{{Short description|Fifth-generation mobile telecommunications standard}} {{Other uses}} {{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}} [[File:3GPP 5G logo.png|thumb|3GPP logo for 5G]] {{List of mobile phone generations}}
'''5G''' is the fifth and current generation of cellular network technology and the successor to 4G. In common commercial use, the term refers primarily to mobile networks based on the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) 5G system and its New Radio (NR) air interface, which were first specified in 3GPP Release 15.<ref name="3gpp-overview">{{cite web |title=5G System Overview |url=https://www.3gpp.org/technologies/5g-system-overview |website=3GPP |date=August 8, 2022 |access-date=May 18, 2026}}</ref> 5G was developed to meet the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 framework for fifth-generation mobile systems.<ref name="itu-m2410">{{cite report |title=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s) |url=https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |date=November 2017 |id=Report ITU-R M.2410-0 |access-date=May 18, 2026}}</ref> Large-scale commercial deployments began in 2019, including South Korea's national 5G rollout.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kim |first=Byungwook |date=May 13, 2022 |title=South Korea's high-speed 5G mobile revolution gives way to evolution |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/media-telecom/skoreas-high-speed-5g-mobile-revolution-gives-way-evolution-2022-05-13/ |work=Reuters |access-date=May 18, 2026}}</ref> 5G networks may be deployed in non-standalone mode, using existing LTE core-network infrastructure, or in standalone mode with a dedicated 5G Core.
Like earlier cellular systems, 5G networks divide service areas into smaller zones called cells, which are served by fixed cell sites. Compatible devices connect by radio to local base stations, which are linked to an operator's core network and to external networks such as the Internet through backhaul connections. 5G can be deployed using low-band, mid-band, and high-band radio spectrum, with coverage and performance depending heavily on the frequencies used, network design, congestion, and device capabilities.<ref>{{cite web |title=5G Spectrum Guide |url=https://www.gsma.com/spectrum/5g-spectrum-guide/ |website=GSMA |access-date=May 18, 2026}}</ref>
Compared with 4G, 5G is designed to provide higher data rates, greater network capacity, lower latency, improved support for dense device deployments, and more flexible network management. For IMT-2020 radio-interface evaluation, the ITU specified peak data-rate requirements of 20 Gbit/s downlink and 10 Gbit/s uplink under ideal conditions, as well as latency and connection-density targets for enhanced mobile broadband, ultra-reliable low-latency communications, and massive machine-type communications.<ref name="itu-m2410" /> Actual user speeds are typically much lower than peak values and vary by operator, location, spectrum band, signal quality, and network load.
[[File:Verizon-n77-upgrade-after-before-v0-q1zq1mdxeadf1.png|thumb|alt=Close-up of antennas and radio units on a monopole tower.|A 5G cell site using Ericsson equipment in the United States]]
5G is used for mobile broadband, fixed wireless access, private and industrial networks, and machine-type communications. Its standards support features such as network slicing, edge computing, non-public networks, and ultra-reliable low-latency services, although these capabilities are not present in every deployment. The rollout of 5G has required new spectrum allocations and upgrades to radio access, transport, and core-network infrastructure. It has also raised issues involving deployment cost, energy use, vendor security, and public claims about radio-frequency health effects. 5G is being deployed alongside 4G networks and is expected to coexist with them for many years.
== History == thumb|upright=1.3|Cellular network standards and generation timeline
=== Early research (2008–2012) === In 2008, NASA and the Machine-to-Machine Intelligence Corporation (M2Mi) conducted nanosatellite communication studies that influenced early next-generation network concepts.<ref>{{cite web |title=NASA Ames Partners With M2Mi for Small Satellite Development |url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/apr/HQ_08107_Ames_nanosat.html |website=NASA |date=April 24, 2008 |access-date=April 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190408142034/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/apr/HQ_08107_Ames_nanosat.html |archive-date=April 8, 2019}}</ref>
In 2012, New York University established NYU Wireless, a research center focused on millimeter-wave communication. The same year, the University of Surrey founded the 5G Innovation Centre, funded by £35 million from public and industry partners including Huawei and Samsung.<ref>{{Cite news |title=University gets funds for 5G work |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19871065 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421235023/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-19871065 |archive-date=2019-04-21 |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> Also in 2012, the European Union launched the ''Mobile and Wireless Communications Enablers for the Twenty-Twenty Information Society (METIS)'' project to align emerging network research with international standardization.<ref>{{cite web |title=METIS project presentation |url=https://www.metis2020.com/wp-content/uploads/deliverables/METIS_project_presentation_public_Old.pdf |website=METIS 2020 |publisher=European Union |date=November 2012 |access-date=February 14, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222211609/https://www.metis2020.com/wp-content/uploads/deliverables/METIS_project_presentation_public_Old.pdf |archive-date=February 22, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Standardization and early trials (2013–2018) === In 2013, the ITU-R Working Party 5D began studies on ''IMT-2020'', later formalized as the 5G standard.<ref>{{cite web |title=ITU-R Working Party 5D |url=https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-R/study-groups/rsg5/rwp5d/Pages/default.aspx |website=International Telecommunication Union |access-date=May 18, 2017}}</ref>
During the same period, major firms such as Samsung Electronics, NTT Docomo, and Huawei conducted early trials. Samsung tested a prototype achieving more than 1 Gbit/s across 2 km using 8 × 8 MIMO antennas.<ref>{{cite news |title=Samsung Electronics develops key technology for mobile communications |url=https://news.naver.com/main/ranking/read.nhn?oid=001&aid=0006254810 |work=Yonhap News |publisher=Naver News |date=May 12, 2013 |access-date=May 12, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919114612/https://news.naver.com/main/ranking/read.nhn?oid=001&aid=0006254810 |archive-date=September 19, 2018}}</ref> NTT Docomo received a government award at CEATEC for high-speed network development,<ref>{{cite news |title=Docomo wins CEATEC award for new network research |url=http://wirelesswatch.jp/2013/10/03/docomo-wins-ceatec-award-for-5g/ |work=Wireless Watch Japan |date=October 3, 2013 |access-date=October 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013093345/http://wirelesswatch.jp/2013/10/03/docomo-wins-ceatec-award-for-5g/ |archive-date=October 13, 2018}}</ref> while Huawei announced a US$600 million program to advance mobile network technology.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Huawei plans $600m investment in 10Gbps 5G network |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/huawei-plans-600m-investment-in-10gbps-5g-network-8924124.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331105531/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/huawei-plans-600m-investment-in-10gbps-5g-network-8924124.html |archive-date=2019-03-31 |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=The Independent |language=en-GB}}</ref>
=== Commercial rollout (2019–2021) === On April 3, 2019, South Korea launched its national network, the first full commercial deployment.<ref>{{cite news |title=South Korea launches nationwide 5G network |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/South-Korea-to-seize-on-world-s-first-full-5G-network |work=Nikkei Asian Review |date=April 3, 2019 |access-date=April 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417194348/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/South-Korea-to-seize-on-world-s-first-full-5G-network |archive-date=April 17, 2019}}</ref> Hours later, Verizon began limited service in select U.S. cities.<ref>{{cite news |title=US dismisses South Korea's 5G launch as premature |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/apr/04/us-dismisses-south-koreas-launch-of-world-first-5g-network-as-stunt |work=The Guardian |date=April 4, 2019 |access-date=April 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417195028/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/apr/04/us-dismisses-south-koreas-launch-of-world-first-5g-network-as-stunt |archive-date=April 17, 2019}}</ref> In June 2019, Globe Telecom introduced the Philippines' first next-generation network,<ref>{{cite web |title=Globe broadband service |url=https://bb.globe.com.ph/5g/ |website=Globe Telecom |access-date=June 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903145231/https://bb.globe.com.ph/5g/ |archive-date=September 3, 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and in December 2019, AT&T launched a consumer service in the United States that expanded nationwide during 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=AT&T expands service in the United States |url=https://about.att.com/story/2019/att_5g_leadership.html |website=AT&T Newsroom |date=December 2019 |access-date=November 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118115344/https://about.att.com/story/2019/att_5g_leadership.html |archive-date=November 18, 2020}}</ref>
Commercial 5G deployment expanded rapidly through 2020. Beyond public mobile networks, it was also adopted in private industrial and enterprise systems, including operation in unlicensed spectrum (NR-U) and licensed non-public networks (NPNs).<ref>{{Cite news |title=NR-U Transforming 5G - Qualcomm Presentation - GSA |url=https://gsacom.com/paper/nr-u-transforming-5g-qualcomm-presentation/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209121716/https://gsacom.com/paper/nr-u-transforming-5g-qualcomm-presentation/ |archive-date=2022-02-09 |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=GSA |language=en-GB}}</ref> Private 5G networks became important for Industry 4.0 automation and smart manufacturing.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Private LTE & 5G Network Ecosystem: 2023–2030|url=https://www.snstelecom.com/private-lte|access-date=2023-08-14|website=www.snstelecom.com|language=en}}</ref> Early rollouts used non-standalone (NSA) mode—with 4G cores—before networks transitioned to standalone (SA) mode with dedicated 5G cores.<ref>{{cite web|date=February 19, 2020|title=[ケータイ用語の基礎知識]第941回：NSA・SA方式とは|trans-title=Basic Knowledge of Mobile Terminology: NSA and SA Architectures|url=https://k-tai.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/column/keyword/1235918.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209121716/https://k-tai.watch.impress.co.jp/docs/column/keyword/1235918.html|archive-date=February 9, 2022|access-date=February 9, 2022|website=ケータイ Watch|language=ja}}</ref>
South Korea’s 2019 rollout used equipment from Samsung, Ericsson, and Nokia; LG U Plus also deployed Huawei hardware.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/Telecom-s-5G-revolution-triggers-shakeup-in-base-station-market|title=Telecom's 5G revolution triggers shakeup in base station market|website=Nikkei Asian Review|access-date=April 21, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421060807/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Technology/Telecom-s-5G-revolution-triggers-shakeup-in-base-station-market|archive-date=April 21, 2019|language=en}}</ref> Samsung supplied most of the roughly 86,000 sites, while SK Telecom, KT Corporation, and LG U Plus concentrated coverage in major cities using the 3.5 GHz band under NSA operation. Reported download speeds averaged 200–400 Mbit/s, and subscriptions grew from about 260,000 to 4.7 million during 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/Fast-but-patchy-Trying-South-Korea-s-new-5G-service|title=Fast but patchy: Trying South Korea's new 5G service|website=Nikkei Asian Review|access-date=April 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412032625/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/5G-networks/Fast-but-patchy-Trying-South-Korea-s-new-5G-service|archive-date=April 12, 2019|language=en}}</ref>
Following these early deployments, T-Mobile US launched the first nationwide standalone network in 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=T-Mobile launches world's first nationwide standalone 5G network|url=https://www.t-mobile.com/news/network/standalone-5g-launch|website=T-Mobile Newsroom|access-date=January 30, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130235142/https://www.t-mobile.com/news/network/standalone-5g-launch|archive-date=January 30, 2022|language=en}}</ref> Ericsson projected that by the mid-2020s, 5G networks would reach about 65 percent of the global population.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Taylor |first=Chloe |date=2019-11-25 |title=5G coverage will span two thirds of the global population in 6 years, Ericsson predicts |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/25/5g-will-span-two-thirds-of-global-population-in-6-years-ericsson-says.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129032631/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/11/25/5g-will-span-two-thirds-of-global-population-in-6-years-ericsson-says.html |archive-date=2019-11-29 |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>
Major suppliers of 5G radio and core systems included Altiostar, Cisco Systems, Datang Telecom/Fiberhome, Ericsson, Huawei, Nokia, Qualcomm, Samsung, and ZTE. Huawei was estimated to hold about 70 percent of global 5G base stations by 2023.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parzyan|first=Anahit|title=China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace|date=2023|publisher=Routledge|others=Mher Sahakyan|isbn=978-1-003-35258-7|location=New York|chapter=China's Digital Silk Road: Empowering Capabilities for Digital Leadership in Eurasia|oclc=1353290533|page=182|language=en}}</ref>
=== Recent developments (2022–present) === By 2022, network speeds in many regions had stabilized, and operators began testing 5.5G upgrades to improve capacity and latency.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Strumpf |first=Dan |date=2023-04-25 |title=5G Not Enough? Telecom Companies Look to 5.5G |url=https://www.wsj.com/business/telecom/5g-future-mobile-internet-309dac2b |access-date=2025-12-18 |website=The Wall Street Journal |language=en-US}}</ref> By the early 2020s, large-scale commercial 5G networks were active across most developed markets, and rollout in developing regions was still accelerating.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-03 |title=5G expansion: Where in Europe has the strongest mobile networks? |url=http://www.euronews.com/next/2024/09/03/5g-rollout-across-europe-which-countries-enjoy-the-strongest-mobile-networks-and-fastest-s |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=euronews |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=5G in South East Asia and Oceania: A closer look |url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/mobility-report/closer-look/south-east-asia-and-oceania |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=ericsson.com |language=en}}</ref>
== Technologies == === Small cells === {{Main|Small cell}}
Small cells are low-power radio nodes that extend network capacity in dense or indoor areas. They operate over short distances, typically a few dozen to a few hundred metres, and are used to maintain coverage for mmWave signals.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/136900_136999/136932/16.00.00_60/tr_136932v160000p.pdf|title=Scenarios and requirements for small cell enhancements for E-UTRA and E-UTRAN (3GPP TR 36.932 Release 16)|publisher=ETSI and 3GPP|access-date=26 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220226132524/https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_tr/136900_136999/136932/16.00.00_60/tr_136932v160000p.pdf|archive-date=26 February 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" |+ Typical FR2 cell characteristics ! Cell type !! Environment !! Users (approx.) !! Power (W) !! Range (m) |- | Femtocell || Homes, offices || 4–32 || 0.01–1 || up to 50 |- | Picocell || Public venues || 64–128 || 0.1–5 || up to 100 |- | Microcell || Urban areas || 128–256 || 5–10 || 200–500 |- | Macrocell || Wide-area coverage || 25 | 26 || 300–1000 |}
=== Massive MIMO === {{See also|Multi-user MIMO}}
Massive multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) systems use large antenna arrays to increase capacity and spectral efficiency. They extend conventional MIMO by serving multiple users simultaneously and steering signals toward them to reduce interference.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Manivasagam|first1=K.|last2=Garima|first2=G.|last3=Shukla|first3=M.|chapter=Massive MIMO in 5G networks: Trends and challenges|date=19 December 2023|title=2023 International Conference on Power Energy, Environment & Intelligent Control (PEEIC)|publisher=IEEE|pages=1456–1460|doi=10.1109/PEEIC59336.2023.10450543|isbn=9798350357769}}</ref>
=== Beamforming === {{Main|Beamforming}}
Beamforming directs radio energy toward specific users. In analogue beamforming, antenna outputs are combined to focus signal power in one direction. Digital beamforming transmits data streams across multiple layers to improve signal strength and reliability.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rappaport|first1=Theodore S.|last2=Sun|first2=Shu|last3=Mayzus|first3=Rimma|date=2013|title=Millimeter wave mobile communications for 5G cellular: It will work|journal=IEEE Access|volume=1|pages=335–349|doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2013.2260813|bibcode=2013IEEEA...1..335R |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Non-orthogonal multiple access (NOMA) === Non-orthogonal multiple access assigns different power levels to users sharing the same frequency resources to improve spectral efficiency.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ghafoor|first1=Umar|last2=Ali|first2=Mudassar|last3=Khan|first3=Humayun Zubair|last4=Siddiqui|first4=Adil Masood|last5=Naeem|first5=Muhammad|date=1 August 2022|title=NOMA and future 5G and B5G wireless networks: A paradigm|journal=Journal of Network and Computer Applications|volume=204|article-number=103413|doi=10.1016/j.jnca.2022.103413|issn=1084-8045}}</ref>
=== Channel coding === 5G NR uses polar codes for control channels and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) for data channels, replacing the turbo codes used in 4G.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|title=5G channel coding|access-date=6 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206003124/https://www.accelercomm.com/sites/accelercomm.com/files/5G-Channel-Coding_0.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Research in to wireless power === Research has explored the use of 5G mmWave networks for wireless power transfer. Studies using wavelengths between 1 mm and 10 mm remain experimental.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eid|first1=Aline|last2=Hester|first2=Jimmy G. D.|last3=Tentzeris|first3=Manos M.|date=12 January 2021|title=5G as a wireless power grid|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=11|issue=1|page=636|doi=10.1038/s41598-020-79500-x|pmid=33436681|pmc=7804946|doi-access=free}}</ref>
== Core network architecture == The 5G core (5GC) is a service-oriented, software-defined system that separates control and user planes and supports flexible deployment. It replaces the 4G Evolved Packet Core with modular, software-based network functions.
=== Software-defined networking and virtualization === {{Main|Software-defined networking|SD-WAN|Network function virtualization|5G network slicing}}
Software-defined networking (SDN) and network function virtualization (NFV) enable software-based configuration, scaling, and management of networks. Together with network slicing, these technologies support applications such as the Internet of things, connected vehicles, and industrial automation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ordonez-Lucena |first1=J. |last2=Ameigeiras |first2=P. |last3=Lopez |first3=D. |last4=Ramos-Munoz |first4=J. J. |last5=Lorca |first5=J. |last6=Folgueira |first6=J. |title=Network slicing for 5G with SDN/NFV: Concepts, architectures, and challenges |journal=IEEE Communications Magazine |publisher=IEEE |date=2017 |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=80–87 |doi=10.1109/MCOM.2017.1600935 |bibcode=2017IComM..55e..80O |hdl=10481/45368 |arxiv=1703.04676 }}</ref>
=== Service-based architecture (SBA) === Service-based architecture (SBA) integrates SDN and NFV principles and replaces the 4G EPC framework with modular network functions that communicate through RESTful APIs. Each function registers with a network repository function (NRF), which enables independent scaling and interoperability.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-09 |title=What is a Service Based Architecture? |url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20210909/5g/what-is-a-service-based-architecture |access-date=2025-12-18 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Core network functions === Each network function performs a defined role within the 5G core, replacing or extending elements from the 4G EPC.<ref>{{cite web |title=System architecture for the 5G System (5GS) |url=https://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_ts/123500_123599/123501/18.05.00_60/ts_123501v180500p.pdf |publisher=ETSI |date=2024-05-01 }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" |+Core network functions in 5G ! Function !! Acronym !! 4G equivalent |- | Authentication server function || AUSF || MME; HSS |- | Access and mobility management function || AMF || MME |- | Session management function || SMF || MME; PGW-C |- | User plane function || UPF || SGW-U; PGW-U |- | Policy control function || PCF || PCRF |- | Unified data management || UDM || HSS |- | Unified data repository || UDR || HSS database |- | Network exposure function || NEF || None |- | Network slice selection function || NSSF || None |- | Network data analytics function || NWDAF || None |- | Charging function || CHF || CSCF |}
=== Supporting components === Additional components manage roaming and inter-network connectivity: * Non-3GPP Interworking Function (N3IWF) * Security Edge Protection Proxy (SEPP) * Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF) * Trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWIF) * Wireline Access Gateway Function (W-AGF)
== Frequency bands and coverage == {{Further|5G NR frequency bands}}
5G networks use multiple parts of the radio spectrum. They operate across three main frequency ranges—low, mid, and high bands—which balance speed, coverage, and signal quality differently.<ref>{{cite web |last=Horwitz |first=Jeremy |date=December 10, 2019 |title=The definitive guide to 5G low, mid, and high band speeds |url=https://venturebeat.com/2019/12/10/the-definitive-guide-to-5g-low-mid-and-high-band-speeds/ |access-date=April 23, 2020 |website=VentureBeat}}</ref>
Between 2016 and 2019, regulators in many regions, including the United States and the European Union, reallocated large sections of spectrum for 5G through auctions and new licensing rules.<ref>{{cite news |author=Chee, Foo Yun |date=March 3, 2018 |title=EU countries, lawmakers strike deal to open up spectrum for 5G |url=https://reuters.com/article/us-eu-telecoms-spectrum/eu-countries-lawmakers-strike-deal-to-open-up-spectrum-for-5g-idUSKCN1GE2IB |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107015756/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-eu-telecoms-spectrum/eu-countries-lawmakers-strike-deal-to-open-up-spectrum-for-5g-idUSKCN1GE2IB |archive-date=January 7, 2019 |access-date=March 4, 2018 |work=Reuters}}</ref> By 2019, more than 50 countries had assigned or planned to assign 5G frequencies.<ref>{{cite web |website=GSA |url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-spectrum-licensing-mar-2019/ |title=Spectrum for terrestrial 5G networks: licensing developments worldwide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402093330/https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-spectrum-licensing-mar-2019/ |archive-date=April 2, 2019 |date=March 2019 |access-date=April 2, 2019}}</ref> In 3GPP Release 16, the standard added 5G NR-U, allowing operation in both unlicensed and licensed spectrum.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2018/12/13/3gpp-commits-5g-nr-unlicensed-spectrum-its-next-release |title=3GPP commits 5G NR to unlicensed spectrum in its next release |date=December 12, 2018 |website=Qualcomm |access-date=April 15, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422063743/https://www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2018/12/13/3gpp-commits-5g-nr-unlicensed-spectrum-its-next-release |archive-date=April 22, 2019}}</ref>
=== Frequency ranges === The 5G New Radio (NR) interface defines two main operating ranges:
* '''Frequency Range 1 (FR1)''' – 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz, also called sub-6 GHz. It covers low- and mid-band frequencies and supports channel bandwidths up to 100 MHz. Typical download speeds range from 5 to 900 Mbit/s depending on conditions. * '''Frequency Range 2 (FR2)''' – 24.25–71 GHz, known as millimeter wave or high band. It supports wider channel bandwidths—up to 400 MHz per carrier—and can reach multi-gigabit data rates. These signals travel only short distances and are easily blocked by walls, windows, and vegetation, so FR2 is mainly used in dense urban areas such as stadiums and city centers.<ref>{{cite web |title=FCC Auction 102 – 24 GHz |url=https://auctiondata.fcc.gov/public/projects/auction102 |website=Federal Communications Commission |access-date=April 1, 2020}}</ref>
=== Coverage and signal behavior === Low- and mid-band 5G provide broad coverage and reliable indoor reception. High-band signals weaken rapidly and may lose over 100 dB when passing through common building materials.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Violette |first1=E. J. |last2=Espeland |first2=R. H. |last3=DeBolt |first3=R. O. |last4=Schwering |first4=F. K. |date=May 1988 |title=Millimeter-wave propagation at street level in an urban environment |journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=368–380 |doi=10.1109/36.3038 |bibcode=1988ITGRS..26..368V |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/3038|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Operators use beamforming antennas, small cells, and signal repeaters to extend range and improve indoor coverage.
=== Wi-Fi integration === Technologies such as License Assisted Access (LAA) and LTE-WLAN Aggregation (LWA) let mobile networks share unlicensed spectrum with Wi-Fi. Cloud-based RAN systems and dense small-cell layouts help narrow the performance gap between cellular and Wi-Fi links.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.solwise.co.uk/article-5G |title=5G |website=Solwise Ltd |access-date=December 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220516153358/https://www.solwise.co.uk/article-5G |archive-date=May 16, 2022}}</ref>
== Application areas == The ITU-R defines three main application areas for 5G: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC), and massive machine-type communications (mMTC).<ref>{{cite web |title=5G – Its Not Here Yet, But Closer Than You Think |url=https://electronicdesign.com/embedded-revolution/5g-it-s-not-here-yet-closer-you-think |website=Electronic Design |date=October 31, 2017 |access-date=January 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204238/https://www.electronicdesign.com/embedded-revolution/5g-it-s-not-here-yet-closer-you-think |archive-date=January 6, 2019}}</ref> These categories describe the main uses of 5G: faster mobile connections (eMBB), highly reliable and responsive communication (URLLC), and large-scale links between machines (mMTC). By 2020, eMBB was widely deployed, while URLLC and mMTC were still in development.<ref>{{cite web |title=Managing the Future of Cellular |url=https://www.arm.com/-/media/global/solutions/infrastructure/managing-the-future-of-cellular.pdf |website=Arm |date=March 20, 2020 |access-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923004715/https://www.arm.com/-/media/global/solutions/infrastructure/managing-the-future-of-cellular.pdf |archive-date=September 23, 2020}}</ref>
=== ITU-R categories === Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) provides much faster internet and higher capacity than 4G. It supports intensive data use in busy areas such as city centres, stadiums, and transport hubs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=Heejung |last2=Lee |first2=Howon |last3=Jeon |first3=Hongbeom |date=October 2017 |title=What is 5G? Emerging 5G Mobile Services and Network Requirements |journal=Sustainability |volume=9 |issue=10 |page=1848 |doi=10.3390/su9101848 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Sust....9.1848Y }}</ref>
Ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC) are designed for time-critical applications such as factory automation, remote medical procedures, and traffic systems. Shorter transmission delays improve precision and reliability.
Massive machine-type communications (mMTC) connect large numbers of low-power devices such as sensors and meters. These networks underpin the Internet of things (IoT) by allowing machines to exchange data autonomously in industry, transport, and urban systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Intel Accelerates the Future with World's First Global 5G Modem |url=https://newsroom.intel.com/editorials/intel-accelerates-the-future-with-first-global-5g-modem/ |website=Intel Newsroom |access-date=November 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906234205/https://newsroom.intel.com/editorials/intel-accelerates-the-future-with-first-global-5g-modem/ |archive-date=September 6, 2018}}</ref>
=== Industrial applications === 5G is used in transport, manufacturing, and energy systems that require constant, low-latency communication. The 5G Automotive Association develops vehicle-to-everything (C-V2X) standards that allow cars to exchange safety information with nearby vehicles and infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web |title=5GAA, Audi, Ford and Qualcomm Showcase C-V2X Direct Communications Interoperability to Improve Road Safety |url=https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/5gaa-audi-ford-and-qualcomm-showcase-c-v2x-direct-communications-interoperability-to-improve-road-safety-680937731.html |website=Newswire.ca |date=April 26, 2018 |access-date=January 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204554/https://www.newswire.ca/news-releases/5gaa-audi-ford-and-qualcomm-showcase-c-v2x-direct-communications-interoperability-to-improve-road-safety-680937731.html |archive-date=January 6, 2019}}</ref> Drones and autonomous vehicles use 5G for navigation, remote control, and real-time data transmission.<ref>{{cite web |title=5GAA Tele-Operated Driving (ToD): Use Cases and Technical Requirements |url=https://5gaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/5GAA_XW5-200029_ToD_D1.1-Use-Cases-and-Technical-Requirements.pdf |website=5G Automotive Association |date=July 2020 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303035950/https://5gaa.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/5GAA_XW5-200029_ToD_D1.1-Use-Cases-and-Technical-Requirements.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2021}}</ref> Low-latency connections also enable digital twin models—virtual copies of machines or buildings that show real-time performance data used for monitoring and maintenance.
=== Public and commercial services === 5G extends to public safety, broadband access, and media delivery. Emergency services use it for live video, data, and reliable push-to-talk communication.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Promise of 5G for Public Safety |url=https://emsworld.com/commentary/1221807/promise-5g-public-safety |website=EMS World |date=December 16, 2018 |access-date=January 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216163602/https://emsworld.com/commentary/1221807/promise-5g-public-safety |archive-date=December 16, 2018}}</ref> Fixed wireless access (FWA) provides home and business broadband using 5G radio links instead of wired connections, especially in rural areas where laying cables is costly.<ref>{{cite web |title=Capture Value with 5G Fixed Wireless Access in a World of Opportunities |url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/fixed-wireless-access |website=Ericsson |access-date=April 21, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321210000/https://www.ericsson.com/en/fixed-wireless-access |archive-date=March 21, 2023}}</ref> 5G Broadcast trials in Europe show that local 5G networks can deliver live television and radio to many devices simultaneously without using mobile data plans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SIM du lịch |url=https://simdulich.com.vn/ |access-date=2025-12-18 |website=Sim Du Lịch |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Technology Behind the Project |url=https://5g-today.de/technology-behind-the-project/?lang=en |website=5G-Today |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118082843/https://5g-today.de/technology-behind-the-project/?lang=en |archive-date=January 18, 2022}}</ref> Voice over NR (VoNR) allows phone calls to be made over 5G's internet-based network, similar to Voice over LTE (VoLTE) on 4G.<ref>{{cite web |title=In One Minute: What Is VoNR? |url=https://academy.qualcomm.com/blogs/What-is-VoNR |website=Qualcomm Academy |access-date=April 12, 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412000000/https://academy.qualcomm.com/blogs/What-is-VoNR |archive-date=April 12, 2024}}</ref>
== Performance == {{Update section|date=October 2025}}
=== Speed === 5G can deliver much higher data rates than 4G, up to ten times faster.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is 5G {{!}} Everything You Need to Know About 5G {{!}} 5G FAQ {{!}} Qualcomm |url=https://www.qualcomm.com/5g/what-is-g |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=Qualcomm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=5G explained: What it is, who has 5G, and how much faster is it really? |url=https://edition.cnn.com/interactive/2020/03/business/what-is-5g/index.html |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=CNN}}</ref> Theoretical peak download speeds reach up to 20 Gbit/s.<ref name="Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s)">{{cite report |author=ITU-R |date=February 2017 |title=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s) |number=M.2410–0 |url=https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |access-date=2025-10-12}}</ref> In practice, average 5G download speeds in the United States have been measured at about 186 Mbit/s by T-Mobile,<ref>{{cite web |date=2023-01-30 |title=Opensignal declares T-Mobile US fastest 5G carrier again |url=https://www.rcrwireless.com/20230130/featured/opensignal-declares-t-mo-us-fastest-5g-carrier-again |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=RCR Wireless News}}</ref> while South Korea in 2022 led globally with averages near 430 Mbit/s.<ref name="OpenSignalUS">{{cite web |last=Wyrzykowski |first=Robert |date=January 2023 |title=Mobile Network Experience 5G Report – USA |url=https://www.opensignal.com/reports/2023/01/usa/mobile-network-experience-5g |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=OpenSignal}}</ref><ref name="OpenSignalGlobal">{{cite web |last=Fogg |first=Ian |date=2022-06-22 |title=Benchmarking the Global 5G Experience – June 2022 |url=https://www.opensignal.com/2022/06/22/benchmarking-the-global-5g-experience-june-2022 |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=OpenSignal}}</ref> 5G networks are also designed to provide much greater total capacity and efficiency than 4G, with up to a hundredfold projected increase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=I |first1=Chih-Lin |last2=Han |first2=Shuangfeng |last3=Bian |first3=Sen |title=Energy-efficient 5G for a greener future |journal=Nature Electronics |date=2020 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=182–184 |doi=10.1038/s41928-020-0404-1 |s2cid=257095960}}</ref>
The most widely deployed version, sub-6 GHz (mid-band) 5G, provides speeds of roughly 10–1000 Mbit/s with wider reach than mmWave bands. C-Band (n77/n78) was introduced in the U.S. in 2022, though activation by Verizon and AT&T was briefly delayed due to FAA safety concerns. The highest 5G speed measured in a deployed network is 5.9 Gbit/s (2023).<ref>{{cite web |title=Faroese Telecom and Ericsson claim 5G mmWave downlink speed record |url=https://www.telecoms.com/5g-6g/faroese-telecom-and-ericsson-claim-5g-mmwave-downlink-speed-record |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=Telecoms.com}}</ref> Low-band frequencies such as n5 cover larger areas per cell but deliver lower data rates of around 5–250 Mbit/s.<ref name="DeLooper">{{cite web |last1=De Looper |first1=Christian |last2=Jansen |first2=Mark |date=2022-04-22 |title=Is 5G as fast as they're saying? We break down the speeds |url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/mobile/how-fast-is-5g/ |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=Digital Trends}}</ref>
=== Latency === Typical ''air latency'' for 5G is around 8–12 ms, excluding retransmissions and handovers. Verizon reported about 30 ms latency in early deployments.<ref>{{cite web |date=2020-02-02 |title=What is the latency of 5G? |url=https://www.verizon.com/about/our-company/5g/5g-latency |access-date=2025-10-12 |website=Verizon}}</ref> Edge servers located near base stations can reduce round-trip time to roughly 14 ms and minimize jitter to about 1.8 ms.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vanichchanunt |first1=Pisit |last2=Yamyuan |first2=Ittipon |last3=Sasithong |first3=Pruk |last4=Wuttisittikulkij |first4=Lunchakorn |last5=Paripurana |first5=Sukritta |chapter=Implementation of Edge Servers on an Open 5G Core Network |date=2023-01-11 |title=2023 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN) |publisher=IEEE |pages=642–645 |doi=10.1109/ICOIN56518.2023.10049000 |isbn=978-1-6654-6268-6}}</ref> Latency increases substantially during handovers, ranging from 50 to 150 ms depending on network conditions.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Xu |first1=Dongzhu |last2=Zhou |first2=Anfu |last3=Zhang |first3=Xinyu |last4=Wang |first4=Guixian |last5=Liu |first5=Xi |last6=An |first6=Congkai |last7=Shi |first7=Yiming |last8=Liu |first8=Liang |last9=Ma |first9=Huadong |chapter=Understanding Operational 5G: A First Measurement Study on Its Coverage, Performance and Energy Consumption |date=2020-07-30 |title=Proceedings of the Annual conference of the ACM Special Interest Group on Data Communication on the applications, technologies, architectures, and protocols for computer communication |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1145/3387514.3405882 |series=SIGCOMM '20 |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery |pages=479–494 |doi=10.1145/3387514.3405882 |isbn=978-1-4503-7955-7}}</ref> Ongoing research focuses on reducing these interruptions by adjusting handover margins and time-to-trigger parameters.
=== Error rate === 5G uses adaptive modulation and coding schemes (MCS) to maintain a low block error rate (BLER). When the error rate exceeds a threshold, the system automatically switches to a lower MCS to prioritize reliability over speed.
=== Range === The range of 5G varies with transmit power, frequency, and interference. High-frequency mmWave bands (e.g., n258) have a shorter range than mid-band (n78), which in turn has a shorter range than low-band (n5). Operators use network simulation and drive testing to measure the actual range and coverage of these bands, as real-world performance can differ from marketing claims.
== Standards == The term 5G was first associated with the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2020 standard. It defines peak download and upload rates of 20 and 10 Gbit/s.<ref name="IMT2020">{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf |title=Minimum requirements related to technical performance for IMT-2020 radio interface(s) |website=ITU |access-date=2019-08-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108153048/https://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-r/opb/rep/R-REP-M.2410-2017-PDF-E.pdf |archive-date=2019-01-08 }}</ref>
The 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) later proposed its 5G New Radio (NR) technology for IMT-2020.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gartenberg |first=Chaim |date=2017-12-21 |title=The first real 5G specification has officially been completed |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/20/16803326/5g-network-specification-standard-3gpp-nr-official |website=The Verge |access-date=2018-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107224920/https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/20/16803326/5g-network-specification-standard-3gpp-nr-official |archive-date=2019-01-07 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Flynn |first=Kevin |title=Workshop on 3GPP submission towards IMT-2020 |url=https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/1976-imt_2020 |website=3GPP |access-date=2019-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107072115/https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/3gpp-news/1976-imt_2020 |archive-date=2019-01-07 }}</ref>
=== Frequency ranges === 5G NR operates in two bands: * FR1 (Sub-6 GHz; 410 MHz to 7.125 GHz): low and mid-band frequencies with wide coverage and moderate speeds. * FR2 (24.25 GHz to 71 GHz): millimeter-wave (mmWave; higher) frequencies with higher speeds but shorter range.<ref>{{cite web |title=5G Frequency Bands & Spectrum Allocations |url=https://www.cablefree.net/wirelesstechnology/4glte/5g-frequency-bands-lte/ |website=CableFree |access-date=2026-05-09}}</ref>
Early FR1 deployments reusing 4G infrastructure (non-standalone mode) have been reported to provide 15–50 percent higher throughput than advanced 4G networks under favorable conditions.<ref>{{cite web |last=Teral |first=Stephane |date=2019-01-30 |title=5G best-choice architecture |url=https://res-www.zte.com.cn/mediares/zte/Files/PDF/white_book/5g-best-choice-architecture.pdf |website=ZTE |access-date=2019-02-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202042405/https://res-www.zte.com.cn/mediares/zte/Files/PDF/white_book/5g-best-choice-architecture.pdf |archive-date=2019-02-02}}</ref>
===Network deployment modes=== 5G networks can operate in Non-Standalone (NSA) mode using existing LTE infrastructure or Standalone (SA) mode using a dedicated 5G Core (5GC) network.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 2024 |title=Comparison of 5G Networks Non-Standalone Architecture (NSA) and Standalone Architecture (SA) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384286029_Comparison_of_5G_Networks_Non-Standalone_Architecture_NSA_and_Standalone_Architecture_SA |website=ResearchGate |access-date=2026-05-09}}</ref>
=== 3GPP specifications === 3GPP and ETSI publish key technical specifications, including: * TS 23.501 – system architecture for the 5G system (5GS) * TS 24.501 – Non-Access-Stratum (NAS) protocol for 5GS * TS 23.003 – numbering, addressing and identification<ref>{{cite web |title=Specification numbering |url=https://www.3gpp.org/specifications/specification-numbering |website=3GPP |access-date=2022-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217230528/https://www.3gpp.org/specifications/specification-numbering |archive-date=2022-02-17 }}</ref> * TS 26.131 – terminal acoustic requirements for telephony; Requirements * TS 26.132 – Speech and video telephony terminal acoustic test specification * TS 26.441 – Codec for Enhanced Voice Services; General Overview === Other standardization bodies === Other organizations also contribute to 5G standards.
The DECT-2020 specification defines DECT NR+, a non-cellular, mesh-based radio system recognized by ITU as part of 5G.<ref>{{cite web |title=DECT NR+ |url=https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/Wireless/DECT-NR |website=Nordic Semiconductor |access-date=2025-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250227000000/https://www.nordicsemi.com/Products/Wireless/DECT-NR |archive-date=2025-02-27 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Rowe |first=Martin |date=2023-08-16 |title=The first non-cellular 5G standard: DECT NR+ |url=https://www.5gtechnologyworld.com/the-first-non-cellular-5g-standard-dect-nr/ |website=5G Technology World |access-date=2025-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250227000000/https://www.5gtechnologyworld.com/the-first-non-cellular-5g-standard-dect-nr/ |archive-date=2025-02-27 }}</ref>
The IEEE defines standards for wired links between the remote radio unit (RRU) and the baseband unit (BBU). * IEEE 1914.1 describes the architecture of the fronthaul network connecting these components * IEEE 1914.3 defines an Ethernet format for transmitting I/Q data based on 3GPP functional splits<ref>{{cite web |title=IEEE 1914 standards overview |url=https://standards.ieee.org/standard/1914-3-2018.html |website=IEEE |access-date=2025-02-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250227000000/https://standards.ieee.org/standard/1914-3-2018.html |archive-date=2025-02-27 }}</ref>
=== 5Gi === 5Gi was developed in India by IIT Madras, IIT Hyderabad, the Telecommunications Standards Development Society India (TSDSI) and the Centre of Excellence in Wireless Technology (CEWiT). It extends 5G coverage in rural and remote areas through low-mobility large-cell (LMLC) configurations.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sha |first=Arjun |date=2022-08-03 |title=What is India's 5Gi standard? |url=https://beebom.com/what-is-5gi/ |website=Beebom |access-date=2025-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412000000/https://beebom.com/what-is-5gi/ |archive-date=2025-04-12 }}</ref> 5Gi was merged in April 2022 into the global 5G NR standard in 3GPP Release 17.<ref>{{cite web |last=Das |first=Aditi |date=2022-04-29 |title=TSDSI 5Gi standard merged with 3GPP 5G |url=https://tsdsi.in/tsdsi-5gi-standard-merged-with-3gpp-5gnew/ |website=TSDSI |access-date=2025-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412000000/https://tsdsi.in/tsdsi-5gi-standard-merged-with-3gpp-5gnew/ |archive-date=2025-04-12 }}</ref>
=== Internet of things === In the Internet of things (IoT), 3GPP defines the evolution of NB-IoT and eMTC to support low-power wide-area applications such as connected sensors and meters.<ref>{{cite web |title=With LTE-M and NB-IoT you're already on the path to 5G |url=https://www.sierrawireless.com/iot-blog/2018/05/lte-m-nb-iot-5g-networks/ |website=Sierra Wireless |access-date=2019-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106213447/https://www.sierrawireless.com/iot-blog/2018/05/lte-m-nb-iot-5g-networks/ |archive-date=2019-01-06 }}</ref>
===Voice over NR (VoNR)=== {{See also|Voice over NR}} 3GPP standards also define advanced communication services for voice and connected devices.
3GPP defines Voice over NR as a technology that enables native, high-quality voice over a 5G Standalone network through the 5G System Architecture. Unlike early 5G Non-Standalone deployments that relied on Evolved Packet System Fallback, VoNR integrates directly with the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) used in VoLTE. It uses NAS protocols to establish high-priority QoS flows that support URLLC requirements for voice traffic. Support for 5G Standalone is a prerequisite for VoNR. VoNR benefits from the enhanced security architecture of the 5G Core network, including improved subscriber identity protection. VoNR delivers superior audio quality through the Enhanced Voice Services (EVS) codec, which must adhere to rigorous terminal acoustic requirements and standardized testing procedures.<ref>{{cite web |title=Terminal acoustic characteristics for telephony |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1408 |website=3GPP |date=2025-10-21 |access-date=2026-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Speech and video telephony terminal acoustic test specification |url=https://portal.3gpp.org/desktopmodules/Specifications/SpecificationDetails.aspx?specificationId=1409 |website=3GPP |date=2025-10-30 |access-date=2026-05-07}}</ref>
Most phones released since 2023 (such as the iPhone 15 series and newer flagship devices) support VoNR, but availability depends on carrier enablement in specific areas.{{citation needed|date=May 2026}}
=== Non-terrestrial networks === 3GPP also defines non-terrestrial networks (NTN) that use satellites and airborne platforms to provide coverage where ground networks are impractical.<ref>{{cite web |title=NTN and satellite in Releases 17–18 |url=https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/partner-news/ntn-rel17 |website=3GPP |date=2022-07-01 |access-date=2023-07-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701000000/https://www.3gpp.org/news-events/partner-news/ntn-rel17 |archive-date=2023-07-01 }}</ref><ref>{{cite arXiv |title=5G from space: An overview of 3GPP non-terrestrial networks |author1=Xingqin Lin |author2=Stefan Rommer |author3=Sebastian Euler |author4=Emre A. Yavuz |author5=Robert S. Karlsson |year=2021 |eprint=2103.09156 |class=cs.NI }}</ref>
=== 5G-Advanced === 5G-Advanced, also known as 5.5G or 5G-A, is defined in 3GPP Release 18 as a transition between 5G and 6G. It adds features for more efficient spectrum use, lower energy demand, and higher reliability. The release introduces AI- and ML-based network management, extended-reality services, and communication support for autonomous systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Release 18 |url=https://www.3gpp.org/release18 |website=3GPP |access-date=2021-11-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125120719/https://www.3gpp.org/release18 |archive-date=2021-11-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The 5G Advanced – an evolution towards 6G |url=https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/white-papers/5g-advanced-evolution-towards-6g |website=Ericsson |access-date=2025-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412000000/https://www.ericsson.com/en/reports-and-papers/white-papers/5g-advanced-evolution-towards-6g |archive-date=2025-04-12 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=5G-Advanced explained |date=2023-09-15 |url=https://www.nokia.com/about-us/newsroom/articles/5g-advanced-explained/ |website=Nokia |access-date=2025-04-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250412000000/https://www.nokia.com/about-us/newsroom/articles/5g-advanced-explained/ |archive-date=2025-04-12 }}</ref>
Release 18 specifies improved time-synchronization methods independent of the GNSS and built-in geolocation functions. It extends non-terrestrial support to satellite and airborne communication.
=== 5G RedCap === 5G Reduced Capability (RedCap) in 3GPP Release 17 is designed to bridge the gap between high-performance 5G devices and low-power IoT technologies such as LTE-M and NB-IoT. It was created to address use cases between Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra-Reliable Low-Latency Communications (URLLC), and Massive Machine-Type Communication (mMTC) technologies.<ref>{{Cite web|title=5G RedCap for IoT: The Perfect Balance of 5G Capabilities|url=https://iot.telenor.com/technologies/connectivity/5g-redcap/|website=Telenor IoT|access-date=2025-12-01|language=en-US}}</ref>
== 5G hardware == alt=Samsung Galaxy S10 showing 5G signal|thumb|Samsung Galaxy S10 showing 5G signal
The Global Mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) compiled the first database of 5G-compatible products, listing 23 manufacturers and 33 models across categories such as smartphones, hotspots, and customer-premises equipment.<ref name="GSA2019a">{{cite web |title=GSA launches first global database of commercial 5G devices |url=https://www.totaltele.com/502531/GSA-launches-first-global-database-of-commercial-5G-devices |website=Total Telecom |date=March 2019}}</ref> Later surveys recorded more than one hundred announced products from over fifty vendors.<ref name="GSA2019c">{{cite web |title=5G Devices: Ecosystem Report |url=https://gsacom.com/paper/5g-devices-ecosystem-report-september-2019/ |website=GSA |date=September 2019}}</ref>
Early 5G modem chipsets were released by Intel, MediaTek, Qualcomm, and Samsung, followed by additional platforms in subsequent product generations.<ref name="GSAchipsets">{{cite web |title=LTE, 5G and 3GPP IoT Chipsets: Status Update |url=https://gsacom.com/paper/lte-5g-3gpp-iot-chipsets-status-update-3/ |website=GSA |date=April 2019}}</ref>
The Samsung Galaxy S10 5G was among the first smartphones to support 5G networks.<ref>{{cite news |title=5G is making the smartphones we love more expensive than ever |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/5g-is-making-smartphones-we-love-more-expensive-than-ever-2020-3 |website=Business Insider |date=March 14, 2020}}</ref> Other early 5G models included the Nokia 8.3 5G, designed for operation across low- to mid-band frequencies;<ref>{{cite news |title=The Nokia 8.3 as a global 5G phone |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/the-nokia-8-3-is-the-first-global-5g-phone-heres-what-that-means-for-you/ |website=CNET |date=March 19, 2020}}</ref> the Google Pixel 5 and Pixel 4a (5G);<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Pixel 5 |url=https://www.gsmarena.com/google_pixel_5-10386.php |website=GSMArena |date=2020}}</ref> and Apple's iPhone 12 series, the company's first generation with 5G capability.<ref name="CBS5G">{{cite news |title=What consumers need to know about this week's AT&T-Verizon 5G rollout |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/5g-rollout-verizon-att-consumers-need-know/ |website=CBS News |date=January 20, 2022}}</ref><ref name="CNET5G">{{cite news |title=iPhone 12 and 5G: Answers to common questions about the connectivity |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/mobile/apple-iphone-12-and-5g-faq-answers-to-questions-about-super-fast-connectivity/ |website=CNET |date=February 2022}}</ref>
thumb|Google Pixel 8 Showing MTN Nigeria 5G Signal
By the early 2020s, most high-end smartphones featured 5G capability, while some consumer devices still lack full support. As a result, the practical benefits for mid range phone users have been modest, and 5G adoption has lagged behind expectations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McCauley |first=Elizabeth |title=5G internet was supposed to change the world. Here's why it fell flat. |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/why-5g-failed-to-change-the-world-2025-3 |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Security risks == === Network and protocol risk === In 2019, the European Commission and the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA) warned that 5G networks could expand potential attack surfaces for state actors, recommending diversification of suppliers. Nokia and Ericsson are the only European manufacturers.<ref name="ENISA2019">{{cite web |last=Duckett |first=C. |title=Europe warns 5G will increase attack paths for state actors |website=ZDNet |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/europe-warns-5g-will-increase-attack-paths-for-state-actors/ |date=October 10, 2019 |access-date=May 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117154200/https://www.zdnet.com/article/europe-warns-5g-will-increase-attack-paths-for-state-actors/ |archive-date=November 17, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
Researchers from ETH Zurich and partner universities found weaknesses in the 5G authentication process that could expose users to new security risks.<ref name="Basin2018">{{cite book |last1=Basin |first1=D. |last2=Dreier |first2=J. |last3=Hirschi |first3=L. |last4=Radomirovic |first4=S. |last5=Sasse |first5=R. |last6=Stettler |first6=V. |chapter=A Formal Analysis of 5G Authentication |title=Proceedings of the 2018 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security |pages=1383–1396 |date=November 2018 |doi=10.1145/3243734.3243846 |arxiv=1806.10360 |isbn=978-1-4503-5693-0 }}</ref> They concluded that the system was still immature and that its higher data capacity could increase exposure to attacks.<ref name="SecurityIntelligence2018">{{cite web |title=How to prepare for the coming 5G security threats |website=Security Intelligence |url=https://securityintelligence.com/how-to-prepare-for-the-coming-5g-security-threats/ |date=November 26, 2018 |access-date=July 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722082854/https://securityintelligence.com/how-to-prepare-for-the-coming-5g-security-threats/ |archive-date=July 22, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2022 study identified a design flaw in the Evolved Packet System (EPS) that could affect device behavior during network switching.<ref name="Attar2022">{{cite journal |last1=Attar |first1=H. |last2=Issa |first2=H. |last3=Ababneh |first3=J. |last4=Abbasi |first4=M. |last5=Solyman |first5=A. A. A. |last6=Khosravi |first6=M. |last7=Said Agieb |first7=R. |title=5G system overview for ongoing smart applications: structure, requirements, and specifications |journal=Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience |pages=1–11 |date=January 2022 |doi=10.1155/2022/2476841 |pmid=36268153 |doi-access=free |pmc=9578857 }}</ref>
=== Internet of things risk === Growth of the Internet of things increases the number of devices connected through 5G. IoT Analytics estimated growth from about 7 billion devices in 2018 to over 21 billion by 2025, raising exposure to DDoS attacks, cryptojacking, and other cyberattacks.<ref name="IoTAnalytics2018">{{cite web |title=State of the IoT 2018: number of IoT devices now at 7 B – market accelerating |website=IoT Analytics |url=https://iot-analytics.com/state-of-the-iot-update-q1-q2-2018-number-of-iot-devices-now-7b/ |date=August 8, 2018 |access-date=July 24, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724014541/https://iot-analytics.com/state-of-the-iot-update-q1-q2-2018-number-of-iot-devices-now-7b/ |archive-date=July 24, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Espionage and supply chain risk === Concerns about espionage and data access have influenced national policies. The United States, Australia, and the United Kingdom have restricted or banned Chinese-made equipment.<ref name="CBC2019">{{cite news |last=Proctor |first=J. |title=Why Canada's decisions on who builds 5G technology are so important |work=CBC News |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/5g-canada-huawei-technology-future-1.5113309 |date=April 29, 2019 |access-date=July 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722213042/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/5g-canada-huawei-technology-future-1.5113309 |archive-date=July 22, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
A 2012 report by the United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence concluded that equipment from Huawei and ZTE could pose national-security risks.<ref name="USHPCI2012">{{cite web |title=Investigative report on the U.S. national-security issues posed by Chinese telecommunications companies Huawei and ZTE |website=U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence |url=https://irp.fas.org/congress/2012_rpt/huawei.pdf |date=October 8, 2012}}</ref> Later assessments by U.S. intelligence agencies warned that Huawei products could allow covert data access.<ref name="CFR2022">{{cite web |title=Huawei: China's controversial tech giant |website=Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/huawei-chinas-controversial-tech-giant |access-date=December 30, 2022}}</ref> In 2022, the FBI reported that Huawei equipment near U.S. military bases could interfere with nuclear communications.<ref name="CNN2022">{{cite news |last=Lillis |first=K. B. |title=FBI investigation determined Chinese-made Huawei equipment could disrupt U.S. nuclear-arsenal communications |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/23/politics/fbi-investigation-huawei-china-defense-department-communications-nuclear/index.html |date=July 23, 2022 |access-date=July 23, 2022 }}</ref>
Huawei and the Chinese government deny the allegations. Analysts note that China's National Security Law could require companies to provide data to authorities if requested.<ref name="CNBC2019">{{cite web |last=Kharpal |first=A. |title=Huawei says it would never hand data to China's government. Experts say it wouldn't have a choice |website=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/05/huawei-would-have-to-give-data-to-china-government-if-asked-experts.html |date=March 5, 2019 |access-date=March 5, 2019 }}</ref>
In 2020, the United States Department of State launched The Clean Network initiative to promote data privacy and security among allied nations. By year-end, more than 60 countries and 200 telecommunications companies had joined, including most NATO, EU, and OECD members.<ref name="BBC2020">{{cite news |last=Corera |first=G. |title=Huawei: MPs claim 'clear evidence of collusion' with Chinese Communist Party |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-54455112 |date=October 7, 2020 |access-date=October 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014044835/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-54455112 |archive-date=October 14, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>
== Interference issues == === Weather and satellite data === Some 5G bands, such as n258 at 26 GHz, are close to frequencies used for passive remote sensing by weather and Earth observation satellites, including water vapor measurements at 23.8 GHz.<ref name="Misra2019">{{cite journal |last=Misra |first=S. |title=The wizard behind the curtain? The role of spectrum allocation for environmental satellites |website=American Meteorological Society |url=https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/357736 |date=January 2019 |access-date=May 5, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505043302/https://ams.confex.com/ams/2019Annual/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/357736 |archive-date=May 5, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> Interference with satellite observations could reduce the accuracy of numerical weather prediction models and affect sectors such as commercial aviation.<ref name="Witze2019a">{{cite journal |last=Witze |first=A. |title=Global 5G wireless networks threaten weather forecasts |journal=Nature |volume=569 |issue=7754 |pages=17–18 |date=April 26, 2019 |doi=10.1038/d41586-019-01305-4 |pmid=31040411 |bibcode=2019Natur.569...17W }}</ref>
NASA, NOAA, and the U.S. Navy warned that out-of-band emissions from 5G transmissions near 24 GHz could degrade forecasts by up to 30 %.<ref name="Paul2019">{{cite news |last=Paul |first=D. |title=Some worry 5G may pose huge problems for weather forecasting |work=The Buffalo News |url=https://buffalonews.com/2019/05/27/some-worry-5g-may-pose-huge-problems-for-weather-forecasting/ |date=May 27, 2019 |access-date=May 27, 2019 }}</ref> The 2019 World Radiocommunication Conference set an interim limit of −33 dBW until 2027, followed by −39 dBW. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) warned that these limits could reduce forecast reliability.<ref name="WMO2019">{{cite web |title=WMO expresses concern about radio frequency decision |website=World Meteorological Organization |url=https://wmo.int/media/news/wmo-expresses-concern-about-radio-frequency-decision |date=November 27, 2019 |access-date=November 27, 2019 }}</ref>
=== Aviation systems === In 2021–2022, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) warned that some 5G signals could interfere with aircraft radar altimeters, which operate at 4.2–4.4 GHz, while new 5G services use 3.7–4.0 GHz.<ref name="Bloomberg2021">{{cite news |title=U.S. FAA issues safety alert on 5G interference to aircraft |work=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-11-02/u-s-faa-issues-safety-alert-on-5g-interference-to-aircraft |date=November 2, 2021 |access-date=November 2, 2021 }}</ref> Europe uses lower frequencies (3.4–3.8 GHz), reducing the risk.<ref name="CNN2022aviation">{{cite news |title=Europe rolled out 5G without hurting aviation. Here's how |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/19/business/5g-aviation-safety-europe/index.html |date=January 19, 2022 |access-date=January 19, 2022 }}</ref>
=== Satellite communication === {{Further|C band (IEEE)}}
Some 5G allocations overlap with frequencies used by C band satellite communication systems. Interference can occur when networks operate in 3.3–3.6 GHz, near satellite reception at 3.4–4.2 GHz<ref name="SatMag2021">{{cite news |title=5G interference risks to satellite operations |work=SatMagazine |url=http://www.satmagazine.com/story.php?number=2132459167 |date=December 1, 2021 |access-date=December 10, 2021 }}</ref> Mitigation uses low-noise block downconverters and waveguide filters.
=== Wi-Fi coexistence === 5G and Wi-Fi 6E share the 6 GHz band, which enables efficient spectrum use but requires coordination to prevent interference. Both operate under unlicensed conditions in the US and EU, supporting NR-U and Wi-Fi 6E technologies.<ref name="Naik2020">{{cite journal |last1=Naik |first1=G. |last2=Park |first2=J. M. |last3=Ashdown |first3=J. |last4=Lehr |first4=W. |title=Next-generation Wi-Fi and 5G NR-U in the 6 GHz bands: opportunities and challenges |journal=IEEE Access |volume=8 |pages=153027–153056 |date=December 15, 2020 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3016036 |bibcode=2020IEEEA...8o3027N |s2cid=220265664|doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Public perception == Analysts note that marketing of 5G has often overstated its capabilities.<ref name="Verge2021">{{cite news |last=Johnson |first=A. |title=Dear wireless carriers: the 5G hype needs to stop |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/4/29/22409675/verizon-att-tmobile-5g-mmwave-c-band |date=April 29, 2021 |access-date=April 29, 2021 }}</ref> Common concerns include limited user benefits, short range of mmWave signals, and rebranding of non-5G improvements as 5G.<ref name="Blackman2019">{{cite news |last=Blackman |first=J. |title=Why the 5G revolution is over-hyped nonsense — in every respect except one |work=Enterprise IoT Insights |url=https://enterpriseiotinsights.com/20191205/channels/fundamentals/why-5g-is-over-hyped-nonsense-in-every-respect-except-one |date=December 5, 2019 |access-date=December 5, 2019 }}</ref>
A 2020 survey by McKinsey & Company found that operators identified few immediately profitable use cases.<ref name="McKinsey2020">{{cite web |title=Cutting through the 5G hype |website=McKinsey & Company |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/cutting-through-the-5g-hype-survey-shows-telcos-nuanced-views |date=February 10, 2020 |access-date=February 20, 2020 }}</ref> Consumer surveys show mixed attitudes, with skepticism about marketing claims and uneven coverage in early deployments.<ref name="PCMag2019">{{cite news |title=Consumers want to cut through the hype about 5G |work=PCMag |url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/consumers-want-to-cut-through-the-hype-about-5g |date=April 15, 2019 |access-date=April 15, 2019 }}</ref> Industry groups and network operators state that 5G enables faster speeds and lower latency, though results depend on infrastructure rollout and available spectrum. In contrast to the initial excitement about the prospects, many firms striving for deployment have encountered reality, users are not eager to upgrade the technology.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-10 |title=Chinese 5G Not Living Up to Its Hype |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/east-asia-pacific_voa-news-china_chinese-5g-not-living-its-hype/6196962.html |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=Voice of America |language=en}}</ref> Five years after its launch, a majority of users have yet to transition to the new standard.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Time to move beyond 5G hype |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/time-to-move-beyond-5g-hype/ |access-date=2025-09-21 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref>
== Misinformation == {{Main|5G misinformation}}
=== Health claims === {{Further|Wireless device radiation and health}}
Public concern about the effects of wireless signals predates 5G technology. Similar concerns were raised about earlier mobile standards in the 1990s and 2000s. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), "exposure to intense, direct amounts of non-ionizing radiation may result in tissue damage due to heat. This is uncommon and mainly a workplace concern for those working with large sources of non-ionizing radiation."<ref>{{cite web |title=The Electromagnetic Spectrum: Non-Ionizing Radiation |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/nonionizing_radiation.html |publisher=United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |date=2015-12-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231134227/http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/nonionizing_radiation.html |archive-date=2015-12-31 }}</ref>
Some critics argue that existing exposure limits are too lenient or influenced by industry lobbying. Claims that the use of 5G mobile networks can cause cancer are unsupported by scientific evidence.<ref>{{cite web |title=Do mobile phones, 4G or 5G cause cancer? |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/do-mobile-phones-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |date=2022-02-08 }}</ref>
Several books making unverified claims about wireless health effects have been published. One, by Joseph Mercola, alleged links to ADHD, heart disease, and brain cancer. Mercola was criticized for promoting misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic and warned by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for selling unapproved COVID-19 cures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meese |first1=James |last2=Frith |first2=Jordan |last3=Wilken |first3=Rowan |title=COVID-19, 5G conspiracies and infrastructural futures |journal=Media International Australia |volume=177 |issue=1 |pages=30–46 |date=2020 |doi=10.1177/1329878X20952165 |pmc=7506181 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=FDA warns Mercola: Stop selling fake COVID remedies and cures |url=https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2021/03/fda-warns-mercola-to-stop-selling-fake-covid-remedies-and-cures/ |website=Alliance for Science |publisher=Cornell University |date=2021-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316173249/https://allianceforscience.cornell.edu/blog/2021/03/fda-warns-mercola-to-stop-selling-fake-covid-remedies-and-cures/ |archive-date=2021-03-16 }}</ref>
According to ''The New York Times'', controversy regarding 5G health effects partly originated from an unpublished 2000 report by physicist Bill P. Curry for the Broward County School Board, which incorrectly concluded that higher-frequency microwaves are absorbed more deeply by the brain.<ref>{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |title=The 5G Health Hazard That Isn't |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/science/5g-cellphones-wireless-cancer.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2019-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001202420/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/07/16/science/5g-cellphones-wireless-cancer.html |archive-date=2019-10-01 }}</ref> Later analyses showed that this was a misunderstanding of ''in vitro'' research results. Experts noted that millimeter-wave frequencies used by 5G cannot penetrate the skin or reach internal organs.
In a 2019 article, the same newspaper reported that RT America promoted claims linking 5G to diseases such as brain cancer, infertility, and Alzheimer's disease. The network aired several such programs in 2019, later cited by numerous blogs and websites.<ref>{{cite news |last=Broad |first=William J. |title=Your 5G Phone Won't Hurt You. But Russia Wants You to Think Otherwise. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health-russia.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=2019-05-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520140042/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/12/science/5g-phone-safety-health-russia.html |archive-date=2019-05-20}}</ref>
In 2019, cities such as Brussels and Geneva temporarily halted 5G rollouts pending radiation assessments.<ref>{{cite web |title=Brussels halts 5G plans over radiation rules |url=https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/brussels-halts-5g-plans-over-radiation-rules |website=FierceWireless |date=2019-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409144312/https://www.fiercewireless.com/5g/brussels-halts-5g-plans-over-radiation-rules |archive-date=2019-04-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Schweiz: Genf stoppt Aufbau von 5G-Mobilfunkantennen |url=https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Schweiz-Vorlaeufiges-Verbot-von-5G-Mobilfunkantennen-in-Genf-4398114.html |website=Heise Online |language=de |date=2019-04-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414150734/https://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/Schweiz-Vorlaeufiges-Verbot-von-5G-Mobilfunkantennen-in-Genf-4398114.html |archive-date=2019-04-14 }}</ref> The Swiss Telecommunications Association stated that studies had not demonstrated adverse health effects from 5G exposure.<ref>{{cite web |title=5G Mobile Technology Fact Check |url=https://e3.marco.ch/publish/sunrise/821_3887/20190327_MM_asut_Faktencheck_5G-EN.pdf |publisher=asut |date=2019-03-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403192953/https://e3.marco.ch/publish/sunrise/821_3887/20190327_MM_asut_Faktencheck_5G-EN.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-03 }}</ref>
Similar debates occurred in the Netherlands, the United States, and the United Kingdom, where some municipalities briefly delayed deployments or issued precautionary statements.<ref>{{cite web |title=5G phones and your health: What you need to know |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/5g-phones-and-your-health-what-you-need-to-know/ |website=CNET |date=2019-06-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622094552/https://www.cnet.com/news/5g-phones-and-your-health-what-you-need-to-know/ |archive-date=2019-06-22 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Humphries |first=Will |title=Councils block 5G as scare stories spread |url=https://www.thetimes.com/uk/healthcare/article/councils-block-5g-as-scare-stories-spread-gnfgshn58 |newspaper=The Times |date=2019-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014112244/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/councils-block-5g-as-scare-stories-spread-gnfgshn58 |archive-date=2019-10-14 }}</ref>
The Food and Drug Administration maintains that existing exposure limits for cellphone radiofrequency energy are sufficient to protect public health.<ref>{{cite web |title=5G: What is it and how will it help us |url=https://smartmobtech.com/news/5g-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-help-us/ |website=SmartMobTech |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201225061613/https://smartmobtech.com/news/5g-what-is-it-and-how-will-it-help-us/ |archive-date=2020-12-25 }}</ref>
Low-level electromagnetic fields (EMF) can have measurable biological effects in plants and animals, but research remains inconclusive about health risks to humans.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levitt |first1=Blake |last2=Lai |first2=Henry |last3=Manville |first3=Albert |title=Effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields on flora and fauna, part 1: Rising ambient EMF levels in the environment |journal=Reviews on Environmental Health |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=81–122 |year=2021 |doi=10.1515/reveh-2021-0026 |pmid=34047144 |issn=0048-7554 }}</ref> A 2019 meta-analysis found that while many ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo'' studies detected biological responses to radiofrequency exposure, the evidence did not establish health risks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Simkó |first1=M. |last2=Mattsson |first2=M.-O. |title=5G Wireless Communication and Health Effects—A Pragmatic Review Based on Available Studies Regarding 6 to 100 GHz |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=16 |issue=18 |page=3406 |date=2019-09-13 |doi=10.3390/ijerph16183406 |doi-access=free |pmid=31540320 |pmc=6765906 |bibcode=2019IJERP..16.3406S }}</ref>
==== COVID-19 conspiracy theories ==== [[File:FACT- 5G mobile networks DO NOT spread COVID-19.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|A World Health Organization infographic debunking false claims that 5G spreads COVID-19]]
The rollout of 5G technology began during the COVID-19 pandemic, prompting conspiracy theories that linked 5G to the pandemic.<ref>{{cite web |last=Warren |first=Tom |date=2020-04-04 |title=British 5G towers are being set on fire because of coronavirus conspiracy theories |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/4/4/21207927/5g-towers-burning-uk-coronavirus-conspiracy-theory-link |access-date=2025-12-18 |website=The Verge}}</ref>
These claims led to arson attacks on telecom masts in parts of Europe, including the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Italy.<ref>{{cite news |last=Murphy |first=Ann |date=2020-04-23 |title=Update: Arson attack on Cork mast linked to false 5G conspiracy theory |url=https://www.echolive.ie/corknews/UPDATE-Arson-attack-on-Cork-mast-linked-to-false-5G-conspiracy-theory-077799f2-496b-49a0-ad5e-2c5524c30bd0-ds |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=Echo Live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Fildes |first1=Nic |last2=Di Stefano |first2=Mark |last3=Murphy |first3=Hannah |date=2020-04-16 |title=How a 5G coronavirus conspiracy spread across Europe |url=https://www.ft.com/content/1eeedb71-d9dc-4b13-9b45-fcb7898ae9e1 |access-date=2025-12-18 |work=Financial Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mast fire probe amid 5G coronavirus claims |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-52164358 |work=BBC News |date=2020-04-04 }}</ref> In the United Kingdom, at least 61 mobile masts were reportedly set on fire.<ref>{{cite web |last=Osborne |first=Charlie |date=2020-04-30 |title=5G mast arson, coronavirus conspiracy theories force social media to walk a fine censorship line |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/amid-5g-mast-arson-and-coronavirus-conspiracy-theories-social-media-walks-a-fine-line/ |access-date=2025-12-18 |website=ZDNet}}</ref>
During the early months of the pandemic, Australian anti-lockdown protesters carried anti-5G signs, later connected to broader conspiracy groups. Two main versions of the conspiracy theory exist:<ref name="Meese et al 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Meese |first1=James |last2=Frith |first2=Jordan |last3=Wilken |first3=Rowan |title=COVID-19, 5G conspiracies and infrastructural futures |journal=Media International Australia |date=2020 |volume=177 |issue=1 |pages=30–46 |doi=10.1177/1329878X20952165 |pmc=7506181 }}</ref>
# The first claims that radiation from 5G weakens the immune system, making people more vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. # The second claims that 5G causes COVID-19. Some versions claim the pandemic hid illnesses blamed on 5G, while others suggest COVID-19 began in Wuhan, one of the first cities with early 5G rollout.
== Marketing of pre-5G technologies == {{Main|5G Evolution|LTE Advanced Pro|LTE Advanced}} {{Expand section|date=October 2023}}
The marketing of non-5G services refers to the promotion of enhanced 4G networks that are presented as precursors or equivalents to 5G. Some mobile network operators marketed upgraded 4G technologies using terms that suggested 5G capability. These offerings, sometimes described by carriers as "pre-5G" or "5G-ready", used LTE Advanced Pro features, including 4×4 MIMO, to deliver higher data rates. However, they did not meet the criteria defined for 5G by the 3GPP.
A notable example was 5G Evolution, introduced by AT&T in 2017 to market faster speeds based on existing LTE Advanced Pro infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/at-t-brings-5g-evolution-not-real-5g-to-117-more-markets/ |title=AT&T brings higher speeds with pre-5G technology to 117 cities |last=Cheng |first=Roger |website=CNET |date=April 19, 2018 |access-date=January 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204643/https://www.cnet.com/news/at-t-brings-5g-evolution-not-real-5g-to-117-more-markets/ |archive-date=January 6, 2019}}</ref> According to an AT&T statement at the time, it served as "a foundation for our evolution to 5G while the 5G standards are being finalized". A technology publication stated that such branding was likely to cause confusion among consumers, as the network did not represent true 5G technology.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/25/15425414/att-5g-evolution-network-lte-advanced-misleading-marketing |title=AT&T announces it will build a "fake 5G" network |last=Gartenberg |first=Chaim |website=The Verge |date=April 25, 2017 |access-date=January 6, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121215106/https://www.theverge.com/2017/4/25/15425414/att-5g-evolution-network-lte-advanced-misleading-marketing |archive-date=November 21, 2018}}</ref>
As of 2024, 5G deployment had expanded, but 4G networks remained widely used. Many developed countries reported that more than 90% of the population was covered by LTE networks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://goingdigital.oecd.org/en/indicator/16 |title=Share of the population covered by at least a 4G mobile network |website=OECD Going Digital Toolkit |access-date=December 29, 2024}}</ref> In the United States, mobile operators continued to sell 4G plans at lower prices than 5G plans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://support.totalwireless.com/en/brands/General/TbVAccounthelp/faq/3104592/ |title=With the launch of 5G, will 4G continue to exist? |website=Total Wireless Support |access-date=December 29, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://get-service.us/blog/does-5g-cost-more/#:~:text=In%20short,%20the%20answer%20is,Unlimited%20Premium:%20$85/month. |title=Does 5G cost more? |website=AT&T National |date=December 30, 2023 |access-date=December 29, 2024}}</ref> Typical 5G plans cost about US$85 per month for premium data tiers.
== Notes == {{Notelist}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Further reading == * {{cite journal |last1=Karipidis |first1=Ken |last2=Mate |first2=Rohan |last3=Urban |first3=David |last4=Tinker |first4=Rick |last5=Wood |first5=Andrew |date=July 2023 |title=5G mobile networks and health—a state-of-the-science review of the research into low-level RF fields above 6 GHz |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=585–605 |doi=10.1038/s41370-021-00297-6 |pmid=33727687 |pmc=8263336 |doi-access=free}}
== External links == * {{Commons-inline}} * [https://paktechpoint.com/5g-multi-antenna-concepts/ 5G multi-antenna concepts]
{{s-start}} {{s-bef|before=4G}} {{s-ttl|title=Mobile telephony generations|years=2019–present}} {{s-aft|after=6G}} {{s-end}}
{{Cellular network standards}}
{{Mobile phones}}
Category:5G (telecommunication) Category:Internet of things Category:Mobile telecommunications Category:Wireless communication systems