall welcoming atmosphere will have a much more positive effect than a cold stainless steel and concrete reinforced hospital room.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Taking these necessary precautions before a psychedelic experience, along with the presence of trained professionals, have been shown to significantly reduce an overall negative experience.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />
The psychiatrist [[Stanislav Grof]] wrote that unpleasant psychedelic experiences are not necessarily unhealthy or undesirable, arguing that they may have potential for psychological healing and lead to breakthrough and resolution of unresolved psychic issues.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Grof |first=Stanislav |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jAvSPgAACAAJ |title=LSD Psychotherapy |date=2008 |publisher=Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies |isbn=978-0-9798622-0-5 |language=en}}</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2020}} Drawing on [[narrative theory]], the authors of a 2021 study of 50 users of psychedelics found that many described bad trips as having been sources of insight or even turning points in life.<ref name="gashi-et-al-2021"/>
==Scientific models== Link R. Swanson divides scientific frameworks for understanding psychedelic experiences into two waves. In the first wave, encompassing nineteenth- and twentieth-century frameworks, he includes model [[psychosis]] theory (the [[psychotomimetic]] paradigm), filtration theory, and [[psychoanalytic theory]].<ref name="swanson"/> In the second wave of theories, encompassing twenty-first-century frameworks, Swanson includes entropic brain theory, [[integrated information theory]], and [[predictive processing]].<ref name="swanson"/>
===Model psychosis theory=== Researchers studying mescaline in the early twentieth century and LSD in the mid-twentieth century took interest in these drugs as producing a temporary "model psychosis" that could assist researchers and medical students in understanding the experiences of patients with [[schizophrenia]] and other psychotic disorders.<ref name="aday-et-al-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Aday |first1=Jacob S. |last2=Bloesch |first2=Emily K. |last3=Davoli |first3=Christopher C. |title=Beyond LSD: A Broader Psychedelic Zeitgeist during the Early to Mid-20th Century |journal=Journal of Psychoactive Drugs |date=2019 |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=210–217 |doi=10.1080/02791072.2019.1581961 |pmid=30836890|s2cid=73466221 }}</ref>
It was popular to compare between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the mid-20th century.<ref name="doi.org">Friesen P. Psychosis and psychedelics: Historical entanglements and contemporary contrasts. Transcultural Psychiatry. 2022;59(5):592-609. https://doi.org/10.1177/13634615221129116</ref> The scales used in psychosis and psychedelic research, in the late-20th and 21st century, are more different.<ref name="doi.org"/> Despite the many similarities that were observed between experiences of psychedelics and psychosis in the past, contemporary psychosis and psychedelic research highlight some features more than others (since they have different goals and assumptions), such as mysticism, connectedness, awe, peace, ego dissolution, hallucinations, suspiciousness, disorganization, hostility, grandiosity, and withdrawal.<ref name="doi.org"/>
===Filtration theory=== [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Humphrey Osmond]] applied the pre-existing ideas of filtration theory, which held that the brain filters what enters into consciousness, to explain psychedelic experiences (and it is from this paradigm that the term ''psychedelic'' is derived).<ref name="swanson"/> Huxley believed that the brain was filtering reality itself and that psychedelics granted conscious access to "[[Mind at Large]]," whereas Osmond believed that the brain was filtering aspects of the mind out of consciousness.<ref name="swanson"/> Swanson writes that Osmond's view seems "less radical, more compatible with [[materialist]] science, and less [[Epistemology|epistemically]] and [[Ontology|ontologically]] committed" than Huxley's.<ref name="swanson"/>
===Psychoanalytic theory=== Psychoanalytic theory was the predominant interpretive framework in mid-twentieth-century [[Psychedelic therapy|psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy]].<ref name="swanson"/> For instance, Czech psychiatrist [[Stanislav Grof]] characterised psychedelic experiencing as "non-specific amplification of unconscious mental processes", and he analysed the phenomenology of the LSD experience (particularly the experience of what he termed psychospiritual death and rebirth) in terms of [[Otto Rank]]'s theory of the unresolved memory of the primal birth trauma.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Grof|first1=Stanislav|title=Realms of the human unconscious: observations from LSD research|date=1976|publisher=Dutton|location=New York|isbn=0-525-47438-2|page=98}}</ref>
===Entropic brain theory=== Entropic brain theory is a theory of [[consciousness]] proposed in 2014 by neuroscientist [[Robin Carhart-Harris]] and colleagues that was inspired by research on psychedelic drugs.<ref name="carhart-harris-et-al-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Carhart-Harris |first1=Robin |last2=Leech |first2=Robert |last3=Hellyer |first3=Peter J. |last4=Shanahan |first4=Murray |last5=Feilding |first5=Amanda |last6=Tagliazucchi |first6=Enzo |last7=Chialvo |first7=Dante R. |last8=Nutt |first8=David |title=The entropic brain: a theory of conscious states informed by neuroimaging research with psychedelic drugs |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |date=2014 |volume=8 |page=20 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2014.00020 |pmid=24550805 |pmc=3909994|doi-access=free }}</ref> The theory suggests that the [[Entropy (information theory)|entropy]] of brain activity within certain limits indexes the richness of conscious states, particularly under the influence of psychedelics. This theory posits that elevated brain entropy correlates with heightened informational richness, suggesting that psychedelics increase brain criticality, making it more sensitive to internal and external perturbations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carhart-Harris |first=Robin L. |date=2018-11-01 |title=The entropic brain - revisited |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028390818301175 |journal=Neuropharmacology |series=Psychedelics: New Doors, Altered Perceptions |volume=142 |pages=167–178 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.03.010 |pmid=29548884 |issn=0028-3908|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This enhanced state of brain activity is proposed to influence susceptibility to environmental factors ("set" and "setting") and potentially offer new insights for treating psychiatric and neurological disorders, including depression and disorders of consciousness.
===Integrated information theory=== Integrated information theory is a theory of consciousness proposing to explain all forms of consciousness, and has been applied specifically to psychedelic experiences by Andrew Gallimore.<ref name="gallimore-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Gallimore |first1=Andrew R. |title=Restructuring consciousness –the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory |journal=Frontiers in Human Neuroscience |date=2015 |volume=9 |page=346 |doi=10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346 |pmid=26124719 |pmc=4464176|doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Predictive processing=== Sarit Pink-Hashkes and colleagues have applied the predictive processing paradigm in neuroscience to psychedelic experiences in order to formalize the idea of the entropic brain.<ref name="pink-hashkes-et-al-2017">{{cite conference |conference=The 39th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society |last1=Pink-Hashkes |first1=Sarit |last2=van Rooij |first2=Iris |last3=Kwisthout |first3=Johan |title=Perception is in the Details: A Predictive Coding Account of the Psychedelic Phenomenon |date=2017 |url=http://www.socsci.ru.nl/johank/hashkes_170201.pdf}}</ref>
==In religious and spiritual contexts== {{Further|Entheogen}}
[[Alan Watts]] likened psychedelic experiencing to the transformations of consciousness that are undertaken in [[Taoism]] and [[Zen]], which he says is, "more like the correction of faulty perception or the curing of a disease… not an acquisitive process of learning more and more facts or greater and greater skills, but rather an unlearning of wrong habits and opinions."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Alan W.|last1=Watts|title=The Joyous Cosmology: Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness|date=2013|isbn=978-1-60868-204-1|pages=15|publisher=New World Library |edition=Second}}</ref> Watts further described the LSD experience as, "revelations of the secret workings of the brain, of the associative and patterning processes, the ordering systems which carry out all our sensing and thinking."<ref>{{cite book|first1=Alan W.|last1=Watts|title=The Joyous Cosmology: Adventures in the Chemistry of Consciousness|date=2013|isbn=978-1-60868-204-1|pages=44|publisher=New World Library |edition=Second}}</ref>
According to [[Luis Eduardo Luna|Luis Luna]], psychedelic experiences have a distinctly [[gnosis]]-like quality; it is a learning experience that elevates consciousness and makes a profound contribution to personal development. For this reason, the plant sources of some psychedelic drugs such as ayahuasca and mescaline-containing cacti are sometimes referred to as "plant teachers" by those using those drugs.<ref name="luna-peru">{{cite journal |last1=Luna |first1=Luis Eduardo |title=The concept of plants as teachers among four mestizo shamans of Iquitos, northeastern Peru |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=1984 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=135–156 |doi=10.1016/0378-8741(84)90036-9 |pmid=6492831 |url=http://home.iscte-iul.pt/~fgvs/Luna_plants.pdf |access-date=10 July 2020}}</ref>
Furthermore, psychedelic drugs have a history of religious use across the world that extends back for hundreds or perhaps thousands of years.<ref name="griffiths-et-al-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=R. R. |last2=Richards |first2=W. A. |last3=Johnson |first3=M. W. |last4=McCann |first4=U. D. |last5=Jesse |first5=R. |title=Mystical-type experiences occasioned by psilocybin mediate the attribution of personal meaning and spiritual significance 14 months later |journal=Journal of Psychopharmacology |date=2008 |volume=22 |issue=6 |pages=621–632 |doi=10.1177/0269881108094300 |pmid=18593735 |issn=0269-8811 |pmc=3050654}}</ref> They are often called [[entheogen]]s because of the kinds of experiences they can induce,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rätsch|first1=Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, Christian|title=Plants of the gods: their sacred, healing, and hallucinogenic powers|date=2001|publisher=Healing Arts Press|location=Rochester, Vt.|isbn=0-89281-979-0|edition=Rev. and expanded}}</ref> however various entheogens happen to also be [[hypnotic]]s ([[muscimol mushroom]]s), [[deliriant]]s (''[[jimsonweed]]'') or atypical/quasi-psychedelics like [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]. Some small contemporary religious movements base their religious activities and beliefs around psychedelic experiences, such as [[Santo Daime]]<ref name="santos-et-al">{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=R. G. |last2=Landeira-Fernandez |first2=J. |last3=Strassman |first3=R. J. |last4=Motta |first4=V. |last5=Cruz |first5=A. P. M. |title=Effects of ayahuasca on psychometric measures of anxiety, panic-like and hopelessness in Santo Daime members |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |date=2007 |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=507–513 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2007.04.012|pmid=17532158 }}</ref> and the [[Native American Church]].<ref name="calabrese">{{cite journal |last1=Calabrese |first1=Joseph D. |title=Spiritual healing and human development in the Native American church: Toward a cultural psychiatry of peyote |journal=Psychoanalytic Review |date=1997 |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=237–255|pmid=9211587 }}</ref>
==Psilocybin-assisted therapy== {{Main|Psilocybin therapy}}
===Depression=== Studies on psilocybin-assisted therapy have found participants experience reduced depressive symptoms afterwards, as well as reduced anxiety symptoms.<ref name="Costa" /> Studies have also found that reductions in symptoms continued long afterwards, suggesting psilocybin could potentially be effective as a long-term treatment.<ref name="Costa" />
===Post-traumatic stress disorder=== Individuals who suffer from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may also benefit from psilocybin-assisted therapy.<ref name="Henner" /> Based on studies so far, MDMA-assisted therapy appears to be effective for reducing symptoms of PTSD, leading a group of researchers to argue that psilocybin-assisted therapy may also be effective in PTSD and call for a study on the topic.<ref name="Henner" />
===Obsessive-compulsive disorder=== In a study that reviewed a variety of drugs to determine if it had an impact on symptoms of OCD, psilocybin was also tested and determined effective in reducing symptoms.<ref name="Khan" /> This reduction in symptoms applied to all individuals who participated in the study, proving psilocybin to be very reliable along with efficiency in reducing OCD symptoms.<ref name="Khan" />
==See also== * [[Cannabis and time perception]] * [[Default mode network]] * [[Eight-circuit model of consciousness]] * [[List of hallucinogen scales]] * [[List of psychedelic literature]] * [[Mindstate Design Labs]] * [[Numinous]] experience * [[Philosophy of psychedelics]] * [[Psychedelic microdosing]] * [[Psychonautics]] * [[Subjective Effect Index]] * [[Trip killer]] * [[Trip report]]
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * {{cite book |editor1-last=Grinspoon |editor1-first=Lester |editor2-last=Bakalar |editor2-first=James. B. |title=Psychedelic Reflections |year=1983 |place=New York |publisher=Human Sciences Press |pages=13–14 |isbn=0-89885-129-7}} * {{Cite book|title=Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs|date=2018|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-662-55878-2|editor-first=Adam L.|editor-last=Halberstadt |editor2=Franz X. Vollenweider |editor3=David E. Nichols |volume=36|location=Berlin, Heidelberg |series=Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences}} * {{cite book |last1=Letheby |first1=Chris |title=Philosophy of Psychedelics |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-884312-2|doi=10.1093/med/9780198843122.001.0001}} * {{cite book |last=Richards |first=William A. |title=Sacred Knowledge: Psychedelics and Religious Experiences |date=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-54091-9}}
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[[Category:Hallucinations]] [[Category:Psychedelia]]
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