Oikonyms in West and South Asia

{{Short description|Names of inhabited places in parts of Asia}} Oikonyms in West, Central, South, and Southeast Asia can be grouped according to various components, reflecting common linguistic and cultural histories.{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=65}} Toponymic study is not as extensive as it is for placenames in Europe and Anglophone parts of the world, but the origins of many placenames can be determined with a fair degree of certainty.{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=67}}{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=332}} One complexity to the study when discussing it in English is that the Romanization of names, during British rule and otherwise, from other languages has not been consistent.{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=67}} {{TOCright}}

==Names after natural features== In Rajasthan, names are frequently given after rock, stone, ravine, and embankment. In the Gangetic plain, the predominant natural features are trees, grass prairies, and bodies of water. Prominent trees, visible from a long way off, would often serve as landmarks and give their name to places before there was any permanent settlement there. This was especially the case where a large tree indicated a ford across a river; for example, the name Gaighāṭ indicates a ford next to an agai tree. Tree names are especially common in areas that were historically under dense forest cover until recent centuries.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|23}}

==Common affixes== Common affixes used in South Asian oikonyms can be grouped based on their linguistic origin (with examples from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and elsewhere such as in Sanskrit-influenced Indonesia):  ===Dravidian=== ====''wal'', ''wali'', ''wala'', ''wara'', ''wada'', ''warree'', ''vli'', ''vadi'', ''vali'', ''pady'' and ''palli''==== Means hamlet{{sfn|Southworth|1995|p=271}} — e.g. Dombivli; Kasan Wala; Sandhilianwali; Gujranwala; Chhindwara; Tiruchirappalli; Saraipali

====''Kot''==== Means "fort"{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}{{sfn|Southworth|1995|p=271}} — Pathankot; Sialkot

====''Patnam'', ''patham'', ''pattana''==== Means "city", or "city of"{{sfn|Blackie|1887|p=153|loc=PATAM}} — e.g. Visakhapatnam'

===Indo-Aryan=== ====''Alay''==== Means "abode"; from Sanskrit ā-laya. e.g. Meghalaya, Himalaya, Lokā-laya (settlement).

====''-aulī'', ''-olī''==== These suffixes are very common, especially ''-aulī''. In many cases, they are probably derived from Sanskrit ''palli'', referring to a hamlet or small village. For example, Bārḍolī in Gujarat is attested in a Rashtrakuta-era inscription as ''Vāraḍapallikā''. Names with these suffixes may also come from Sanskrit ''valli'', meaning "section" or "part"; either origin is plausible.<ref name="Whalley 1927"/>{{rp|72}}<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|53-4, 64}}

At some point, it seems that ''-aulī'' became regarded as a distinct morpheme by itself, and apparently used independently as a suffix without being derived from an earlier form. For example, the names Shamsaulī and Shekhauliyā must have coined after the Muslim conquest to simply mean something like "Shams ud-Dīn's village".<ref name="Whalley 1927"/>{{rp|67, 75}}

The form ''-aulī'' also seems to have become standardised and absorbed similar forms by analogy. For example, Dubaulī (from ''Dūbe'') is a common village name in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but it is not the regular, expected form of the name. The regular form would be Dubelī, which exists but is far less common. In most cases, the name was assimilated to ''-aulī'' by analogy with other places with names ending in ''-aulī''.<ref name="Whalley 1927"/>{{rp|75}}

====''Bāns''==== Means bamboo, from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/वंश#Sanskrit vaṃśa]''. It was historically common for villages to be surrounded by bamboo groves that were planted as a form of defence. In many cases, it can be hard to distinguish between places named with ''bāns'' from places named with ''bās'' ("dwelling"), since ''bās'' sometimes becomes nasalised and ''bāns'' sometimes becomes de-nasalised. Examples of places named with ''bāns'' are Bānsgāon and Bānsī.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|36-7}}

====''Baṛ'', ''Bargad'', ''Vaḍ''==== The names ''baṛ'' and ''bargad'' both refer to the banyan tree, ultimately from Sanskrit ''vaṭa''.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|25-6}} This is a very common place name element; according to Sankalia, many towns and villages may have originally started out as temporary shelters underneath the wide canopy of a banyan tree. As they grew into more permanent settlements, they kept the name.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|88}} ''Baṛ'' has the common variations ''baḍ'' and ''baṭ''.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|26}} Another variant is ''vaḍ'', as in Vaḍodarā.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|88}}

====''Chak''==== A common prefix, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh.<ref name="Whalley 1923"/>{{rp|72}} The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary defines ''chak'' (चक) with several meanings, including "a piece of assigned or rent-free land"; "the detached or unconsolidated fields of a village"; and simply "a sub-division of land". It derives the term from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/चक्र#Sanskrit chakra]'', meaning "circle".<ref name="Oxford Hindi-English">{{cite book |editor1-last=McGregor |editor1-first=R. S. |title=The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-864339-X}}</ref>{{rp|296}} Whalley, on the other hand, preferred a derivation from Persian ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/چک#Persian chak]'', noting that "Chak" is frequently followed by a Muslim name.<ref name="Whalley 1923">{{cite journal |last1=Whalley |first1=Paul |title=Place-Names in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Chapter III, Part 3 |journal=The Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society |date=1923 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=47–87 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwdDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|72}}

====''Desh''==== Means village, land, country; from Sanskrit देश (desa) for "space"<ref name="auto3">{{cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra Nath |year=1999 |orig-year=First published 1988 |title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA281 |publisher=New Age International |page=281 |isbn=978-81-224-1198-0}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNkBAAAAMAAJ&q=%22-desh%22+%22country%22+%22suffix%22 |title=Samagra Savarkar Wangmaya |last=Prantik |first=Maharashtra |publisher=Hindusabha |page=436 |year=1963 |access-date=21 July 2017 |via=Google Books}}</ref> — e.g. Bangladesh. In Indonesia it becomes ''Desa'' which is another Indonesian word for "village".

====''-ehrā''==== In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier ''-kheṛa'' ("village").<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|2}}

====''Gaṛh''==== Means fortress{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|pp=74–75}} — Chandigarh, Ramgarh

====''Gaṛhī''==== According to Whalley, ''Gaṛhī'' when used as a prefix probably in most cases originally referred to a village surrounded by a ditch.<ref name="Whalley 1923"/>{{rp|74}}

====''Maū'', ''-mai''==== In many cases, the place name element ''Maū'' (or ''mai'') may be derived from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/मर्यादा#Sanskrit maryādā]'', meaning "shore" or "bank". This name is usually given to places by a river, stream, or ''jhil'' (for example, Ḍalmaū on the Gaṅgā). Examples of these names are Arghaṭmaū ("the bank or shore where the water-wheel is"), Bhainsmai ("shore where cattle or horses graze"), or Pathrāmai ("stony shore"). In other cases, ''maū'' is a contraction of ''mahuā'': the mahua tree, ''Madhuca longifolia''.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|4-6}}

Some places have ''Maū'' as a standalone name (for example, Maū, Uttar Pradesh), while in other cases ''-maū'' is a suffix or even a prefix. The name Māwai is a variant of ''Maū''.<ref name="Whalley 1926">{{cite journal |last1=Whalley |first1=Paul |title=Place-Names in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Chapter III, Part 1 |journal=The Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society |date=1926 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=1–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwdDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|4-6}}

====''Nagar''==== Means city, land, country, village;{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit नगर (nagara) — e.g. Ahmednagar, Biratnagar. In Indonesian, the word ''Negara'' means "country" and the word ''Nagari'' is a term used in West Sumatra referring to "village". Also used in Borneo island, e.g. Negara Brunei Darussalam

Many modern names using ''nagar'' in full are relatively recent origin; older names with ''nagar'' have often been shortened to ''nār'' or ''ner''.<ref name="Sankalia 1949">{{cite book |last1=Sankalia |first1=Hasmukh Dhirajlal |author-link=Hasmukh Dhirajlal Sankalia |title=Studies in the Historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat |date=1949 |publisher=Deccan College |location=Pune |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.16229 |access-date=14 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|73}}

At least in northern India, ''nagar'' is not used as a prefix. Instead, the forms ''Naglā'' or, more rarely, ''Nagrā'', are used. About 100 places also have the feminine forms ''Nagariyā'' and ''Nagariyā''.<ref name="Whalley 1923"/>{{rp|71}}

====''Nawādā''==== Apparently derived from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/निवास#Sanskrit nivāsa]'', "dwelling", combined with the Persian name ''Nauābād'' ("new settlement"). Nawādā, along with its feminine variant Nawādiyā, is a very common village name by itself, and it is also used as a prefix for other names.<ref name="Whalley 1923"/>{{rp|74}}

====''-on''==== In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier ''-gāon'' ("village") or ''-ban'' ("forest").<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|2}}

====''-padra'', ''-vadra'', ''-darā''==== The Sanskrit term ''padra'' denoted a roadside village or residence (related to ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पद्#Sanskrit pad]'', meaning "foot"). Beginning around the 5th century, a regular sound change took place where /p/ became /v/ between vowels, turning this suffix into ''-vadra'' in many place names. In many modern place names, ''-vadra'' has further morphed into ''-darā''. For example, Vaḍodarā is from an earlier attested form ''Vaṭapadra'', Talodrā is from ''Talapadra'' or ''Talapadraka'', and Lāṭhodrā is from ''Lāṭhivadra'' (attested in Chaulukya-era epigraphy). Similar names like Saḍodarā and Raṇodarā probably share the same origin, although their older forms are not directly attested.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|51-3, 61-3, 76-7}}

====''Pahāṛ'' and ''Pahār''==== ''Pahāṛ'', with the retroflex ''ṛ'', means a hill, cliff, or overhanging river bank. ''Pahār'' with a non-retroflex ''r'' is a personal name, derived from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/प्रहार#Sanskrit prahāra]''. It can be hard to tell these place name elements apart because they can be easily confused in other scripts.<ref name="Whalley 1927">{{cite journal |last1=Whalley |first1=Paul |title=Place-Names in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Chapter III, Section 2: Suffixes |journal=The Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society |date=1927 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=52–98 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwdDAAAAYAAJ |access-date=22 July 2023}}</ref>{{rp|55}}

====''Paṭṭī''==== From Hindi ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पट्टी paṭṭī]'', meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit ''paṭṭikā''. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a ''pattidar'' (literally "shareholder").{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|pp=334-5}}

====''Pilkhu'', ''Pilkhan'', ''Pākaṛ'', ''Pākhaṛ''==== These are all names for the pilkhan tree, one of several varieties of fig tree viewed as sacred in Hinduism. The forms ''pilkhu'' and ''pilkhan'' come from Sanskrit ''plakṣā'', while ''pākaṛ'' and ''pākhaṛ'' come from Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पर्कटी #Sanskrit parkaṭī]''. One place with this name is Pilkhuwā.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|27}}

====''Pind''==== literally "lump" or a small altar of sand{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}

====''Pīpal''==== The pīpal tree, ''Ficus religiosa'', is a common place name element.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|26-7}}

====''Pur'', ''Purī''==== Means village, town, state, country;{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} from Sanskrit [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/पुर#Sanskrit पुर] (''pura'') — e.g. Jamalpur; Kanpur; Khanpur. In Southeast Asian and some south Asian countries, it is known as ''pura'', e.g. Anuradhapura, Singapura, and Indonesian cities such as Jayapura, Siak Sri Indrapura, etc. In Indonesia, ''pura'' also refers to a Hindu temple.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/travel/2019/08/24/things-you-should-know-before-visiting-temples-in-bali.html|title=Things you should know before visiting temples in Bali|publisher=The Jakarta Post}}</ref>

In ancient times, the word ''pura'' strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function. By the early medieval period, ''pura'' was often used to denote a commercial centre – especially in southern India, where the typical form was ''puram''.<ref name="Thakur 1994">{{cite journal |last1=Thakur |first1=Renu |title=Urban hierarchies, typologies and classification in early medieval India: c. 750-1200 |journal=Urban History |date=1994 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=61–76 |jstor=44612629 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44612629 |access-date=9 May 2023}}</ref>{{rp|68-9}}

In many cases, old names originally ending in ''-pura'' have become shortened to ''-or'' over the centuries. In the case of Mangrol (originally ''Maṅgalapura''), the suffix has become ''-rol'' instead.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|71-3}}

The variant ''purā'' often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|72}}

''Pur'' is not used as a prefix. Instead, the form ''Purā'' is used. In west-central Uttar Pradesh, around Kanpur and Etawah, the prefix takes the form ''Purwā''. Farther east, toward Basti, it takes the form ''Pure''. The feminine form ''Purī'' is rarely found as a prefix.<ref name="Whalley 1923"/>{{rp|71-2}}

====''Semal'', ''semar'', ''simra'', ''sambal''==== Many places are named after the semal tree. There are many variations of this place name. One place with this name is Sambhal, where the form ''sambal'' ended up becoming aspirated.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|29}}

====''-vāḍā''==== According to Sankalia, this suffix has two possible origins: from ''-pāṭaka'', which originally designated "a large, but private house, or settlement within a village"; and ''-vāṭaka'', which denoted "a temporarily enclosed place, such as a garden, plantation, or an enclosure of a (low caste) village consisting of boundary trees". The shortened form ''pāḍā'' appears early on in Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit, and in early Jain literature refers to a suburb of a larger town. In Gujarat, the present form ''-vāḍā'' first appears in inscriptions dating to the Chaulukya period. ''-Vāḍā'' continued to be used productively to form new place names; it would have been originally given to private settlements "characterised either by a personal name or a prominent physiographical feature". Modern names ending in ''-vāḍā'' are descended from either ancient names that originally ended in either ''-pāṭaka'' or ''-vāṭaka'', or more recent names that originally ended in ''-vāḍā''.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|56-7, 59, 66-7}}

An example is Delvāḍā. This name is attested in a Maitraka inscription as ''Devakula-pāṭaka'', which would have later been contracted to *''Devalvāḍā'' and then ''Deülavāḍā'' (which is attested in a Chaulukya inscription) before finally reaching the present form.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|66-7}}

In Maharasthra, the term ''vāḍā'' refers to a built-up area, with or without an enclosure, belonging to a private citizen.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|59}}

====''-vasaṇa''==== From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group). This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat. Some places, such as Jetalvasana, contain the entire suffix without any modification. Others, like Chadasana, Jhulasan, Lunasan, Nandasan, and Ranasan (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix ''-vasaṇa''), have had the suffix modified to ''-saṇ(ā)'' or ''-san(ā)'' over time.<ref name="Sankalia 1949"/>{{rp|58, 69-70}}

====''-wāṛī''==== From Sanskrit ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/वाटिका#Sanskrit vāṭikā]'', meaning "orchard" or "garden". Commonly paired with tree names, e.g. Siswārī. Some examples with tribal names are also found; these are probably references to an individual person; examples are Bharwārī and Lodhwārī.<ref name="Whalley 1926"/>{{rp|25, 29, 60}}

===Persian or Arabic=== {{main|Glossary of Arabic toponyms}} ====''Ābād/abat/apat''==== ({{lang|fa|آباد}}): - -abad is a Persian "dwelling of" or "town of", combined with a person's or group's name (usually the founder or primary inhabitant(s)){{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}{{sfn|Blackie|1887|p=2|loc=ABAD}} — e.g. Hyderabad; Islamabad; Mirza Abad; Ashgabat; Leninabad; Vagharshapat; Sardarabad; Sardarapat . Being a generic and an ambiguous term referring to small isolated farms, village (but not city) on one hand, and towns and cities, on the other hand.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Balland|first1=Daniel|last2=Bazin|first2=Marcel|date=2020-08-30|title=DEH|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/deh-COM_8239|journal=Encyclopaedia Iranica Online|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-20|title=۱۷۰۰ روستای خراسان جنوبی خالی از سکنه شده‌اند|url=https://www.dw.com/fa-ir/%DB%B1%DB%B7%DB%B0%DB%B0-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF/a-53885139|url-status=live|website=Deutsche Welle|language=fa-IR|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200621182239/https://www.dw.com/fa-ir/%DB%B1%DB%B7%DB%B0%DB%B0-%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86-%D8%AC%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%A7%D8%B2-%D8%B3%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF/a-53885139 |archive-date = 21 June 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.amar.org.ir/Portals/0/census/1385/docs/1385_rahnama_mamoor.pdf|title=Manual for Census Takers [''Râhnamây-e Ma'mur-e Saršomâri'']|publisher=Statistical center of Iran|year=2006|location=Tehran|pages=59–65}}</ref> See also abadi (settlement).

====''Bandar''==== Means "port" (wikt:بندر) — e.g. Bandar Abbas; see {{intitle|Bandar}}

====''Dasht''==== Means field, desert (wikt:دشت) — e.g. Hulandasht; see {{intitle|dasht}}

====''Ihtimalī'' and ''Ghair Ihtimalī''==== From Perso-Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/احتمال#Persian iḥtimāl]'', meaning "probability". In historical South Asian revenue terminology, ''Ihtimali'' referred to flood-prone lands along river banks or in low-lying areas. ''Ghair Ihtimali'' meant the opposite, i.e. not liable to flooding during the rainy season. These were used in place names to distinguish two villages with the same name, such as Todarpur Ihtimali and Todarpur Ghair Ihtimali in present-day Aligarh district, India.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=338}}

====''Khās''==== From Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/خاص#Arabic khāṣṣ]'', meaning "selected" or "private". In India, it was historically used to refer to a place managed directly by the government or by a jagirdar, without any intermediaries. For example, Jamal Mohd Siddiqi identifies six places with "''khās''" in their name in present-day Aligarh district, India. All six were founded by Rajput chiefs during the Mughal period, and they all occupy a prominent position on high ground. ''Khās'' is also sometimes used in cases where there are two villages with the same name; in this case, ''khās'' is affixed to the older and/or larger one.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=336}}

====''Kuy''==== Means "neighborhood" (wikt:کوی) — e.g. Kordkuy; see {{intitle|kuy}}

====''Mazar''==== (in various languages) shrine, grave, tomb, etc. (from wikt:مزار), cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.: Mazar-i-Sharif; see {{intitle|Mazar}}

====''Mazra'' or ''Majra''==== Derived from Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/مزرع mazraʕ]'', which originally refers to a farm field. In parts of India, though, the term refers to a hamlet or cluster of houses that is separate from, but subordinate to, a larger village. (The reason for the hamlet's separation is so that farmers can be closer to their crops.) Places with ''Majra'' in their name typically originated in this manner and later became independent villages of their own.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=335}}

====''Milk''==== Derived from Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ملك#Etymology_3 milk]'', meaning "possession" or "property". Like ''chak'', it was historically used to designate a rent-free piece of land. ''Milk'' in particular usually designated land held by Muslim zamindars.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=337}}

====''Munzabtah''==== Derived from Perso-Arabic ''munzabt'', meaning "confiscated". For example, the village of Raipur Munzabtah in Aligarh district got its name because it was confiscated by the British government after its ''pattidar'' participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=337}}

====''Mutafarriqat''==== From Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/متفرقات mutafarriqāt]'', literally meaning "miscellaneous". This was used historically to denote a fiscal or administrative unit consisting of various scattered pieces of land. Villages called "mutafarriqat" are so named because they belonged to such a unit.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=336}}

====''Nisfi''==== Derived from Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/نصف#Arabic niṣf]'', meaning "half". For example, the village of Marhauli Nisfi Ashrafabad in present-day Aligarh district was formed by taking out a half portion from Ashrafabad.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|p=337}}

====''Raiyyat''==== From Perso-Arabic ''[https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/رعیت#Persian ra'iyyat]'', meaning "subjects, peasants, cultivators". It is used, for example, in the name of Lalpur Raiyyatpur in present-day Aligarh district, which likely originated as a settlement of peasants under the zamindar of nearby Lalpur.{{sfn|Siddiqi|1982|pp=338-9}}

====''Shahr, shehr''==== {{redirect|Shahr|the subdivision found in Iran and the Republic of Azerbaijan|Shahr (country subdivision)}}

Means "city"{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} — e.g. Bulandshahr

====''Kale'', ''Kaleh'', ''Qala'', ''Qalat'', ''Qila''==== Means fort, fortress, castle;{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}} see also "Qal'a" — e.g. Makhachkala, Akhalkalaki, Solzha-Ghala, Dzaudzhikau

====''Ganj'', ''gunj'', ''gunge''==== Persian-Urdu, taken to mean neighborhood in Indian context. For example, Daryaganj, Sunamganj

====''Basti''==== Refers to a granted habitat, also sanctuary from the Persian suffix, ''bastī''<ref>{{Cite web |title=BASTI English Definition and Meaning {{!}} Lexico.com |url=https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/basti |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327172337/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/basti |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 27, 2022 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=Lexico Dictionaries {{!}} English |language=en}}</ref>''— e.g.'' Basti Maluk, Azam Basti

====''Nahr''==== wikt:نهر, river, e.g., Nahr-e Mian; see {{intitle|Nahr-e}}

====''Nahri''==== Means (irrigation) canal{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=74}}

====''Dera''==== Means "tent"{{sfn|Siddiqi|Bastian|1985|p=75}} — e.g. Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan

====''-gerd/-kert''==== Examples: Darabgerd, Dastagird, Dastjerd, Khosrowjerd, Farhadgerd, Stepanakert, Tigranakert

====''-Stan, Estan''==== {{main|-stan}} Means "a place abounding in...", "place of..."<ref name="hayyim-dictionary"><!--

Something is fishy in this ref. I copied in from -stan. if you fix it, please fix there as well

-->{{citation|last=Hayyim|first=Sulayman|title=New Persian-English Dictionary|chapter-url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/steingass_query.py?qs=%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86&searchhws=yes|chapter=ستان|year=1892 |page=30|volume=2|location=Tehran|publisher= Librairie imprimerie Béroukhim}} Quote= ستان (p. V2-0030) ستان (۲) Suffix meaning 'a place abounding in'. Ex. گلستان a flower or rose-garden. Syn. زار See گازار Note. This suffix is pronounced stan or setan after a vowel, as in بوستان boostan, a garden, and هندوستان hendoostan, India; and estan after a consonant. Ex. گلستان golestan, and ترکستان torkestan. However, for poetic license, after a consonant also, it may be pronounced setan. Ex. گلستان golsetan</ref> — e.g. Afghanistan; Pakistan

==See also== *Place names in India, for a more in-depth explanation of various place names in India.

== References == {{reflist}}

== Sources == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|title=Geographical Etymology: A Dictionary of Place-names Giving Their Derivations|author1-first=Christina|author1-last=Blackie|edition=3rd|publisher=John Murray|year=1887 |url={{GBurl|nwGBTvF_K6kC}} }} * {{cite journal|title=Urban Place Names in Pakistan: A Reflection of Cultural Characteristics|author1-first=Akhtar Husain|author1-last=Siddiqi|author2-first=Robert W.|author2-last=Bastian|oclc=500207327|journal=Names|volume=29|issue=1|pages=65–84|year=1985|url=https://ans-names.pitt.edu/ans/article/download/937/936}} * {{cite conference|title=Significance of technical terms in place names—a case-study of Aligarh District|author1-first=Jamal Mohd|author1-last=Siddiqi|conference=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=43|year=1982|pages=332–341|jstor=44141245}} * {{cite book|title=The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia: Language, Material Culture and Ethnicity|volume=1|series=Indian philology and South Asian studies|issn=0948-1923|editor1-first=George|editor1-last=Erdosy|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|year=1995|isbn=9783110144475|author1-first=Franklin C.|author1-last=Southworth|chapter=Reconstructing social context from language: Indo-Aryan and Dravidian pre-history|author1-link=Franklin Southworth}} {{refend}}

== Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book|title=Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia|author1-link=Franklin Southworth|author1-first=Franklin C.|author1-last=Southworth|publisher=Routledge|year=2004|isbn=9781134317776}} {{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Western and South Asia, Oikonyms in}} * Oikonyms Oikonyms Oikonyms * Category:Names of places in India Category:Names of places in Pakistan