{{Short description|none}} {{Contains special characters|Old Hangul}} [[File:Hunminjeongeum Eonhae 01 (cropped).jpg|thumb|320x320px|The first page of the text ''Hunminjeongeum Eonhae'' shows some obsolete Hangul letters in use]] {{Italic title|string=jamo}}
The Korean alphabet, known as ''Hangul'' internationally, ''Hangeul'' in South Korea, and ''Choson'gŭl'' in North Korea, was introduced with 28 main letters, which are called ''jamo''. Other extended vowels and consonants also existed or were later introduced but faded from use. Now, 24 main letters are in use for modern Korean.
A number of letters that became obsolete for Korean have previously and even currently seen use for other languages. For example, {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}} is obsolete for Korean but used for the Jeju language.
Many obsolete letters and combinations are accounted for in Unicode.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008 |title=An introduction to Korean Standard KS X 1026-1:2007, Hangul processing guide for information interchange |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2008/08225-n3422.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921132517/http://unicode.org/L2/L2008/08225-n3422.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2021 |access-date=17 September 2021 |publisher=Unicode Consortium}}</ref>
== Obsolete base letters ==
* {{lang|ko|ㆁ}} ({{Ipa|[ŋ]}}) is a consonant that represented an ''ng'' sound. It has a stroke on top, added from {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}, a null or zero initial. They were often confused, as they are so visually similar.{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=213–214, 245–246|2a1=Lee|2y=1997b|2pp=110–111|3a1=Sampson|3y=1985|3pp=127–128}} In the 15th century, it was used as both as an initial and final consonant. It became final only at the start of the 16th century.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|p=290}} By the 17th century, the two letters functionally merged into {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}.{{Sfnm|1a1=Ledyard|1y=1998|1pp=213–214, 245–246|2a1=Lee|2y=1997b|2pp=110–111|3a1=Sampson|3y=1985|3pp=127–128}} * {{Lang|ko|ㅿ}} ({{Ipa|[z]}}) is a consonant that was a voiced equivalent of {{Lang|ko|ㅅ}}.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=218–219, 231–232}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0047911 |access-date=2025-10-11 |language=ko |author2=유창균 |author=강신항 |script-title=ko:자모 (字母)}}</ref> Its sound value is controversial, although most scholars believe it to have been {{Ipa|[z]}} in Middle Korean.{{Sfn|Stonham|2011|pp=99, 101}} Its use was generally restricted to the word medial position (i.e. inside a word), although it was sometimes used as the first initial consonant of a word.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=139–140}} It fell out of significant use to represent Korean by around the 1570s to 1580s. By this point, its corresponding phoneme had disappeared out of the language.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=218–219, 231–232}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=142}} * {{Lang|ko|ㆆ}} ({{Ipa|[ʔ]}}) is a consonant that was a glottal stop. It has a stroke added from {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. It was not used much. For Korean, it could be used to indicate preglottalization before a tensed consonant.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|p=210}}{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997b|p=167}} It largely fell out of use by the end of the 15th century, after which its role was replaced by {{Lang|ko|ㅅ}}.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|p=231}} * {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}} ({{Ipa|[ʌ]}} or {{Ipa|[ɐ]}}{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=74}}) is a vowel that was used for the Korean language, although it is still used for the Jeju language (there, it is pronounced {{Ipa|[ɔ]}} or {{Ipa|[ʌ]}}).{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=156}} The letter's sound disappeared gradually from the 16th to 18th centuries, but remained in use in writing.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=158, 262–263}}<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=74}} The first orthography to prohibit it was the 1930 {{Ill|Hangul Orthography (1930)|lt=Hangul Orthography|ko|언문 철자법}}.{{Sfn|King|1997|pp=239–240}} The Korean Language Society's 1933 {{Ill|Unified Hangul Orthography|ko|한글 맞춤법 통일안}} also called for its prohibition; its use largely ended with this orthography.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|p=270}}{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=74}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=263}} Its role has since been replaced with either {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}} or {{Lang|ko|ㅏ}}.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=74}}
== Obsolete doubled consonants ==
* {{Lang|ko|ㆀ}} had an unclear sound value. It is graphically a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. Lee and Ramsey argue it most likely was used to indicate that the "causative/passive morpheme began with a voiced velar fricative {{Ipa|[ɣ]}}". It mainly occurred in compound verbs, for example {{Lang|ko|괴ᅇᅧ}} or {{Lang|ko|ᄆᆡᅇᅵᄂᆞ니라}}.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=130}} Its final appearance was in the 1517 ''Mongsan hwasangbŏbŏ yangnok ŏnhae'' ({{Korean|hangul=몽산화상법어약록언해|hanja=蒙山和尙法語略錄諺解|labels=no}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author=최기표 |script-title=ko:몽산화상법어약록 (蒙山和尙法語略錄) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0078014 |access-date=2025-10-01 |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |language=ko}}</ref>).{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=73}} * {{Lang|ko|ㆅ}} had an unclear sound value. It was an initial consonant and graphically a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㅎ}}. It was introduced in the ''Hunminjeongeum'' for use in Sino-Korean, but it was very rarely used.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=226–227}}{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997b|p=167}} Its use was limited to the syllable {{Lang|ko|ᅘᅧ}} ({{Ipa|[xjə]}}; {{Lit|pull}}).{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=73}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=130}}{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997b|p=167}} Within several decades of the promulgation, it virtually ceased to be used at all.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=226–227}}{{Sfn|Kim-Renaud|1997b|p=167}} According to Hong, the letter's final attestation is in the 1517 ''Mongsan hwasangbŏbŏ yangnok ŏnhae''.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=73–74}} Lee and Ramsey claim it continued to see minor use until the 17th century.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=293}} In the 17th century, {{Lang|ko|ᅘᅧ}} came to be written as {{Lang|ko|ᄻᅧ}}.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=130}} {{Lang|ko|ㆅ}}'s function has been virtually entirely replaced by {{Lang|ko|ㅎ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅋ}}, or {{Lang|ko|ㅆ}}.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=73–74}} * {{Lang|ko|ꥼ}} had an unclear sound value. It is graphically a doubled form of {{lang|ko|ㆆ}}. There are no records of this character ever being used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yang |first=Hyojung |last2=Lim |first2=Soonbum |last3=Ahn |first3=Byunghak |year=2023 |script-title=ko:고문헌 집자를 통한 옛한글 글꼴 디자인 토대 연구 |trans-title=A Foundational Study on Archaic Hangeul Character Font Design through Old Literature Review |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11834650 |journal=Journal of Basic Design & Art |language=ko |publisher=Korean Society of Basic Design & Art |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=162 |via=DBpia}}</ref> * {{Lang|ko|ㅥ}} is graphically a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㄴ}}. It is attested to in the ''Hunminjeongeum Eonhae'' in the phrase "{{Lang|ko|다ᄔᆞ니라}}", but Lee and Ramsey argue this is an anomalous spelling variant of "{{Lang|ko|단ᄂᆞ니라}}".{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}} It appeared in the 1676 print of ''Ch'ŏphae sinŏ'' to phonetically transcribe the Japanese word ''nan=no'': {{Lang|ko|나ᄔᅩ}}.{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|p=86}} * {{Lang|ko|ᄙ}} has been used to transcribe various foreign languages, including Russian.{{Sfn|King|2024|p=49}}
== Light labial letters == The light labial letters, also called ''yŏnsŏ'' ({{Korean|hangul=연서|hanja=連書|labels=no}}{{sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=48–49}}), are briefly mentioned in the ''Hunminjeongeum'' and expanded upon in the ''Haerye''. They are graphically composed of the labial consonants with a small {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}} underneath them.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}}{{sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=46}} All of them, except for {{lang|ko|ㅸ}}, were only used for the transcription of Chinese.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}}
* {{lang|ko|ㅸ}} ({{Ipa|[β]}}{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2019|p=39}}) is graphically composed of {{Lang|ko|ㅂ}} above a {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. It was an initial consonant used for native Korean sounds, not Chinese.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=118–119}} {{lang|ko|ㅸ}} largely disappeared from use by the 1460s{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=229–230}}{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|p=270}} or by the mid 16th-century.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|p=72}} In most situations, it lenited (was replaced with a softer sound) and merged with the semivowel {{Ipa|/w/}}. As examples, {{Lang|ko|글ᄫᅡᆯ}} {{Arrow|r}} {{Lang|ko|글왈}} ({{Lit|letter}}) and {{Lang|ko|더ᄫᅥ}} {{Arrow|r}} {{Lang|ko|더워}} ({{Lit|hot}}).{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=139}} It was revived for use in Cia-Cia, where it represents the voiced labiodental fricative.{{Sfn|Cho|Whitman|2019|p=54}} * {{Lang|ko|ㆄ}} is graphically composed of a {{Lang|ko|ㅍ}} above a {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. Linguist Sven Osterkamp argues it was possibly hardly audibly distinguishable from {{lang|ko|ㅸ}}, and that etymology would have helped determine which to use. It did not see much use, even to transcribe Chinese. Sin Sukchu, a prominent linguist of Chinese around the 15th century and head of many Hangul-related projects, felt that its corresponding theoretical sound did not exist then in Chinese. The letter saw sparse use to transcribe Japanese in the 1492 work ''Irop'a'', but Osterkamp evaluated its use as "unsystematic".{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|pp=88–89}} * {{Lang|ko|ㅱ}} is composed of a {{Lang|ko|ㅁ}} above a {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. It was used differently by different authors; some texts used it in either or both of the initial and final positions.{{Sfn|유효홍|2010|p=243}} Its sound value is the subject of scholarly disagreement. Almost all scholars who've written about this issue have argued it possibly had different sounds in different positions, with various proposals about the sound values.{{Sfn|유효홍|2010|pp=243–244}} A number of scholars argue that, when it was used in the final position, its sound was functionally that of the semivowel {{Ipa|[w]}}. A number of 15th-century texts had grammatical particles used after vowel sounds applied after the letter when it was used in the final position, and it was often replaced by the vowels {{Lang|ko|ㅜ}} ({{Ipa|[wu]}}) and {{Lang|ko|ㅗ}} ({{Ipa|[wo]}}).{{Sfn|유효홍|2010|pp=234–235}} When used as an initial, various scholars have argued that its sound was the voiced labiodental nasal ({{Ipa|[ɱ]}}), a light voiced bilabial nasal ({{Ipa|[m]}}), or a voiced labiodental approximant semivowel ({{Ipa|[ʋ]}}).{{Sfn|유효홍|2010|pp=243–244}} * ◇ ({{Ipa|[w]}}) is a consonant invented by {{Ill|Pak Sŏngwŏn|ko|박성원 (1697년)}} in his 1747 work ''Hwadongjŏngŭm t'ongsŏgun'go'' ({{Korean|hangul=화동정음통석운고|hanja=華東正音通釋韻考|labels=no}}).<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |author=홍윤표 |script-title=ko:없어진 한글 자모, 어떤 소리를 나타낸 것일까요? |trans-title=What sounds did archaic Hangul jamo make? |url=http://news.korean.go.kr/online/see/hangulstory/hangulstory.jsp?idx=6 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141211152556/http://news.korean.go.kr/online/see/hangulstory/hangulstory.jsp?idx=6 |archive-date=2014-12-11 |access-date=2025-10-01 |website=National Institute of Korean Language |language=ko}}</ref> Scholars believe the character's function overlapped with that of {{Lang|ko|ㅱ}}.<ref name=":22" /> It was used for the transcription of Chinese.{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=75–76}}<ref name=":22" />
== Pure dental and palatal-supradental sibilants == {{Lang|ko|ᄼ}} ({{Ipa|[s, ɕ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᄽ}} ({{Ipa|[z, ʑ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅎ}} ({{Ipa|[ts, tɕ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅏ}} ({{Ipa|[dz, tʑ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅔ}} ({{Ipa|[tsʰ, tɕʰ]}}) and {{Lang|ko|ᄾ}} ({{Ipa|[ʂ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᄿ}} ({{Ipa|[ʐ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅐ}} ({{Ipa|[tʂ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅑ}} ({{Ipa|[dʐ]}}), {{Lang|ko|ᅕ}} ({{Ipa|[tʂʰ]}});{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|p=90}} the {{Ill|pure dental and palatal-supradental sibilants in Hunminjeongeum|lt=former five are pure dental and latter five are palatal-supradental sibilants|ko|훈민정음의 치두음과 정치음}}{{Efn|Terminology from Ahn.{{sfn|Ahn|2018|p=72}} Ledyard calls these "pure dental sibilants and supradental sibilants".{{sfn|Ledyard|1998|p=168}}}} ({{Korean|hangul=치두음|hanja=齒頭音|labels=no}} and {{Korean|hangul=정치음|hanja=正齒音|labels=no}}). They were exclusively used to transcribe Chinese. They were not a part of the original ''Hunminjeongeum'' or ''Haerye''; it is unclear exactly when they were introduced. They appear in the introduction to the text ''Sasŏng t'onggo'' ({{Korean|hangul=사성통고|hanja=四聲通攷|labels=no}}),{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|pp=21–22}} which was possibly published before 1455,{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|p=358}}{{Sfn|Volpe|2025|p=59}} and are attested to in the 1459 ''{{ill|Wŏrin sŏkpo|ko|월인석보}}'' edition of the ''Hunminjeongeum''.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|pp=20–22}} They do not appear in any other version of the ''Hunminjeongeum''. Scholars assume some scholar other than Sejong, possibly Sin Sukchu, invented these letters and included them in these texts.{{Sfn|Ahn|2018|pp=72–73}} They are attested to in the 1800 text ''Hwadong ŭmwŏn'' ({{Korean|화동음원|華東音源|labels=no}}) by Hong Hŭijun ({{korean|홍희준|洪羲俊|labels=no}}).{{sfn|홍윤표|2016|pp=269–275}}
== Heterogeneous initial clusters == [[File:兒學編_sample.png|thumb|Entries from the 1908 text ''Ahakp'yŏn''. In the top left entry, the unusual heterogeneous cluster {{Lang|ko|ᅄ}} is being used to represent the English {{IPA|[v]}} sound.]]
The current initial consonant clusters in use are doubled letters like {{Lang|ko|ㄲ}}. The ''Haerye'' allowed for the use of initial consonant clusters containing different letters, even up to three letters at a time. Examples include {{Lang|ko|ㅴ}}, used in {{Lang|ko|ᄢᅳᆷ}} ({{Lit|crack, opening}}) and the rare {{Lang|ko|ㅻ}}, used in {{Lang|ko|ᄮᅡᄒᆡ}} ({{Lit|a man}}). Such heterogenous initial clusters were common in Middle Korean texts.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=119}}
The 1908 text ''Ahakp'yŏn'' used unusual heterogeneous horizontal clusters beginning with {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}} to transcribe English. For example, it used {{Lang|ko|ᅋ}} ({{Ipa|[f]}}) to transcribe "knife": {{Lang|ko|나이ᅋᅳ}}.{{Sfn|Osterkamp|2012|pp=88–89}}
== Changes in final consonants == The letters considered acceptable for use as final consonants have changed over time. The ''Haerye'' stipulates that eight basic consonants can be used as finals: {{Lang|ko|ㄱ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄴ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄷ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄹ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅁ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅂ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅅ}}, and {{Lang|ko|ㅇ}}. In particular, it argues that {{Lang|ko|ㅅ}} is sufficient to represent the sounds of the dental sibilants {{Lang|ko|ㅈ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅿ}}, and {{Lang|ko|ㅊ}} in the final position.{{Sfn|Park|2015|p=66}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=121}} The use of these eight finals was strictly abided by in the 15th and 16th centuries, except for in the early works ''Yongbiŏch'ŏn'ga'' and ''{{ill|Wŏrin ch'ŏn'gangjigok|ko|월인천강지곡}}'', which were both published in 1447, around the promulgation of Hangul. The unusual orthography in those early texts possibly reflects an early dispute over orthography that was soon resolved. For heterogenous final clusters, there were six in common use (excluding those that include the ''saisiot''): {{Lang|ko|ㄳ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㅧ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄺ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄻ}}, {{Lang|ko|ㄼ}}, and {{Lang|ko|ㅭ}}.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=121–122}}
== Obsolete vowel clusters == Unusual vowel clusters have seen use to transcribe foreign languages. For example, in the 1768 text ''Mongŏ yuhae'' ({{Korean|hangul=몽어유해|hanja=蒙語類解|labels=no}}), vowel clusters like {{Lang|ko|ᅾ}} and {{Lang|ko|ᅟᆓ}} were used to transcribe Mongolian.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=沈小喜 |year=2022 |title=“훈민정음”과 “한글”의 중국어 표기 대조 연구 |trans-title=A Study on Contrast between “Hunminjeongeum” and “Hangul” |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11060641 |journal=중국어문학논집 |language=ko |publisher=중국어문학연구회 |volume=133 |issue= |page=16 |doi=10.25021/JCLL.2022.4.133.7 |via=DBpia|url-access=subscription }}</ref> *{{Lang|ko|ᆢ}} is a vowel that is graphically a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}}. It was described as having a heavier and longer sound than {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}}. It was introduced in {{Ill|Sin Kyŏngjun|ko|신경준}}'s 1750 work ''{{Ill|Hunmin chŏngum unhae|ko|훈민정음 운해}}''.<ref name=":22" />{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=76–77}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=263}} It was also described in {{Ill|Yu Hŭi|ko|류희}}'s 1824 text ''{{Ill|Ŏnmunji|ko|언문지}}''. The intended sound can still be heard in the Jeju language today, for example in the verb "{{Lang|ko|ᄋᆢᆯ다}}" (in standard Korean "{{Lang|ko|열다}}"; "to open").{{Sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=76–77}}{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|pp=159–160}} Its sound value likely overlapped with that of {{Lang|ko|ᆝ}}.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=159}} * {{Lang|ko|ᆖ}} is graphically a doubled form of {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}}. It was introduced in {{Ill|Chi Sŏgyŏng|ko|지석영}}'s 1905 New Edition of National Writing ({{Korean|hangul=신정국문|hanja=新訂國文|labels=no}}) and meant to represent a combined sound of {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}}. This character, along with the rest of Chi's orthography, was promulgated into law, but swiftly met with backlash and never fully implemented.{{Sfn|King|1997|p=221}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture |publisher=Academy of Korean Studies |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0033357 |access-date=2025-10-07 |language=ko |author=김민수 |script-title=ko:신정국문 (新訂國文)}}</ref> In 1907, the government appointed a {{Ill|National Language Research Institute|ko|국문연구소}}. In 1909, that organization proposed a number of changes to the orthography, including the rejection of {{Lang|ko|ᆖ}}. Their proposal was never implemented due to Korea's rapid loss of sovereignty around this time.{{Sfn|King|1997|p=221}}{{sfn|홍윤표|2019|pp=80–82}} * {{Lang|ko|ᆜ}} is a combined vowel consisting of, in this order, {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}}. By contrast, {{Lang|ko|ㅢ}} is pronounced in the order of {{Lang|ko|ㅡ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}}. It was briefly mentioned in the ''Haerye'' as perhaps being useful for transcribing the speech of children or of dialects, but not needed for standard Korean. It was otherwise rarely used.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=159}} * {{Lang|ko|ᆝ}} is a combined vowel consisting of, in this order, {{Lang|ko|ㅣ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㆍ}}. Like {{Lang|ko|ᆜ}}, it was introduced in the ''Haerye'' as unnecessary for standard Korean but potentially useful otherwise. It was rarely used. Its sound value likely overlapped with that of {{Lang|ko|ᆢ}}.{{Sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=159}} * {{Lang|ko|ㆇ}} (combined {{Lang|ko|ㅛ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㅑ}}) and {{Lang|ko|ㆊ}} ({{Lang|ko|ㅠ}} and {{Lang|ko|ㅕ}}) were introduced in the ''Haerye'' for the exclusive use in transcribing Chinese.{{Sfn|Ledyard|1998|pp=243, 303–304}}{{Sfn|Martin|1992|p=43}}
== Notes == {{Notelist}}
== References == {{Reflist}}
=== Sources === * {{Cite book |last=Ahn |first=Pyong-hi |author-link=Ahn Pyong-hi |title=Studies in Hunminjeongeum |publisher=National Hangeul Museum |year=2018 |isbn=979-11-89438-00-5 |edition=English |translator-last=Jung |translator-first=Ha-yun |orig-year=2007}} * {{Cite book |last=Cho |first=Sungdai |last2=Whitman |first2=John |year=2019 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/korean/1F8BF29C717FB36EBB48024B087BD1F5 |title=Korean: A Linguistic Introduction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-51485-9 |doi=10.1017/9781139048842}} * {{Cite book |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/19909 |title=The Idea of Writing: Writing Across Borders |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=2012 |isbn=978-90-04-21700-3 |editor-last=de Voogt |editor-first=Alex |editor-link=Alexander de Voogt |volume=2 |doi=10.1163/9789004217003 |editor-last2=Quack |editor-first2=Joachim Friedrich}} ** {{harvc|last=Osterkamp|first=Sven|year=2012|in=de Voogt|c=Early Adaptations of the Korean Script to Render Foreign Languages|in2=Quack}} * {{Cite book |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Alphabet/nonRl2cerIgC?hl=en |title=The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure |date=1997 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1989-7 |editor-last=Kim-Renaud |editor-first=Young-Key |editor-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud |language=en}} ** {{harvc|last=Lee|first=Sang-Oak|year=1997|anchor-year=1997b|in=Kim-Renaud|c=Graphical Ingenuity in the Korean Writing System: With New Reference to Calligraphy}} ** {{harvc|last=Kim-Renaud|first=Young-Key|author-link=Young-Key Kim-Renaud|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c=The Phonological Analysis Reflected in the Korean Writing System|anchor-year=1997b}} ** {{harvc|last=King|first=Ross|author-link=Ross King (academic)|year=1997|in=Kim-Renaud|c= Experimentation with Han'gŭl in Russia and the USSR, 1914–1937}} * {{Cite book |last=Ledyard |first=Gari Keith |author-link=Gari Ledyard |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Korean_Language_Reform_of_1446/zvZKAQAAMAAJ?hl=en |title=The Korean Language Reform of 1446: The Origin, Background, and Early History of the Korean Alphabet |date= |publisher=신구문화사 |year= |publication-date=1998 |language=en |orig-date= |orig-year=1966}} * {{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Ki-Moon |author-link=Ki-Moon Lee |last2=Ramsey |first2=S. Robert |author-link2=S. Robert Ramsey |date=2011 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-the-korean-language/53A69B381D2534210A336CCB8879F605 |title=A History of the Korean Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511974045}} * {{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Samuel E. |author-link=Samuel E. Martin |year=1992 |title=A Reference Grammar of Korean |title-link=A Reference Grammar of Korean |publisher=Charles E. Tuttle Company |isbn=0-8048-1887-8 |edition=1st}} * {{Cite book |last=Park |first=Chang-won |title=Hangeul: The Korean Alphabet |date=2015-08-31 |publisher=Ehwa Womans University Press |isbn=979-11-85909-68-4 |translator-last1=Cho |translator-first1=Yoon-jung |translator-last2=Han |translator-first2=Mi-sun}} * {{Cite book |last=Sampson |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey Sampson |url=http://archive.org/details/writingsystems00geof |title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction |date=1985 |publisher=Stanford University Press |others= |isbn=0-8047-1756-7 |location=Stanford, California |via=Internet Archive}}
==== Academic articles ==== * {{Cite journal |last=King |first=Ross |author-link=Ross King (academic) |date=May 2024 |title=Another 'language that failed'? The beginnings of 'Soviet' Korean in the Russian Far East, 1922–1937 |url=https://www.jbe-platform.com/content/journals/10.1075/kl.00007.kin |journal=Korean Linguistics |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=33–81 |doi=10.1075/kl.00007.kin |issn=0257-3784 |eissn=2212-9731|doi-access=free }} * {{Cite journal |last=Stonham |first=John |date=2011 |title=Middle Korean Δ and the Cheju dialect |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41287927 |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=97–118 |issn=0041-977X}} * {{Cite journal |last=Volpe |first=Giovanni |date=2025-05-01 |title=The Power of Sound: Rethinking the Invention of the Korean Vernacular Script |url=https://doi.org/10.1215/15982661-11631558 |journal=Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=51–74 |doi=10.1215/15982661-11631558 |issn=1598-2661 |via=Duke University Press|doi-access=free }} {{Open access}}
==== In Korean ====
===== Books =====
* {{Cite book |author=홍윤표 |url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details?id=OIbCDwAAQBAJ&rdid=book-OIbCDwAAQBAJ&rdot=1 |date=2019-12-13 |publisher=세창출판사 |isbn=978-89-8411-924-6 |edition=Ebook |language=ko |script-title=ko:한글 |trans-title=Hangul}}
===== Academic articles =====
* {{Cite journal |author=유효홍 |date=April 2010 |script-title=ko:순경음 'ㅱ'의 종성 표기에 대하여 |trans-title=On the use of the light labial 'ㅱ' as a final consonant |url=http://www.gugeosa.or.kr/html/sub0201.html?mid=intro05_01&journal=1&pageNm=&searchType=title&searchValue=&issue=9000&year=2010&Page=2 |journal=국어사연구 |language=ko |publisher=국어사학회 |volume=10 |pages=233–269}} {{Open access}} * {{Cite journal |author=홍윤표 |year=2016 |script-title=ko:한글 자모의 명칭과 배열순서에 대한 역사적 연구 |trans-title=A Historical Study of the Names and Alphabetical Orders of Hangul Letters |url=https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE07430976 |journal=한국어사 연구 |language=ko |publisher=국어사연구회 |volume=2 |pages=259–321 |issn=2383-4978 |via=DBpia}} {{Closed access}}
{{Hangul jamo}}
* Category:Palaeographic letters