{{Short description|Set of monotheistic religions}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2025}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=August 2025}} [[File:3 Abrahamic symbols (chronological).svg|thumb|upright|260px|class=pageimage|From left to right: the Star of David (Judaism), the cross (Christianity), and the star and crescent (Islam) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions.]] {{Religion sidebar}} The '''Abrahamic religions''' are a set of monotheistic religions that respect or admire the religious figure Abraham as a patriarch and/or as a prophet, namely Judaism, Christianity and Islam, as well as smaller religions such as Samaritanism, the Druze Faith, the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafari, though the term may as well include religions such as Mandaeism, Yarsanism, Shabakism and Alevism, although their status as Abrahamic religions is highly controversial and hotly debated namely for reasons and doctrines that set them significantly apart from other Abrahamic religions. The religions of this set share doctrinal, historical, and geographic overlap that contrast them with Indian religions, Iranian religions, and East Asian religions, although some smaller Abrahamic religions, such as the Baha'i Faith, are also Iranian religions.<ref>Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5, accessed 12 Feb. 2024</ref><ref>Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165–183.</ref>
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are the three largest Abrahamic religions, with Christianity and Islam being followed and adhered to by a significant minority of the world's population. The term, introduced in the 20th century, replaced "Judeo-Christian" to include Islam as an Abrahamic religion and acknowledge differences between Judaism and Christianity, while Samaritanism, the Druze Faith, the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafari were recognized and classified as Abrahamic religions by a significant minority of scholars in the 20th century. However, the term has been criticized by some scholars for reportedly oversimplifying cultural and doctrinal nuances between the different religions.
== Usage == The term ''Abrahamic religions'' (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for similar and closely related elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as well as the smaller religions such as Samaritanism, the Druze Faith, the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafari.<ref>Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.</ref> It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and civil discourse, as well as academic discourse.<ref name="Bakhos, Carol 2014">Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.</ref><ref>Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230–253.</ref> The term appears for the first time in the second half of the 20th century.<ref>Stroumsa, Guy G. "From Abraham's Religion to the Abrahamic Religions." Historia religionum: an international Journal: 3, 2011 (2011): 11–22. p. 21</ref>
Although historically the term ''Abrahamic religions'' was limited to just Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,<ref name="British Library">{{cite web |last=Abulafia |first=Anna Sapir |author-link=Anna Abulafia |date=23 September 2019 |title=The Abrahamic religions |url=https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712150432/https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions |archive-date=12 July 2020 |access-date=9 March 2021 |publisher=British Library |location=London}}</ref> restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.<ref name="Trialogue Intl">*{{cite web |last=Micksch |first=Jürgen |title=Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz |publisher=Herbert Quandt Stiftung |year=2009 |url=http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160523192258/http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885 |archive-date=23 May 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Collins|2004|pp=157, 160}} The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been characterized as Abrahamic, as it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes its own descent from Abraham.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |entry=Baha'i Faith |first=John |last=Cappucci |title=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia [4 volumes] | editor-last=Çakmak | editor-first=Cenap | encyclopedia=Islam: A Worldwide Encyclopedia | publisher=Bloomsbury | year=2017 | isbn=979-8-216-10532-9}}</ref>
=== Theological discourse === The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam, as well as Samaritanism, the Druze Faith, the Baha'i Faith, and Rastafari and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the seven religions.<ref name="Krista N. Dalton 2014">Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-19-993465-2}}, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684–686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421</ref><ref name="Hughes, Aaron W 2012. p. 17">Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17</ref> Commonalities may include creation, revelation, and redemption, but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves.<ref name="Hughes, Aaron W 2012. p. 17"/> Proponents of the term argue that all seven religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.<ref name="Krista N. Dalton 2014"/>
The Catholic scholar of Islam Louis Massignon argued that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that the religions come from one spiritual source.{{sfn |Massignon |1949 |pp=20–23}} The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to ''dīn Ibrāhīm'' ("religion of Abraham").{{sfn |Stroumsa |2017 |p=7}}
In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the "religion of Abraham".{{sfn |Levenson |2012 |pp=178–179}} The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu'lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}}{{sfn |Able |2011 |p=219}}{{sfn |Hatcher |Martin |1998 |pp=130–31}}
=== Criticism === The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last=Boyd |first=Samuel L. |title=Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison |journal=Religion Compass |date=October 2019 |volume=13 |issue=10 |article-number=e12339 |doi=10.1111/rec3.12339 |s2cid=203090839 |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/rec3.12339 |issn=1749-8171 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational theological claims, practices, and cultures, concealing irreconcilable differences.{{sfn |Dodds |2009 |pp=230–253}} Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote in 2012 that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways", and "each tradition views the figure [of Abraham] differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him."<ref name="Berger">Berger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012.</ref> Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism."{{Sfn |Hughes |2012 |pp=3–4, 7–8, 17, 32}}
The common Christian doctrines of Jesus's Incarnation, the Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., the religious restrictions on the consumption of pork found in Jewish and Islamic dietary laws), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and messianic status of Jesus).{{sfn|Greenstreet|2006|p=95}}
== Religions== === Judaism === {{Main |Jewish history}} thumb|The Torah forms the basis and foundation of Judaism and corresponds to the first five books of the Bible. Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.<ref>{{harvp|Hatcher|Martin|1998|pp=130–31}}; {{harvp|Bremer|2015|p=19–20}}; {{harvp|Able|2011|p=219}}; {{harvp|Dever|2001|pp=97–102}}</ref>
In its early stages, the Israelite religion (Yahwism) shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry. They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 9">Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 9</ref>
While the Book of Genesis speaks of ʾĔlōhīm, comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 14–15</ref> The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.<ref>{{harvp|Edelman|1995|p=19}}; {{harvp|Gnuse|2016|p=5}}; {{harvp|Carraway|2013|p=66|ps=: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."}}; {{harvp|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=234|ps=: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."}}</ref><ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |title=BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife? |publisher=BBC |date=21 December 2011 |access-date=4 July 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115173447/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zw3fl |url-status=live}} Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."</ref><ref name="Center for Online Judaic Studies 2008">{{cite web |first=Christine |last=Hayes |title=Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism: (Genesis 37- Exodus 4), Christine Hayes, Open Yale Courses (Transcription), 2006. |website=Center for Online Judaic Studies |date=3 July 2008 |url=http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |access-date=17 August 2022 |quote="Only later would a Yahweh-only party polemicize against and seek to suppress certain… what came to be seen as undesirable elements of Israelite-Judean religion, and these elements would be labeled Canaanite, as a part of a process of Israelite differentiation. But what appears in the Bible as a battle between Israelites, pure Yahwists, and Canaanites, pure polytheists, is indeed better understood as a civil war between Yahweh-only Israelites, and Israelites who are participating in the cult of their ancestors." |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817010524/http://cojs.org/moses_and_the_beginning_of_yahwism-_-genesis_37-_exodus_4-_christine_hayes-_open_yale_courses_-transcription-_2006/ |url-status=live}}</ref> With the Fall of Babylon, Judaism incorporated concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.<ref name="TJE1906">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15283-zoroastrianism|title=Zoroastrianism ("Resemblances Between Zoroastrianism and Judaism" and "Causes of Analogies Uncertain")|date=1906|author1=Kaufmann Kohler|author2=A. V. Williams Jackson|encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopaedia|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref><ref name="SecondPersian">{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |author-link=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2006 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539-331BCE) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cPeBAAAQBAJ |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |pages=361–364 |isbn=9780567216175}}</ref><ref name="BlackRowley_1982_607b">{{harvnb|Black|Rowley|1982|p=607b}}.</ref>
=== Christianity === {{Main|History of Christianity}}
[[File:Bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg|thumb|A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
Christianity traces back their origin to the 1st century and refers to themselves as a continuation of Judaism (commonly referred to as the old covenant) initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,<ref>Pavlac, Brian A (2010). ''A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities''. Chapter 6.</ref> who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God.
In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth;{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}} Christianity spread widely. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently from the Jews of his time.<ref>Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 516.</ref> While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.<ref>Howard, James M. "Paul, Monotheism and the People of God: The Significance of Abraham Traditions for Early Judaism and Christianity." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 49.1 (2006): 517.</ref>
While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41</ref> At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41–57</ref> Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of ''creation'' and ''redemption'' starting with Abraham in the ''Book of Genesis''.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41</ref> The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of ''Creatio ex nihilo'', which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.<ref>Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25–39</ref> By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate and worship the deity of Jesus.<ref>Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40</ref>
After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace ''vis-à-vis'' the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization.<ref name="Perry2012">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33|title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789|author=Marvin Perry|date=1 January 2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-111-83720-4|pages=33–}}</ref>
=== Islam === {{Main|History of Islam}}
thumb|The Quran is the holy book of Islam forming the basis for the religion Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word ''Islam'' means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God,<ref name="Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Nasr |first=Seyyed Hossein |author-link=Seyyed Hossein Nasr |title=Qurʼān |year=2007 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |access-date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |archive-date=16 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016200056/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-68890/Quran |url-status=live}}</ref> other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the Gospel) revealed to Isa (Jesus).<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2016-06-28 |title=Chapter 2: Pre-Islamic Revelations |url=https://al-islam.org/quran-and-hadith-sayyid-saeed-akhtar-rizvi/chapter-2-pre-islamic-revelations |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=al-islam.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Islam and Previous Scriptures |url=https://www.ifta.org.uk/blog/islam-and-previous-scriptures |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=Islam and Previous Scriptures |language=en}}</ref> The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />
The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Hebrew Bible.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 62">Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62</ref> Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.<ref name="Cohen, Charles L 2020. p. 62"/>
In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.{{sfn |Bremer |2015 |p=19–20}} Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism.<ref>Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184–205.</ref>
The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called ''tawhid'' or "strict monotheism".<ref name="BBC Islam">[https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ataglance/glance.shtml Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance], BBC, 5 August 2009.</ref> The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says ''kun fa-yakūnu''.<ref name="Burrell, David B. 2010. p. 41">Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 41.</ref> The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity.<ref name="Burrell, David B. 2010. p. 41"/>
=== Others ===
Samaritanism is considered by some fringe Jewish and Christian apologetics to be a sect which diverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE. There is growing archaeological, DNA testing, and textual evidence in modern times which has proved the status of the Israelite Samaritans as an independent Abrahamic ethnoreligion and indigenous people of the Levant in their own right. The evidence has authenticated their claim to a legal religious status.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oefner |first1=Peter J. |last2=Hölzi |first2=Georg |last3=Shen |first3=Piedong |last4=Shpirer |first4=Isaac |last5=Gefel |first5=Dov |last6=Lavi |first6=Tal |last7=Woolf |first7=Eilon |last8=Cohen |first8=Jonathan |last9=Cinnioglu |first9=Cengiz |last10=Underhill |first10=Peter A. |last11=Rosenberg |first11=Noah A. |last12=Hochrein |first12=Jochen |last13=Granka |first13=Julie M. |last14=Hillel |first14=Jossi |last15=Feldman |first15=Marcus W. |date=December 2013|title=Genetics and the history of the Samaritans: Y-chromosomal microsatellites and genetic affinity between Samaritans and Cohanim |journal=Human Biology |volume=85 |issue=6 |pages=825–858 |doi=10.3378/027.085.0601 |issn=1534-6617 |pmid=25079122}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Mount Gerizim and the Samaritans |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5706/ |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples - Palestine : Samaritans {{!}} Refworld |url=https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/mrgi/2018/en/65019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121123826/https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/mrgi/2018/en/65019 |archive-date=21 January 2025 |access-date=2025-12-10 |work=Refworld |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Museum – Samaritan Museum |url=https://samaritanmuseum.com/museum/ |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=samaritanmuseum.com}}</ref>
Some sources consider Mandaeism to be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification is controversial, given that Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |title=Mandaean Religion {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mandaean-religion |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{cite web |author=AuthorName |title=Comparative Studies in Mandaean History and Theology |url=https://www.academia.edu/26661213/Comparative_Studies_in_Mandaean_History_and_Theology |access-date=2026-04-11 |via=Academia.edu}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{cite book |last=Buckley |first=Jorunn Jacobsen |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/6859/chapter-151062179 |title=The Mandaeans: Ancient Texts and Modern People |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-515385-9 |chapter=Introduction: The Mandaean World}}</ref> On the contrary, the Mandaeans believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />
Druze is another religion which emerged from Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford handbook of American Islam |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-986263-4 |editor-last=Haddad |editor-first=Yvonne Yazbeck |location=New York |editor-last2=Smith |editor-first2=Jane I.}}</ref>
Yarsanism is a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic by some due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especially Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and first imam of Shia Islam.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spencer |first=Noel |date=2022-09-26 |title=The Religious Textual Heritage of the Yārsān (Ahl-e Haqq) |url=https://oraltradition.org/the-religious-textual-heritage-of-the-yarsan-ahl-e-haqq/ |access-date=2026-04-10 |website=Oral Tradition |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=تقی |first=محمد حاجی |last2=صفری |first2=محمد رضا زاده |last3=هادی |first3=معصومه |date=2015-12-01 |title=The emergence of the Yarsan religion and the periods of epiphany in this religion |url=https://jhr.usb.ac.ir/article_2504_a8312f1eae9e61c05c24db61324c8558.pdf |journal=پژوهشهای تاریخی ایران و اسلام |language=en |volume=9 |issue=16 |pages=53–76 |doi=10.22111/jhr.2015.2504 |issn=2345-2099}}</ref> Yazidism, another Kurdish religion, is considered a syncretic religion and shares elements with Shia Islam, Mandaeism, Christianity, and Judaism, including a belief in Adam and Abraham.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last=Arakelova |first=Victoria |date=2021 |title=CHAPTER 32 Yezidism from Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements on JSTOR |url=https://www.jstor.org/content/oa_chapter_edited/10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8.41 |journal=Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements |language=en |doi=10.1163/j.ctv1v7zbv8.41}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13635.5 |title=Yazidism and its Community in Iraq |last=van Zoonen |first=Dave |last2=Wirya |first2=Khogir |date=2017 |publisher=Middle East Research Institute |pages=7–12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spät |first=Eszter |date=2002 |title=Shahid bin Jarr, Forefather of the Yezidis and the Gnostic Seed of Seth |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4030713 |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=6 |issue=1/2 |pages=27–56 |issn=1609-8498}}</ref> It has also been influenced by Islamic mysticism and Gnostic Christianity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Arakelova |first=Victoria |date=2004 |title=Notes on the Yezidi Religious Syncretism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4030889 |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=19–28 |issn=1609-8498}}</ref> In Yazidism, the prophet Abraham is invoked during prayers before a meal, especially ritual meals.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Asatrian |first=Garnik |last2=Arakelova |first2=Victoria |date=2004 |title=The Yezidi Pantheon |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4030995 |journal=Iran & the Caucasus |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=231–279 |issn=1609-8498}}</ref>
====Modern era==== A number of sources include the Baháʼí Faith, established in the 19th century,{{sfn|Lubar Institute|2016}}{{sfn|Beit-Hallahmi|1992|pp=48–49}}<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Babi-Baha'i Studies - Some Historical Notes and Sources. {{!}} Hurqalya Publications: Center for Shaykhī and Bābī-Bahā’ī Studies |url=https://hurqalya.ucmerced.edu/bb-studies/babi-bahai-studies-towards-history |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=hurqalya.ucmerced.edu}}</ref> since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with the Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets.{{sfn|Smith|2008|p=106}}{{sfn|Cole|2012|pp=438–446}}<ref name=":8" /> Some scholars<ref>{{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An Introduction to Shi'i Islam |year=1985}}</ref> include Bábism, a 19th-century movement and precursor to the Baháʼí Faith.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BAHAISM iii. Bahai and Babi Schisms |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahaism-index/bahaism-iii/ |access-date=2026-04-11 |website=Encyclopaedia Iranica |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=http://archive.org/details/bbbahreligions180000unse |title=The Bábí and Bahá'í religions 1844-1944 : some contemporary western accounts |date=1981 |publisher=Oxford : G. Ronald |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-85398-102-2}}</ref>
Rastafari, an Afrocentric religion which emerged from Christianity in 1930s Jamaica, is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture.<ref>{{cite book |last=Petray |first=Theresa |year=2020 |chapter=Rastafarianism |editor-last1=Possamai |editor-first1=Adam |editor-last2=Blasi |editor-first2=Anthony J. |title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Sociology of Religion |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Los Angeles |pages=659–661 |isbn=978-1473942202}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Weidner |first=Veronika |year=2021 |chapter=Revelation in Abrahamic Faiths |title=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |editor1-last=Goetz |editor1-first=Stewart |editor2-first=Charles |editor2-last=Taliaferro |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1002/9781119009924.eopr0337 |isbn=9781119010951 |s2cid=237711314 }}</ref>
== Common aspects == {{Main|God in Abrahamic religions}}
Abrahamic religions agree upon the createdness of the universe by God, who is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, and omniscient.<ref name=":0">Leeming, David. The Oxford Companion to World Mythology. Vereinigtes Königreich, Oxford University Press, 2005. p. 209</ref>{{sfn|Christiano|Kivisto|Swatos|2015|pp=254–255}} All three identify the creator of the universe with the God revealed to Abraham.<ref name=":0" /> However, they differ on how to conceptualize God. Christianity proposes God's utter transcendence and that an intermediary — such as an incarnation of God — is required to bridge the gap between God and humans.<ref name=":0" /> According to Islam, God is knowable through his creation, metaphorical stories of the prophets stored in the Quran, and signs in nature.<ref name=":0" /> Christianity proposes God's personhood in the form of a Son of God as an aspect of the Divinity as formulated in the doctrine of the Trinity.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast, God in Islam is less personal than described in the Judeo-Christian tradition, and more of a mysterious power behind all aspects of the universe.<ref name=":0" />
Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |2014 |pp=1–14}} Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.{{sfn |Kunst |Thomsen |Sam |2014 |pp=337–348}}
== Differences == {{Synthesis|section|date=February 2024}}
=== Circumcision === {{See also|Religious male circumcision|Brit milah|Khitan (circumcision)|Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|History of circumcision}} [[File:Brit mila.jpg |thumb |Preparing for a Jewish ritual circumcision.]] Religious law in Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old,{{sfn |Mark |2003 |pp=94–95}} as does the {{tlit|ar|sunnah}} ('tradition') in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be {{tlit|ar|sunnah}} and not required for a life directed by Allah.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1-last=Šakūrzāda |author1-first=Ebrāhīm |author2-last=Omidsalar |author2-first=Mahmoud |date=October 2011 |title=Circumcision |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |url-status=live |volume=V/6 |pages=596–600 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |publisher=Columbia University |location=New York |doi=10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7731 |doi-access=free |issn=2330-4804 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200119024047/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/circumcision |archive-date=19 January 2020 |access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called {{tlit|ar|khitan}}) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.
Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, neither requiring it for religious observance nor forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394}} Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kohler |first1=Kaufmann |last2=Krauss |first2=Samuel |title=Baptism |url=https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |website=Jewish Encyclopedia |access-date=31 August 2022 |quote="According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition." |archive-date=31 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220831120817/https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/2456-baptism |url-status=live }}</ref> a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church, as recorded in Acts 15 at the Council of Jerusalem,<ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|15|NRSV}}</ref> decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century prohibited it.<ref>[http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060816052624/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/councilflorence/ |date=16 August 2006 }}. The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> Paragraph #2297 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629225324/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/fifth.html#PERSONS |date=29 June 2007 }}. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref><ref>Dietzen, John. [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ "The Morality of Circumcision"] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060810070559/http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/dietzen1/ |date=10 August 2006 }}, The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.</ref> By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it was not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |title=Frequently Asked Questions: The Catholic Church and Circumcision. |website=catholicdoors.com |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://www.catholicdoors.com/faq/qu340.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |title=Should Catholics circumcise their sons? – Catholic Answers |website=Catholic.com |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110835/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/should-catholics-circumcise-their-sons |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Arnold |first1=Michelle |url=https://www.catholic.com/qa/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-allowed |title=The Catechism forbids deliberate mutilation, so why is non-therapeutic circumcision allowed? |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222110402/http://www.catholic.com/quickquestions/the-catechism-forbids-deliberate-mutilation-so-why-is-non-therapeutic-circumcision-al |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> The New Testament, in Acts 15, records that Christianity did not require circumcision. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage.<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2011 |title=Circumcision |encyclopedia=Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |url=http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |access-date=28 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924051012/http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/science/circumcision.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.{{sfn|Adams |Adams |2012 |pp=291–298}}
Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in Europe and Latin America have low circumcision rates. In contrast, both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among Christian communities in the Anglosphere countries, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa.<ref>{{harvp|Gruenbaum|2015|p=61|ps=: "Christian theology generally interprets male circumcision to be an Old Testament rule that is no longer an obligation ... though in many countries (especially the United States and Sub-Saharan Africa, but not so much in Europe) it is widely practiced among Christians."}}; {{harvp|Peteet|2017|pp=97–101|ps=: "male circumcision is still observed among Ethiopian and Coptic Christians, and circumcision rates are also high today in the Philippines and the US."}}; {{harvp|Ellwood|2008|p=95|ps=: "It is obligatory among Jews, Muslims, and Coptic Christians. Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Christians do not require circumcision. Starting in the last half of the 19th century, however, circumcision also became common among Christians in Europe and especially in North America."}}</ref><ref name="Associated Press">{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |title=Circumcision protest brought to Florence |publisher=Associated Press |date=30 March 2008 |quote="However, the practice is still common among Christians in the United States, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa. Some Middle Eastern Christians actually view the procedure as a rite of passage." |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928020456/https://apnews.com/article/19456997e17c4a12a24abb9d11c01dba |url-status=live}}</ref> Countries such as the United States,<ref>Ray, Mary G. [https://archive.today/20140916071531/http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:8IQnea2UK-UJ:http://www.mothersagainstcirc.org/majority.htm&prmd=ivns&strip=1 "82% of the World's Men are Intact"], Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.</ref> the Philippines, Australia (albeit primarily in the older generations),<ref name="Richters 2006">{{cite journal |last1=Richters |first1=J. |last2=Smith |first2=A. M. |last3=de Visser |first3=R. O. |last4=Grulich |first4=A. E. |last5=Rissel |first5=C. E. |title=Circumcision in Australia: prevalence and effects on sexual health |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=17 |issue=8 |pages=547–54 |date=August 2006 |pmid=16925903 |doi=10.1258/095646206778145730 |s2cid=24396989 |hdl=1959.4/44116 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.<ref name="Williams">{{cite journal |title=The potential impact of male circumcision on HIV in sub-Saharan Africa |last=Williams |first=B. G. |journal=PLOS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e262 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 |pmid=16822094 |pmc=1489185 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Questions and answers: NIAID-sponsored adult male circumcision trials in Kenya and Uganda |publisher=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |date=December 2006 |url=http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309060025/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm |archive-date=9 March 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |title=Circumcision amongst the Dogon |access-date=3 September 2006 |year=2006 |publisher=The Non-European Components of European Patrimony (NECEP) Database |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116174702/http://www.necep.net/articles.php?id_soc=12&id_article=84 |archive-date=16 January 2006 |url-status=usurped}}</ref> Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania.<ref name="Associated Press" /> In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.{{sfn|Pitts-Taylor |2008 |p=394 |loc="For most part, Christianity does not require circumcision of its followers. Yet, some Orthodox and African Christian groups do require circumcision. These circumcisions take place at any point between birth and puberty."}} Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage.<ref name="Columbia encyc 2011 circumcision" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Doorn-Harder |first1=Nelly |title=Christianity: Coptic Christianity |journal=Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices |date=2006 |volume=1 |url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222120244/http://www.omnilogos.com/2014/11/christianity-coptic-christianity.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 December 2015 }}</ref> Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa. (See also aposthia.)
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the {{tlit|ar|fitrah}}, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |title=Male Circumcision in Islam |first=Muslim Information Service of |last=Australia |access-date=16 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131129055454/http://www.missionislam.com/health/circumcisionislam.html |archive-date=29 November 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Although circumcision is widely practiced among the Druze, it is performed as a cultural tradition{{sfn|Ubayd |2006 |p=150}} and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.{{sfn|Jacobs |1998 |p=147 }}{{sfn|Silver |2022 |p=97 }} Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".{{sfn|Betts |2013 |p=56 }}
Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and the decision is left to the parents.{{sfn|Hassall |2022 |pp=591–602 }}
=== Proselytism === {{See also|Christianization|Islamization}} Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple period. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God{{efn |According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry ''Ben Noah'', page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.}} as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.<ref>Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, entry ''Ben Noah'', introduction) states that after the giving of the Torah, the Jewish people were no longer in the category of the sons of Noah; however, Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) indicates that the seven laws are also part of the Torah, and the Talmud (Bavli, Sanhedrin 59a, see also Tosafot ad. loc.) states that Jews are obligated in all things that Gentiles are obligated in, albeit with some differences in the details.</ref>{{efn |Compare {{bibleverse | |Genesis |9:4–6 |HE}}.}} It is believed that as much as 10% of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.<ref name="Times Atlas">{{cite book |trans-title=The Times Atlas of World History |title=Spectrum–Times Atlas van de Wereldgeschiedenis |editor-first=Geoffrey |editor-last=Barraclough |editor-link=Geoffrey Barraclough |year=1981 |orig-year=1978 |publisher=Het Spectrum |pages=102–103 |language=nl}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003, 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.{{sfn|Kornbluth|2003|p=}}{{page needed|date=September 2022}} ''See also Conversion to Judaism.''
[[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg |thumb |''The Sermon on the Mount'' by Carl Heinrich Bloch (1877)]] Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. ''See also Great Commission''. Forced conversions to Catholicism have happened at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited instances are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism has occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=ইসলাম |first=মোঃ হোসেনুল |title=খ্রিষ্টধর্ম ও ইসলামের মাঝে পার্থক্যসমূহ |trans-title=Differences between Christianity and Islam |url=https://islampidia.org/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251026052344/https://islampidia.org/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE-%E0%A6%93-%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0-%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE/ |archive-date=26 October 2025 |access-date=2025-10-26 |website=Islampidia |language=bn-BD |url-status=live }}</ref>
Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."<ref>Pope Paul VI. [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html "Declaration on Religious Freedom"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211202206/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651207_dignitatis-humanae_en.html |date=11 February 2012 }}, 7 December 1965.</ref> The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.<ref name="Pullella 2015-12-10">{{cite news |last1=Pullella |first1=Philip |title=Vatican says Catholics should not try to convert Jews, should fight anti-semitism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |access-date=13 January 2016 |publisher=Reuters |date=10 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112060659/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-pope-jews-idUSKBN0TT1BK20151210 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Islam encourages proselytism in various forms. Dawah is an important Islamic concept that denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.
Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes actively spread Da'wah, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.
In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.
While there were instances of forced conversions to Islam, these were neither the norm nor part of a systematic strategy of expansion. Many Muslim rulers practiced religious pluralism,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bulliet |first=Richard |title=Conversion to Islam in the Medieval Period: An Essay in Quantitative History |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0674170353 |edition=1st |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}}</ref> and the Quran explicitly prohibits compulsion in matters of faith.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Baqarah - 1-286 |url=https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=256 |access-date=2025-02-16 |website=Quran.com |language=en}}</ref> Most conversions to Islam occurred gradually, driven by social, cultural, and economic influences rather than coercion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Thomas Walker |title=The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |year=1913 |edition=Revised |location=New York}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> However, forcible conversion continues to be practiced in parts of the Islamic world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Each Year, 1,000 Pakistani Girls Forcibly Converted to Islam |url=https://www.voanews.com/amp/south-central-asia_each-year-1000-pakistani-girls-forcibly-converted-islam/6200096.html |access-date=2026-03-20 |website=www.voanews.com}}</ref>
== Demographics == {{See also|Abrahamic world}}{{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption = Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, {{as of |2020 |lc=y}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Mcclendon |first2=David |publisher=Pew Research Center |year=2020 |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |access-date=25 October 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301011315/https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/ |url-status=live}}</ref> | label1 = Christianity | color1 = Purple | value1 = 28.8 | label2 = Islam | color2 = Green | value2 = 25.6 | label3 = Judaism | color3 = Blue | value3 = 0.2 | label4 = Non-Abrahamic religions and religiously unaffiliated people | color4 = White | value4 = 45.4 }}Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.<ref name="Pew Relig by country">{{cite web |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |access-date=2 September 2021 |publisher=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US |archive-date=4 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150404142344/http://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /><ref name="PewIslam2011">[http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx "The Future of Global Muslim Population: Projections from 2010 to 2013"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209094904/http://www.pewforum.org/The-Future-of-the-Global-Muslim-Population.aspx |date=9 February 2011 }} Accessed July 2013.</ref> It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.<ref name="Pew Relig by country" /> The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais">{{cite web |title=Baha'is by Country |website=World Religion Database |publisher=Institute on Culture, Religion, and World Affairs |date=2020 |url=https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |access-date=21 December 2020 |archive-date=9 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201209190545/https://worldreligiondatabase.org/ |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref> and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth.{{sfn |Johnson |Grim |2013 |pp=59–62}} The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two million adherents.{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}} {| class="wikitable" |+Adherents of minor Abrahamic faiths !Religion !Adherents |- |Baháʼí |7–8 million{{sfn |Smith |2022b}}<ref name="WRD 2020 Bahais" /> |- |Druze |1–2 million{{sfn |Held |2008 |p=109 |loc="Worldwide, they number 1 million or so, with about 45 to 50 percent in Syria, 35 to 40 percent in Lebanon, and less than 10 percent in Israel. Recently there has been a growing Druze diaspora."}}{{sfn |Swayd |2015 |p=3 |loc="The Druze world population at present is perhaps nearing two million; ..."}} |- |Rastafari |700,000–1 million<ref name="BBC Did God Have a Wife" /> |- |Yarsanism |500,000–1 million<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hamzehʼee |first=M. Reza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XzptAAAAMAAJ |title=The Yaresan: A Sociological, Historical and Religio-historical Study of a Kurdish Community |date=1990 |publisher=K. Schwarz |isbn=978-3-922968-83-2 |language=en}}</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa'' (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2004) p. 82</ref> |- |Mandaeism |60,000–100,000<ref name="Saheeh al-Bukharee">Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710</ref><ref name="WMP">{{Cite web |title=The Mandaeans – Who are the Mandaeans? |url=http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |access-date=5 November 2021 |website=The Worlds of Mandaean Priests |archive-date=2 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202154541/http://mandaeanpriests.exeter.ac.uk/the-mandaeans |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |Sabbateans |2,000<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-08-06 |title=Public Muslims, Secret Jews: A Turkish Sect Faces Crackdown |url=https://forward.com/news/346996/public-muslims-secret-jews-a-turkish-sect-faces-crackdown/ |access-date=2026-05-17 |website=The Forward |language=en}}</ref> |- |Samaritanism |~900<ref name="The Samaritan Update">[http://www.thesamaritanupdate.com/ The Samaritan Update]. ''thesamaritanupdate.com''. 5 June 2022.</ref> |}
== See also == {{Portal |Judaism |Christianity |Islam |Religion}} * Abraham's family tree * Abrahamic Family House, a complex in Abu Dhabi built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity * Abrahamites * Ancient Semitic religion * Din-i Ilahi * Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement * Chrislam * Christianity and Islam * Christianity and Judaism * Christianity and other religions * Gnosticism * Interfaith dialogue * Islamic–Jewish relations * Islam and other religions * Jesus in Christianity * Jesus in Islam * Jewish views on religious pluralism * Judaism's view of Jesus * Judeo-Christian * Judeo-Christian ethics * List of burial places of Abrahamic figures * List of people in both the Bible and the Quran * Religious perspectives on Jesus * Yazidism * Milah Abraham * People of the Book * Sabians * Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions * Yarsanism * Manichaeism * Mormonism * Unification Church
== Notes == {{notelist}}
== References == === Citations === {{reflist}}
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Feldman |date=17 January 2011 |publisher=BRILL |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-21471-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueN5DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |title=The Bible Unearthed. Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. |edition=First Touchstone Edition 2002 |year=2002 |orig-date=2001 |publisher=Touchstone |location=New York |isbn=978-0-684-86913-1 |chapter=9. The Transformation of Judah (c. 930-705 BCE) |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051854/https://books.google.com/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&dq=The+idolatry+of+the+people+of+Judah+was+not+a+departure+from+their+earlier+monotheism.+It+was,+instead,+the+way+the+people+of+Judah+had+worshiped+for+hundreds+of+years.&pg=PA234 |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |last=Firestone |first=Reuven |title=Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism for Muslims |year=2001 |publisher=Ktav Publishing House |url=https://archive.org/details/childrenofabraha00fire |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-88125-720-5 |location=Hoboken, NJ}} * {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Michael M. J. |first2=Mehdi |last2=Abedi |title=Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1990 |url=https://archive.org/details/debatingmuslimsc0000fisc |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-299-12434-2}} * {{cite book |last=Florentin |first=Moshe |year=2005 |title=Late Samaritan Hebrew: A Linguistic Analysis Of Its Different Types |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1dNk_b1uDzUC |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill Publishers |series=Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics |volume=43 |isbn=978-90-04-13841-4 |issn=0081-8461}} <!-- GGG --> * {{cite book |last=Greenstreet |first=Wendy |location=Oxford; Seattle, WA |title=Integrating spirituality in health and social care |publisher=Radcliffe |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |isbn=978-1-85775-646-3 |access-date=25 August 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051856/https://books.google.com/books?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Gnuse |first=Robert Karl |title=Trajectories of Justice: What the Bible Says about Slaves, Women, and Homosexuality |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-7188-4456-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=1 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052451/https://books.google.com/books?id=gdTYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Gruenbaum |first=Ellen |title=The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective |year=2015 |isbn=9780812292510 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press}} * {{cite book |last1=Guthrie |first1=Shirley C. |title=Christian doctrine |date=1994 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |location=Louisville, Ken. |isbn=0664253687 |edition=Rev.}} <!-- HHH --> * {{citation |last=Häberl |first=Charles G. |title=The neo-Mandaic dialect of Khorramshahr |year=2009 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-05874-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BBjwrJY6-sYC}} *{{cite book |last1=Hatcher |first1=W.S. |last2=Martin |first2=J.D. |year=1998 |title=The Baháʼí Faith: The Emerging Global Religion |publisher=Harper & Row |location=New York |isbn=0-06-065441-4 |url=https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331090255/https://bahai-library.com/hatcher_martin_global_religion |url-status=live}} * {{Cite book |last=Hassall |first=Graham |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 48: Oceania |pages=591–602 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |doi=10.4324/9780429027772-55 |s2cid=244697166}} * {{cite book |last=Hawting |first=Gerald R. |title=The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |isbn=978-0-86078-712-9 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052421/https://books.google.com/books?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&pg=PR18 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Held |first=Colbert C. |title=Middle East Patterns: Places, People, and Politics |year=2008 |isbn=9780429962004 |publisher=Routledge}} * {{cite book |last1=Heft |first1=James L. |last2=Firestone |first2=Reuven |last3=Safi |first3=Omid |title=Learned Ignorance: Intellectual Humility Among Jews, Christians and Muslims |date=August 2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-976930-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hb6Bs2UrDBoC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Hendrix |editor1-first=Scott |editor2-last=Okeja |editor2-first=Uchenna |title=The World's Greatest Religious Leaders: How Religious Figures Helped Shape World History [2 volumes] |date=2018 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1440841385}} * {{cite book |last=Hitti |first=Philip K. |title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings |year=1928 |isbn=9781465546623 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}} * {{cite book |last=Hughes |first=Aaron W. |author-link=Aaron W. Hughes |year=2012 |title=Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-993464-5 |s2cid=157815976 |access-date=16 May 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051900/https://books.google.com/books?id=0K3Ia1rQCZEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Huntington |first1=Samuel |translator-last=Müller |translator-first=Francis |title=Kampf der Kulturen |date=2007 |publisher=GRIN Verlag |isbn=978-3-638-66418-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |language=de |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164804/https://books.google.com/books?id=GtYRpF_n9Q4C |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Hussain |first1=Amir |editor1-last=Safi |editor1-first=Omid |title=Muslims, Pluralism, and Interfaith Dialogue |journal=Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism |date=1 April 2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781780740454 |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Thq9DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} <!-- III --> * {{cite book |last=Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ |translator-first=Eerik |translator-last=Dickinson |title=An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith |publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |isbn=978-1-85964-158-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052417/https://books.google.com/books?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Izzeddin |first=Nejla M. Abu |title=The Druzes: a new study of their history, faith, and society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |year=1993 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09705-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707072331/http://books.google.com/books?id=BprjrZzee5EC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=7 July 2014 |url-status=live}} <!-- JJJ --> * {{cite book |last=Jacobs |first=Daniel |title=Israel and the Palestinian Territories: The Rough Guide |year=1998 |isbn=9781858282480 |publisher=Rough Guides}} * {{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd M. |last2=Grim |first2=Brian J. |date=26 March 2013 |title=The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography |chapter=Global Religious Populations, 1910–2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |doi=10.1002/9781118555767.ch1 |isbn=9781118555767 |quote="The Baha'i Faith is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the general population; Bahaʼi (sic) was thus the fastest-growing religion between 1910 and 2010, growing at least twice as fast as the population of almost every UN region." |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051912/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkFVF8nFiqkC |url-status=live}} <!-- KKK --> * {{cite book |last1=Kaplan |first1=Aryeh |chapter=The Jew |title=The Aryeh Kaplan Reader the Gift He Left Behind: Collected Essays on Jewish Themes from the Noted Writer and Thinker |date=1973 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9780899061733 |edition=1st}} * {{cite book |last=Kapur |first=Kamlesh |title=History of Ancient India |publisher=Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd |isbn=978-81-207-4910-8 |year=2010}} * {{cite book |last1=Kelly |first1=J. N. D. |title=Early Christian Creeds |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-138-15710-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q9wavgAACAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |editor-last=Köchler |editor-first=Hans |editor-link=Hans Köchler |year=1982 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |title=Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity |publisher=International Progress Organization |isbn=3-7003-0339-4 |access-date=27 November 2021 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMuipwd5MTEC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Kornbluth |first1=Doron |title=Why Marry Jewish?: Surprising Reasons for Jews to Marry Jews |date=2003 |publisher=Targum Press |isbn=978-1-56871-250-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=l9OTocap-NMC |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |title=Yezidism—its background, observances, and textual tradition |date=1995 |location=Lewiston, New York |publisher=Edwin Mellen Press |isbn=9780773490048 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=XpbXAAAAMAAJ&q=9780773490048 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. R. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |year=2014 |title=Prodigal sons: Dual Abrahamic categorization mediates the detrimental effects of religious fundamentalism on Christian-Muslim relations |journal=The International Journal for the Psychology of Religion |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=293–306 |doi=10.1080/10508619.2014.937965 |url=https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |hdl=10852/43723 |s2cid=53625066 |hdl-access=free |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223064744/https://www.academia.edu/7455300 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last1=Kunst |first1=J. |last2=Thomsen |first2=L. |last3=Sam |first3=D. |year=2014 |title=Late Abrahamic reunion? Religious fundamentalism negatively predicts dual Abrahamic group categorization among Muslims and Christians |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=337–348 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |doi=10.1002/ejsp.2014 |access-date=8 July 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223030705/https://www.academia.edu/6436421 |url-status=live}} <!-- LLL --> * {{cite book |last1=Lapidoth |first1=Ruth |first2=Moshe |last2=Hirsch |title=The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff Publishers |year=1994 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |isbn=978-0-7923-2893-3 |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052415/https://books.google.com/books?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&pg=PA384 |url-status=live}} * {{cite journal |last=Lawson |first=Todd |editor-last=Cusack |editor-first=Carole M. |editor2-last=Hartney |editor2-first=Christopher |title=Baha'i (sic) Religious History |journal=Journal of Religious History |volume=36 |issue=4 |date=13 December 2012 |pages=463–470 |url=http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |issn=1467-9809 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9809.2012.01224.x |access-date=5 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190116/http://bahai-library.com/lawson_bahai_religious_history |archive-date=27 September 2013 |url-status=live |via=Baháʼí Library Online}} * {{cite book |last=Leeming |first=David Adams |title=The Oxford companion to world mythology |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2005 |location=US |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont0000leem |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-515669-0}} * {{cite book |last1=Leith |first1=John H. |title=Basic Christian Doctrine |date=1 January 1993 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-25192-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=e913KYTEaDsC |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Lev |first=David |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140251 |title=MK Kara: Druze are Descended from Jews |date=25 October 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |access-date=13 April 2011 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423223638/https://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140251 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Levenson |first1=Jon Douglas |title=Inheriting Abraham: the legacy of the patriarch in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam |date=2012 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=978-0-691-16355-0}} * {{cite web |author=Lubar Institute |year=2016 |title=Why 'Abrahamic'? |publisher=Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison |url=https://lubar.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |access-date=5 April 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220853/http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/Why%20Abrahamic.html |url-status=live}} <!-- MMM --> * {{cite book |last=MacArthur |first=John |author-link=John F. MacArthur |chapter=The Hymn of Security |title=The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans |publisher=Moody Press |year=1996 |location=Chicago |isbn=978-0-8254-1522-7}} * {{cite book |last=Mackey |first=Sandra |title=Mirror of the Arab World: Lebanon in Conflict |year=2009 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=978-0-393-33374-9}} * {{Cite book |last=Mark |first=Elizabeth |title=The Covenant of Circumcision: New Perspectives on an Ancient Jewish Rite |publisher=University Press of New England |year=2003 |isbn=9781584653073}} * {{cite journal |last=Massignon |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Massignon |title=Les trois prières d'Abraham, père de tous les croyants |trans-title=The three prayers of Abraham, father of all believers |language=fr |journal=Dieu Vivant |volume=13 |year=1949}} * {{cite book |last1=McGrath |first1=Alister E. |title=Theology: the basics |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0470656754 |edition=3rd}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Mills |editor1-first=Watson E |editor2-last=Bullard |editor2-first=Roger Aubrey |title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible |date=2001 |publisher=Mercer University Press |location=Macon, Ga. |isbn=0865543739}} * {{cite book |last=Mindell |first=David P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224 |title=The Evolving World |date=31 October 2007 |author-link=David Mindell |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-02191-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530222524/https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kA6eaz7hsC&pg=PA224 |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Momen |first=Moojan |title=An introduction to Shiʻi Islam: the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1985 |pages=173–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C |isbn=978-0-300-03531-5 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531015036/https://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C |archive-date=31 May 2016 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |translator-first=Joel A. |translator-last=Linsider |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |location=US |chapter=Epilogue: Emergence of a Jewish Majority in Jerusalem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C&pg=PA201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4}} * {{cite book |last1=Morrison |first1=Terri |title=Kiss, bow, or shake hands: the bestselling guide to doing business in more than 60 countries |date=2006 |publisher=Adams Media |location=Avon, Mass. |isbn=978-1-59337-368-9 |edition=2nd}}<!-- |access-date=6 January 2015--> <!-- NNN --> * {{cite book |last=Nisan |first=Mordechai |title=Minorities in the Middle East: a history of struggle and self-expression |edition=2nd, illustrated |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-7864-1375-1 |access-date=4 April 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&q=druze+china&pg=PA96 |publisher=McFarland |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051855/https://books.google.com/books?id=keD9z1XWuNwC&q=druze+china&pg=PA96 |url-status=live}} <!-- OOO --> * {{cite book |last=Obeid |first=Anis |title=The Druze & Their Faith in Tawhid |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FejqBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT1 |year=2006 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-5257-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Osborn |first1=Eric |title=Irenaeus of Lyons |date=4 October 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-43040-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rVCVlyG0ldIC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=rVCVlyG0ldIC |url-status=live}} <!-- PPP --> * {{cite book |last=Peteet |first=John R. |title=Spirituality and Religion Within the Culture of Medicine: From Evidence to Practice |year=2017 |isbn=9780190272432 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{cite book |last1=Peters |first1=F. E. |title=The Children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam |date=22 May 2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8970-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SwI_DwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=SwI_DwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Pitts-Taylor |first1=Victoria |title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body |date=30 September 2008 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-56720-691-3 |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTdzBwAAQBAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052435/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTdzBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Prestige |first1=G. L. |title=Fathers and Heretics. Six Studies in Dogmatic Faith, with Prologue and Epilogue. |date=1963 |publisher=SPCK |location=London |isbn=978-0281004539}} <!-- QQQ --> * {{cite book |last=Quilliam |first=Neil |title=Syria and the New World Order |year=1999 |isbn=9780863722493 |publisher=Michigan University Press}} <!-- RRR --> * {{cite book |last1=Rosenfeld |first1=Judy Shepard |title=Ticket to Israel: An Informative Guide |date=1952 |publisher=Rinehart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404105109/https://books.google.com/books?id=nbMbAAAAMAAJ&q=Ticket%20to%20Israel:%20An%20Informative%20Guide |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Rosenthal |first=Donna |title=The Israelis: Ordinary People in an Extraordinary Land |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |year=2003 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86972-8 |access-date=7 December 2017 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405052435/https://books.google.com/books?id=b-w6GfokajcC&pg=PA296 |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Rubin |first=Uri |chapter=Prophets and Prophethood |editor-last1=McAuliffe |editor-first1=Jane Dammen |title=Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān: A-D |date=2001 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-11465-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=Zq1ZAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{Cite book |last1=Rudolph |first1=Kurt |author1-link=Kurt Rudolph |date=1977 |chapter=Mandaeism |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Albert C. |title=Iconography of Religions: An Introduction |publisher=Chris Robertson |isbn=9780800604882 |volume=21 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/iconographyofrel0000moor |chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=chWcZcYcyeQC}}}} <!-- SSS --> * {{cite book |first=Samy |last=Swayd |title=Historical Dictionary of the Druzes |date=10 March 2015 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-4617-1 |edition=2}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Scherman |editor1-first=Nosson |title=Tanakh=Tanach: Torah, Neviʼim, Ketuvim: the Torah, Prophets, Writings: the twenty-four books of the Bible, newly translated and annotated |date=2001 |publisher=Mesorah Publications |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=9781578191123 |edition=1st student size, Stone}} * {{cite book |last1=Schultz |first1=Joseph P. |editor-last1=Fishbane |editor-first1=Michael A. |editor-last2=Mendes-Flohr |editor-first2=Paul R. |title=Texts and Responses: Studies Presented to Nahum N. Glatzer on the Occasion of His Seventieth Birthday by His Students |date=1975 |publisher=Brill Archive |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-03980-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=gsYUAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Silver |first=M. M. |title=The History of Galilee, 1538–1949: Mysticism, Modernization, and War |year=2022 |isbn=9781793649430 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} * {{cite journal |last1=Slosar |first1=J. P. |first2=D. |last2=O'Brien |year=2003 |title=The Ethics of Neonatal Male Circumcision: A Catholic Perspective |journal=American Journal of Bioethics |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=62–64 |pmid=12859824 |doi=10.1162/152651603766436306 |s2cid=38064474}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |year=2008 |title=An Introduction to the Baha'i (sic) Faith |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-86251-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Smith (historian) |date=2022 |chapter=Ch. 50: Southeast Asia |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |title=The World of the Bahá'í Faith |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxfordshire, UK |isbn=978-1-138-36772-2 |editor-last=Stockman |editor-first=Robert H. |editor-link=Robert Stockman |ref={{sfnRef |Smith |2022b}} |access-date=18 August 2022 |archive-date=13 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213122623/https://www.routledge.com/The-World-of-the-Bahai-Faith/Stockman/p/book/9781138367722 |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last1=Stroumsa |first1=Guy G. |title=The making of the Abrahamic religions in late antiquity |date=2017 |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-191-05913-1}} * {{cite book |last1=Swidler |first1=Leonard |last2=Duran |first2=Khalid |last3=Firestone |first3=Reuven |title=Trialogue: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Dialogue |date=2007 |publisher=Twenty-Third Publications |isbn=9781585955879 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |access-date=18 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvB5WUrMK8gC |url-status=live}} <!-- TTT --> * {{cite book |last=Tsedaka |first=Benyamim |year=2013 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |title=The Israelite Samaritan Version of the Torah |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=9780802865199 |access-date=14 March 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405051914/https://books.google.com/books?id=-wn8ABo-Fz0C&q=samaritans+gerizim&pg=PR7 |url-status=live}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tucker |first1=Spencer C. |last2=Roberts |first2=Priscilla |title=The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History A Political, Social, and Military History |publisher=ABC-CLIO |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |isbn=9781851098422 |date=12 May 2008 |access-date=14 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160530225737/https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC |archive-date=30 May 2016 |url-status=live}} <!-- UUU --> * {{Cite book |last=Ubayd |first=Anis |title=The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780815630975 |pages=150}} <!-- VVV --> * {{cite book |last1=Van Bladel |first1=Kevin |year=2017 |title=From Sasanian Mandaeans to Ṣābians of the Marshes |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/9789004339460 |isbn=978-90-04-33943-9 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/34389}} <!-- WWW --> * {{cite journal |last1=Wilken |first1=Robert L. |title=From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land |journal=Christian Century |date=30 July – 6 August 1986 |url=https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=8 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908133734/https://www.religion-online.org/article/from-time-immemorial-dwellers-in-the-holy-land/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite web |last=Wormald |first=Benjamin |date=2 April 2015 |title=Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405110137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/ |url-status=live}} * {{cite book |title=The New Encyclopaedia Britannica |year=1992 |isbn=9780852295533 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |quote="Druze religious beliefs developed out of Isma'ill teachings. Various Jewish, Christian, Gnostic, Neoplatonic, and Iranian elements, however, are combined under a doctrine of strict monotheism." |ref={{harvid |New Encyclopaedia Britannica |1992}}}} {{Refend}}
== Further reading == {{Library resources box}} * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Religion: Year In Review 2010 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/religion-Year-In-Review-2010/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions |ref={{sfnRef |Britannica |2010}} }} * {{cite book |last=Assmann |first=Jan |title=Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-674-58739-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nJv0oyQ-9_AC}} * {{cite book |last=Bakhos |first=Carol |year=2014 |title=The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-05083-9}} * {{cite book |last=Barnett |first=Paul |publisher=InterVarsity Press |title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC |isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5}} * Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., ''Midrash Rabbah: Genesis'', Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. {{ISBN |0-900689-38-2}}. * Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., ''Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology'', (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998 * {{cite book |last=Johansson |first=Warren |author-link=Warren Johansson |year=1990 |contribution=Abrahamic Religions |url=http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |editor-last=Dynes |editor-first=Wayne R. |title=Encyclopedia of Homosexuality |location=New York |publisher=Garland |isbn=978-0-8240-6544-7 |access-date=26 July 2006 |archive-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528085741/http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf |url-status=dead }} * {{cite book |last=Kritzeck |first=James |author-link=James Kritzeck |title=Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems |publisher=Helicon |year=1965 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Longton |first=Joseph |title=Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes |trans-title=Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities |language=fr |editor-last=Longton |editor-first=Joseph |encyclopedia=Fils d'Abraham |publisher=S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous |date=1987–2009 |isbn=978-2-503-82344-7 |url=http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm}} * {{cite book |title=Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions |last=Masumian |first=Farnaz |publisher=Oneworld Publications |location=Oxford |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-85168-074-0}} * {{cite book |last=de Perceval |first=Armand-Pierre Caussin |title=Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane |trans-title=Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule |publisher=Didot |location=Paris |year=1847 |language=fr |oclc=431247004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1}} * {{cite book |last=Reid |first=Barbara E. |title=Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1996}} * {{cite book |editor1-last=Silverstein |editor1-first=Adam J. |editor2-last=Stroumsa |editor2-first=Guy G. |year=2015 |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969776-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Peters |first1=F. E. |title=Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians |date=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, NJ |isbn=9780691122335}} * {{cite book |first=Jonathan Z. |last=Smith |author-link=Jonathan Z. Smith |year=1998 |chapter=Religion, Religions, Religious |editor-first=Mark C. |editor-last=Taylor |editor-link=Mark C. Taylor (philosopher) |title=Critical Terms for Religious Studies |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-79156-2 |pages=269–284}} * {{cite book |last1=Lupieri |first1=Edmundo |author1-link=Edmondo Lupieri |title=The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zJ73YfrZ2T4C&q=Abraham |isbn=978-0802833501 |pages=65–66, 116, 164}}
== External links == *{{Wikiquote-inline}}
{{Religion topics}} {{Angels in Abrahamic religions}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Abrahamic religions Category:Comparative religion Category:Monotheistic religions Category:Western culture