Acacus Mountains

{{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site | image=File:Tadrart Acacus 1.jpg | image_upright=1.2 | caption= | official_name=Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus | location=[[Ghat District]], [[Libya]] | criteria={{UNESCO WHS type|(iii)}}(iii) | ID=287 | coordinates={{coord|24|50|N|10|20|E|format=dms}} | year=1985 | extension= | danger =2016–... | area= | buffer_zone= | website= | embedded= | locmapin=Libya | map_caption= }}

The '''Acacus Mountains''' or '''Tadrart Akakus''' ({{langx|ar|تدرارت أكاكوس}} / [[ALA-LC]]: ''Tadrārt Akākūs'') form a [[mountain range]] in the desert of the [[Ghat District]] in western [[Libya]], part of the [[Sahara]]. They are situated east of the city of [[Ghat, Libya]], and stretch north from the border with [[Algeria]], about {{convert|100|km}}. The area has a particularly rich array of prehistoric [[rock art]].

==History== ===Etymology=== ''Tadrart'' is the feminine form of "mountain" in the [[Berber languages]] (masculine: ''adrar'').

=== Archaeology === The Acacus Mountains were occupied by hunter-gatherers continuously in the [[Holocene]] despite fluctuating climate in the [[African humid period|African Humid Period]]. These sites have been important in understanding food processing and mobility as people adapted to climate variation. Animal domestication as part of the [[African Neolithic]] was introduced in this region by around 7000 BP, and pastoralism and foraging were the primary subsistence strategies of people in this region, not agriculture.

Sites in this region have been split into three main occupation periods: the Early Acacus, Late Acacus, and Pastoral Neolithic. The Early Acacus was a humid period from c. 9810 – 8880 BP characterized by small groups of mobile people living in valleys and along lowland lakes. The Late Acacus (c. 8870 – 7400 BP) was a dry period characterized by more sedentary people in larger groups living in valleys. These people greatly intensified food processing and storage of wild grains and used [[Ground stone|grinding stones]] and pottery extensively. The Pastoral Neolithic was characterized by increased mobility in a more humid environment again, and the domestication of animals. These people showed reduced usage of grinding stones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Garcea |first=Elena A. A. |date=2004-06-01 |title=An Alternative Way Towards Food Production: The Perspective from the Libyan Sahara |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-004-2878-6 |journal=Journal of World Prehistory |language=en |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=107–154 |doi=10.1007/s10963-004-2878-6 |s2cid=162218030 |issn=1573-7802|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Rock art=== The area is known for its [[rock art]] and was inscribed as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1985 because of the importance of these paintings and carvings. The paintings date from [[Timeline of human prehistory#Mesolithic|12,000 BCE]] to 100 CE and reflect cultural and [[African humid period|natural changes]] in the area.<ref name="unesco">{{cite web|author=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/287|title=UNESCO Fact Sheet|publisher=Whc.unesco.org|access-date=2013-12-09}}</ref>

There are paintings and carvings of animals such as [[giraffe]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[ostrich]]es and [[camel]]s, but also of humans and [[horse]]s. People are depicted in various daily life situations, for example while making music and dancing.<ref name=map>{{cite map|publisher=EWP|title=Jebel Acacus Map and Guide|url=http://ewpnet.com/libya/akakus.htm|edition=1st|year=2006|cartography=EWP|scale=1:100,000, inset 1:400,000. Tourist and cave art information.|isbn=0-906227-93-3|access-date=2008-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427022847/http://ewpnet.com/libya/akakus.htm|archive-date=2015-04-27|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewpnet.com/libya/acacus/index.htm|title=Acacus Rock Art Photo Gallery|publisher=Ewpnet.com|access-date=2013-12-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130601042449/http://www.ewpnet.com/libya/acacus/index.htm|archive-date=2013-06-01|url-status=dead}}</ref>

<gallery> File:Tadrart Acacus 1.jpg|Giraffe File:Libya 5041 Petroglyphs Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|Elephant File:Tadrart Acacus 2.jpg|Human figures File:Libya 4924 Pictograms Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|Human and animal figures File:Libya 4870 Pictograms Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|Human figure </gallery>

===Milk lipids=== Tadrart Acacus is also the site of the earliest appearance of processed milk lipids on ceramics, which have been radiocarbon-dated to 7,500 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gifford-Gonzalez|first1=Diane|title=Animal Genetics and African Archaeology: Why It Matters|journal=African Archaeological Review|date=2013|volume=30|pages=1–20|doi=10.1007/s10437-013-9130-7|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Vandalism and destruction since 1969== During [[Muammar Gaddafi]]’s rule from 1969 through 2011, the Department of Antiquities was badly neglected.{{Citation needed|date=February 2025}} Since 2005, the search for petroleum hidden underground has placed the rock art itself in danger. Seismic hammers are used to send shock waves underneath to locate oil deposits, and have noticeable effects on nearby rocks, including the ones that house the Tadrart Acacus rock art.<ref>{{cite news|author=Bohannon, John|title=In the Valley of Life, Oil is Death to the Art of a Lost Civilization|date=10 February 2005|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2005/feb/10/heritage.artsandhumanities}}</ref>

Looting of ancient artifacts reached a level of crisis.<ref>{{citation|title=Libyan archaeologists look to the future with new training|first=Tom|last=Little|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2012/12/23/libyan-archaeologists-look-to-the-future-with-new-training/#ixzz30zUDRKFY|publisher=Libyan Herald|access-date=5 May 2014|date=23 December 2013}}</ref> In response UNESCO called for a major awareness campaign, to heighten awareness of Libya's archaeological and cultural heritage and to alert Libyans that their heritage is "being looted by thieves and destroyed by developers."<ref name=Libyan_Herald>{{citation|url=http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/09/25/unesco-training-to-combat-the-looting-of-libyan-antiquities/#ixzz30zRTDVxN|publisher=Libyan Herald|title=UNESCO training to combat the looting of Libyan antiquities|date=25 September 2013|access-date=5 May 2014}}</ref>

In 2012 following the murder of Gaddafi, efforts were made to train staff through a $2.26 million UNESCO project, with the Libyan and Italian governments. The project included conservation, protection and education. Along with Tadrart Acacus, Libya has four other UNESCO World Heritage sites: [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]], [[Leptis Magna]], [[Sabratha]] and [[Ghadames]].<ref name=Libya_Business_News>{{citation|url=http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2012/12/07/unesco-supports-libyan-heritage-with-2m-project/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310092530/http://www.libya-businessnews.com/2012/12/07/unesco-supports-libyan-heritage-with-2m-project/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=March 10, 2013|title=UNESCO supports Libyan Heritage with $2m Project|date=7 December 2012|access-date=5 May 2014|publisher=Libya Business News}}</ref> UNESCO advised that "a centre should be established at Ghat or Uweynat to train the staff in charge of the protection and management of the property and to host a museum which is expected to play an important [role] in terms of awareness raising."<ref name=UNESCO_2013>{{citation|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/343/|title=State of Conservation (SOC): Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus|year=2013|access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref>

UNESCO State of Conservation (SOC) reports from 2011, 2012 and 2013 show that at least ten of the rock-art sites have been the object of deliberate and considerable destruction since at least April 2009.<ref name=UNESCO>{{citation|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/343/|title=State of Conservation (SOC): Rock-Art Sites of Tadrart Acacus|year=2011|access-date=4 May 2014}}</ref> The ambiguity surrounding property boundaries of the World Heritage Site and therefore the property management combined with lack of local understanding of its cultural values were contributing factors in the ongoing vandalism. Conflicts in the area since 2011 led to increased vandalism.<ref name=UNESCO_2013 />

In May 2013 UNESCO undertook a technical mission to assess the state of conservation the Tadrart Acacus site and to "build-up a strategic plan to enforce the protection and management of this unique cultural and natural context."<ref name=UN_2013>{{citation|url=http://unsmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?ctl=Details&tabid=3543&mid=6187&ItemID=1647730|publisher=United Nations|title=UNESCO organizes training course for conservation and restores of Libyan Artefacts|year=2013|access-date=5 May 2014}}</ref>

On 14 April 2014 two kinds of vandals were reported, those who thoughtlessly carve their own names beside the ancient rock art and those who deliberately use chemical products to remove the rock drawings.<ref name=France24>{{citation|title=Graffiti defaces prehistoric rock art in Libya|url=http://observers.france24.com/content/20140414-graffiti-vandalism-destroys-prehistoric-rock-art-libya|date=14 April 2014|access-date=5 May 2014|publisher=Observers: France 24|first=Sarra|last=Grira|archive-date=11 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011203232/http://observers.france24.com/content/20140414-graffiti-vandalism-destroys-prehistoric-rock-art-libya|url-status=dead}}</ref> On April 20, 2014, the French special correspondent {{Interlanguage link|Jacques-Marie Bourget|fr}} was informed by a local journalist from [[Ghat, Libya]], Aziz Al-Hachi, that the UNESCO Rock-Art World Heritage Site of Tadrart Acacus was being destroyed with [[sledgehammer]]s and [[brush|scrub brushes]].<ref>{{citation|title=Libye : Les salafistes wahhabites libyens détruisent un site de 12.000 ans d'âge|date=29 April 2014|url=http://www.algerie1.com/international-2/libye-les-salafistes-wahhabites-libyens-detruisent-un-site-de-12-000-ans-dage/|location=Algeria|access-date=4 May 2014|archive-date=8 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808230633/http://www.algerie1.com/international-2/libye-les-salafistes-wahhabites-libyens-detruisent-un-site-de-12-000-ans-dage/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=http://mondafrique.com/lire/decryptages/2014/04/20/libye-12-000-ans-effaces-au-white-spirit|publisher=Mondafrique|date=2014-04-20|access-date=2014-05-04|title=Libye, 12 000 ans effacés au white spirit|first=Jacques-Marie|last=Bourget|archive-date=2014-05-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505020145/http://mondafrique.com/lire/decryptages/2014/04/20/libye-12-000-ans-effaces-au-white-spirit|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Art== ''Funeral Ritual in the Acacus,'' is a painting by [[Shefa Salem]], which inspired by cave art from the Acacus Mountains dating to 4000 BC that featured a boat containing a group of people, one of whom was upside down.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=2021-11-23 |title='I am Libya': 24-year-old artist Shefa Salem re-imagines Libyan history |url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20211123-i-am-libya-24-year-old-artist-shefa-salem-re-imagines-libyan-history/ |access-date=2025-02-16 |website=Middle East Monitor}}</ref>

==Geography== The Tadrart Acacus have a large variation of landscapes, from different-coloured [[dune]]s to arches, gorges, isolated rocks and deep [[wadi]]s (ravines). Major landmarks include the arches of Afzejare and Tin Khlega. Although this area is one of the most arid in the Sahara, there is vegetation, such as the medicinal ''[[Calotropis procera]]'', and there are a number of springs and wells in the mountains.

<gallery> File:Libya 4985 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|Acacus mountains in western [[Libya]], part of the [[Sahara]] File:Akakus fozzigiaren.jpg|Rock arch in Tadrart Acacus File:Tadrart01.JPG|The Moul n'ga Cirque in the [[Tadrart Rouge]] region, with [[wave cloud]]s above File:Akakus desert.jpg|Desert of Akakus File:Akakus tete rocheuse.jpg|Head rock File:Akakus-Gebirge - Bizarre Felsformationen.jpg|Rock formations File:Libya 5076 Tadrart Acacus Luca Galuzzi 2007.jpg|Rock formations File:Menschen der Libyschen Wüste.jpg|Temporary human-built habitat </gallery>

==See also== * [[List of Stone Age art]] * [[Uan Muhuggiag]]

==Notes== {{reflist}}

==Further reading== * Di Lernia, Savino e Zampetti, Daniela (eds.) (2008) ''La Memoria dell'Arte. Le pitture rupestri dell'Acacus tra passato e futuro'', Florence, All'Insegna del Giglio; * Minozzi S., Manzi G., Ricci F., di Lernia S., and Borgognini Tarli S.M. (2003) "Nonalimentary tooth use in prehistory: an Example from Early Holocene in Central Sahara (Uan Muhuggiag, Tadrart Acacus, Libya)" ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology'' 120: pp. 225–232; {{doi|10.1002/ajpa.10161}} * Mattingly, D. (2000) "Twelve thousand years of human adaptation in Fezzan (Libyan Sahara)" in G. Barker, Graeme and Gilbertson, D.D. (eds) ''The Archaeology of Drylands: Living at the Margin'' London, Routledge, pp. 160–79; * Cremaschi, Mauro and Di Lernia, Savino (1999) "Holocene Climatic Changes and Cultural Dynamics in the Libyan Sahara" ''[[African Archaeological Review]]'' 16(4): pp. 211–238; {{doi|10.1023/A:1021609623737}} * Cremaschi, Mauro; Di Lernia, Savino; and Garcea, Elena A. A. (1998) "Some Insights on the Aterian in the Libyan Sahara: Chronology, Environment, and Archaeology" ''African Archaeological Review'' 15(4): pp. 261–286; {{doi|10.1023/A:1021620531489}} * Cremaschi, Mauro and Di Lernia, Savino (eds., 1998) ''Wadi Teshuinat: Palaeoenvironment and Prehistory in South-western Fezzan (Libyan Sahara)'' Florence, All'Insegna del Giglio; * Wasylikowa, K. (1992) "Holocene flora of the Tadrart Acacus area, SW Libya, based on plant macrofossils from Uan Muhuggiag and Ti-n-Torha Two Caves archaeological sites" ''Origini'' 16: pp. 125–159; * Mori, F., (1960) ''Arte Preistorica del Sahara Libico'' Rome, De Luca; * Mori, F., (1965) ''Tadrart Acacus'', Turin, Einaudi; * Mercuri AM (2008) Plant exploitation and ethnopalynological evidence from the Wadi Teshuinat area (Tadrart Acacus, Libyan Sahara). Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 1619-1642; {{doi|10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.003}} * Mercuri AM (2008) Human influence, plant landscape evolution and climate inferences from the archaeobotanical records of the Wadi Teshuinat area (Libyan Sahara). Journal of Arid Environments 72: 1950-1967. {{doi|10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.04.008}}

==External links== {{Commons category}} * [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/287 UNESCO Fact Sheet] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20061007184254/http://www.acacus.it/eng/index.htm Italian-Libyan Archaeological Mission in the Acacus and Messak] * [http://www.naturalarches.org/gallery-LibyaPortfolio.htm Natural Arches of the Akakus Plateau] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107041331/http://www.naturalarches.org/gallery-LibyaPortfolio.htm |date=2009-11-07 }}

{{World Heritage Sites in Libya}} {{Mountains of Libya}} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|24|50|N|10|20|E|display=title|region:LY_type:landmark_source:dewiki}}

[[Category:Mountain ranges of Libya]] [[Category:Archaeological sites in Libya]] [[Category:Saharan rock art]] [[Category:Deserts of Libya]] [[Category:Sahara]] [[Category:Prehistoric Africa]] [[Category:Ghat, Libya]] [[Category:Fezzan]] [[Category:Tuareg]] [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Libya]] [[Category:Tourism in Libya]]