# Yellowhammer

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{{short description|Passerine bird in the bunting family that is native to Eurasia}}
{{about|the Eurasian bird|the North American bird|northern flicker|other uses}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}}
{{Speciesbox
 | status            = LC
 | status_system     = IUCN3.1
 | status_ref        = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Emberiza citrinella'' |volume=2016 |article-number=e.T22720878A89289181 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22720878A89289181.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
 | image             = Goldammer Emberiza citrinella.jpg
 | image_caption     = Male ''E. c. citrinella''
 | image2            = Yellowhammer (Emberiza citrinella) (W1CDR0001422 BD1).ogg
 | image2_caption    = Song recorded in [Devon](/source/Devon), England
 | range_map         = Emberizacitronella3.png
 | range_map_caption = 
<div style="text-align:left;"><big>{{Legend2|#FFFF00| Breeding summer visitor|border=1px solid #aaa}}<br /> {{Legend2|#00FF00| Resident year-round|border=1px solid #aaa}} <br />{{Legend2|#79A7FF| Winter visitor|border=1px solid #aaa}}</big></div>Approximate natural range
 | taxon             = Emberiza citrinella
 | authority         = [Linnaeus](/source/Carl_Linnaeus), [1758](/source/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae)
}}
thumb|''Emberiza citrinella''
The '''yellowhammer''' ('''''Emberiza citrinella''''') is a [passerine](/source/passerine) [bird](/source/bird) in the [bunting](/source/Emberiza) family that is native to [Eurasia](/source/Palearctic_realm) and has been [introduced](/source/introduced_species) to New Zealand and Australia. Most European birds remain in the breeding range year-round, but the eastern [subspecies](/source/subspecies) is partially [migratory](/source/bird_migration), with much of the population wintering further south. The male yellowhammer has a bright yellow head, streaked brown back, chestnut rump, and yellow under parts. Other plumages are duller versions of the same pattern. The yellowhammer is common in open areas with some shrubs or trees, and forms small flocks in winter. Its song has a rhythm like "A little bit of bread and no cheese". The song is very similar to that of its closest relative, the [pine bunting](/source/pine_bunting), with which it interbreeds.

Breeding commences mainly in April and May, with the female building a lined [cup nest](/source/cup_nest) in a concealed location on or near the ground. The three to five eggs are patterned with a mesh of fine dark lines, giving rise to the old name for the bird of "scribble lark" or "writing lark". The female incubates the eggs for 12–14&nbsp;days prior to hatching, and broods the [altricial](/source/altricial) downy chicks until they [fledge](/source/fledge) 11–13&nbsp;days later. Both adults feed the chicks in the nest and raise two or three broods each year. The nest may be raided by rodents or [corvids](/source/corvidae), and the adults are hunted by [birds of prey](/source/bird_of_prey). Yellowhammers feed on the ground, usually in flocks outside the breeding season. Their diet is mainly seeds, supplemented by [invertebrate](/source/invertebrate)s in the breeding season. Changes to agricultural practices have led to population declines in western Europe, but its large numbers and huge range mean that the yellowhammer is classed as being of [least concern](/source/least_concern) by the [International Union for Conservation of Nature](/source/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature).

This conspicuous yellow bird has inspired poems by [Robert Burns](/source/Robert_Burns) and [John Clare](/source/John_Clare), and its characteristic song has influenced musical works by [Beethoven](/source/Ludwig_van_Beethoven) and [Messiaen](/source/Olivier_Messiaen). Children's writer [Enid Blyton](/source/Enid_Blyton) helped to popularise the standard English representation of the song.
[[File:Goldammer_(1)_(34888569141).jpg|thumb|[Yellowhammer](/source/Yellowhammer)]]

==Taxonomy==
The yellowhammer was described by [Carl Linnaeus](/source/Carl_Linnaeus) in his landmark 1758 [10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''](/source/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae) under its current scientific name.<ref name = Linn>Linnaeus (1758) [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/196/mode/1up p. 177.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170325030419/http://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/10277#page/196/mode/1up |date=25 March 2017 }}</ref> ''Emberiza'' is derived from the [Old German](/source/Old_High_German) {{Lang|goh|Embritz}}, a bunting,<ref name= job145>Jobling (2010) p. 145.</ref> and ''citrinella'' is the Italian for a small yellow bird.<ref name= job110>Jobling (2010) p. 110.</ref> The English name is thought to have come from ''Ammer'', another German word for a bunting, and was first recorded in 1553 as ''yelambre''.<ref name=OED>{{Cite OED |Yellowhammer}}</ref>

The bird family [Emberizidae](/source/Emberizidae) contains a single genus ''[Emberiza](/source/Emberiza)'', with around 40 members, that are confined to the Old World.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Winkler |first1=David W. |last2=Billerman |first2=Shawn M. |last3=Lovette |first3=Irby J. |title=Emberizidae |url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/emberi2/cur/introduction?login |website=Birds of the World |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=6 September 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003100455/https://secure.birds.cornell.edu/cassso/login?service=https%3A%2F%2Fbirdsoftheworld.org%2Flogin%2Fcas |url-status=live }}{{subscription required}}</ref> Within its genus, the yellowhammer is most closely related to the pine bunting, with which it forms a [superspecies](/source/superspecies); they have at times been considered as one species. The [white-capped](/source/white-capped_bunting) and [cirl bunting](/source/cirl_bunting)s are also near relatives of the species pair.<ref name = hbwonline>{{cite journal| editor = Hoyo, Josep del| editor2 = Elliott, Andrew| editor3 = Sargatal, Jordi| editor4 = Christie, David A| title = Yellowhammer| journal = Birds of the World| url = https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/yellow2/cur/introduction| publisher = Cornell Lab of Ornithology| doi = 10.2173/bow.yellow2.01| s2cid = 216356773| access-date = 6 September 2022| url-access = subscription| archive-date = 4 December 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231204002118/https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/yellow2/cur/introduction| url-status = live}}{{subscription required}}</ref> Where their ranges meet, the yellowhammer and pine bunting interbreed; the yellowhammer is dominant, and the hybrid zone is moving further east.<ref name= tieze/>

===Subspecies===
There are currently 3 recognised subspecies of yellowhammer:<ref name = hbwonline/>

*''E. c. citrinella'' (Linnaeus, 1758), the [nominate subspecies](/source/nominate_subspecies), which occurs in southeast England and most of Europe east to the northwestern corner of Russia and western Ukraine.
*''E. c. caliginosa'' ([Clancey](/source/Phillip_Clancey), 1940) is the form found in Ireland, the [Isle of Man](/source/Isle_of_Man), and Great Britain (except southeast England).
*''E. c. erythrogenys'' ([Brehm](/source/Christian_Ludwig_Brehm), 1855) breeds from Russia, central Ukraine and the eastern [Balkans](/source/Balkans) eastwards to [Siberia](/source/Siberia) and northwest Mongolia, and also has isolated populations to the east of the [Black Sea](/source/Black_Sea) and in the [Caucasus](/source/Caucasus).

==Description==
thumb|Male ''E. c. caliginosa''
thumb|Female|upright
thumb|''Emberiza citrinella''

The yellowhammer is a large bunting, {{convert|16|–|16.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, with a {{convert|23|–|29.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan;<ref name="BWP" /> it weighs {{convert|20|–|36.5|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="hbwonline" /> The male of the nominate subspecies ''E.&nbsp;c. citrinella'' has a bright yellow head, heavily streaked brown back, [rufous](/source/rufous) rump, yellow under parts, and white outer tail feathers.<ref name="BWP" /> The female is less brightly coloured, and more streaked on the crown, breast, and flanks. Both sexes are less strongly marked outside the breeding season, when the dark fringes on new feathers obscure the yellow plumage. The juvenile is much duller and less yellow than the adults, and often has a paler rump.<ref name="Olsson" />

After breeding, adults have a complete [moult](/source/moulting), which takes at least eight weeks; males acquire more yellow in the plumage each time they moult. Juveniles have a partial moult not long after fledging, replacing the head, body, and some [covert feather](/source/covert_feather)s.<ref name= Olsson/>

Differences between the subspecies are small and [geographically gradual](/source/Cline_(biology)). On average, the male of ''E.&nbsp;c. caliginosa '' is slightly smaller and darker than the same sex of the nominate subspecies, and also has more streaking on its back, a greenish tint to the yellow of the head and more chestnut on the flanks. The male of the eastern form, ''E.&nbsp;c. erythrogenys'', is paler and less streaked than ''E.&nbsp;c. citrinella''. Its flanks, undertail and wing bars are usually whiter, and its crown and throat are brighter yellow.<ref name= Olsson>Olsson et al. (1995) pp. 107–110.</ref> Distinguishing females of the three subspecies using plumage features is not usually possible.<ref name= Olsson24>Olsson et al. (1995) p. 24.</ref>

Females and juveniles, especially of the pale eastern subspecies, ''E.&nbsp;c. erythrogenys'', may be confused with pine buntings, but they always have a yellow tint to their plumage, a paler rufous rump, and more uniform upperparts than that species.<ref name= Olssonpl11>Olsson et al. (1995) pp. 111–114.</ref> Young and female yellowhammers can be distinguished from cirl buntings by the grey-brown rump of the latter species.<ref name= Olsson/> Male hybrids with pine buntings are typically white-faced and have some yellow on the head, under parts or [flight feather](/source/flight_feather)s, but females are usually indistinguishable from yellowhammers.<ref name= Porter>Porter & Aspinall (2011) p. 208.</ref>

===Voice===
The song of the cock yellowhammer is a series of short notes, gradually increasing in volume and followed by one or two more protracted notes. It is often represented as "A little bit of bread and no cheese", and the full version can be confused with the almost identical song of the pine bunting. If the final notes are omitted, confusion with the cirl bunting is possible. Other vocalisations include a ''zit'' contact call, a ''see'' alarm, and a trilled ''tirrr'' given in flight.<ref name= BWP/>

Yellowhammer males learn their songs from their fathers, and over time, regional dialects have developed,<ref name="Guardian2017">{{cite news|last1=Brown|first1=Georgia|title=Lost British birdsong discovered in New Zealand birds|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jan/12/lost-british-birdsong-discovered-in-new-zealand-birds|access-date=13 January 2017|work=The Guardian|agency=Guardian News and Media Limited|date=12 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Diblíková|first1=Lucie|last2=Pipek|first2=Pavel|last3=Petrusek|first3=Adam|last4=Svoboda|first4=Jiří|last5=Bílková|first5=Jana |last6=Vermouzek|first6=Zdeněk|last7=Procházka|first7=Petr|last8=Petrusková|first8=Tereza|date=2019|title=Detailed large-scale mapping of geographical variation of Yellowhammer ''Emberiza citrinella'' song dialects in a citizen science project |journal=Ibis|language=en|volume=161|issue=2|pages=401–414|doi=10.1111/ibi.12621|s2cid=89795507 |issn=1474-919X}}</ref> with minor differences to the conclusion of the basic song; all are mutually recognised by birds from different areas.<ref name= tieze/> Each male has an individual repertoire of song variants within its regional dialect;<ref name= caro>{{cite journal |last1= Caro |first1= Samuel P |last2= Keulen |first2= Christine |last3= Poncin |first3= Pascal |year=2009 |title= Song repertoires in a Western European population of Yellowhammers ''Emberiza citrinella'' | journal= Acta Ornithologica | volume=44 | pages=9–16 |doi= 10.3161/000164509x464830|issue=1|s2cid= 84361143 }}</ref> females tend to mate with males that share their dialect, and prefer those with the largest repertoires.<ref name= baker>{{cite journal |last1=Baker |first1=Myron Charles|last2= Bjerke |first2= Tore K |last3= Lampe |first3= Helene U |last4= Espmark |first4= Yngve O |year= 1987|title= Sexual response of female Yellowhammers to differences in regional song dialects and repertoire sizes | journal=Animal Behaviour | volume=35 | pages=395–401 |doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(87)80263-4|issue=2|s2cid=53147836}}</ref>

The pine bunting and yellowhammer are so closely related that each responds to the other's song. The male yellowhammer's song is more attractive to females, and is one reason for the dominance of that species where the ranges overlap.<ref name= tieze/>

==Distribution and habitat==
Traditional farmland provides good habitat for nesting and feeding.|thumb
The yellowhammer breeds across the [Palearctic](/source/Palearctic) between the {{convert|16|–|20|C|F}} July [isotherms](/source/Isotherm_(contour_line)). It is the commonest and most widespread European bunting,<ref name=BWP>Snow & Perrins (1998) pp. 1648–1651.</ref> although it is absent from high mountains, [Arctic](/source/Arctic) regions, the western Netherlands, most of [Iberia](/source/Iberian_Peninsula) and Greece, and low-lying regions of other countries adjoining the [Mediterranean Sea](/source/Mediterranean_Sea). It breeds in Russia east to [Irkutsk](/source/Irkutsk), and in most of Ukraine. The Asian range extends into northwest Turkey, the Caucasus, and northern Kazakhstan.<ref name= Olsson/>

Most European yellowhammers winter within their breeding range, only the far north being vacated, although some birds move south of their breeding range in Spain, Italy, and other Mediterranean countries.<ref name= Olsson/> Distances travelled can be up to {{convert|500|km|mi|abbr=on}} for northern birds.<ref name= BWP/> Asian birds are more strongly [migratory](/source/bird_migration), deserting much of the north to winter in Iraq, Iran, and southern [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia). The yellowhammer has occurred as a vagrant in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt,<ref name= Olsson/> Kuwait, Morocco, Malta, the Himalayas (winter vagrant from northern Afghanistan to central Nepal<ref name=ras>Rasmussen (2005) p. 552.</ref>), the [Balearic Islands](/source/Balearic_Islands), Iceland, and the [Faroes](/source/Faroe_Islands).<ref name= BWP/>

Yellowhammers of the British and Irish race, ''E.&nbsp;c. caliginosa'', were [introduced](/source/introduced_species) to New Zealand by local [acclimatisation societies](/source/acclimatisation_society) in 1862,<ref name= tieze>{{cite journal |last1= Tietze |first1= Dieter Thomas |last2= Wassmann |first2= Christine |last3= Martens |first3= Jochen |year= 2012 |title= Territorial song does not isolate Yellowhammers (''Emberiza citrinella'') from Pine Buntings (''E. leucocephalos'') |journal= Vertebrate Zoology |volume= 62 |pages= 113–122 |issue= 1 |doi= 10.3897/vz.62.e31372 |s2cid= 86210860 |doi-access= free }}</ref><ref name= Oliver>Oliver (1955) p. 635.</ref> and soon spread over the main islands. They sometimes visit New Zealand's subantarctic islands, although rarely staying to breed, and have reached Australia's [Lord Howe Island](/source/Lord_Howe_Island) on a number of occasions. At the beginning of the 20th century, this bunting was seen as a serious agricultural pest in its adopted country.<ref name= Lever>Lever (2005) p. 268.</ref>

Populations of yellowhammer have also been introduced to the [Falkland Islands](/source/Falkland_Islands) and South Africa.<ref>Long, John L. (1981). Introduced Birds of the World. Agricultural Protection Board of Western Australia. pp. 21–493</ref>

The yellowhammer is a bird of dry, open country, preferably with a range of vegetation types and some trees from which to sing. It is absent from urban areas, forests, and wetlands. Probably originally found at forest edges and large clearing, it has benefited from traditional agriculture, which created extensive open areas with hedges and clumps of trees.<ref name= BWP/>

==Behaviour==

===Breeding===
thumb|Eggs
Breeding normally starts in early May, but often in April in the south of the range. Yellowhammers are [monogamous](/source/monogamy_in_animals) and breed when aged one year. The males establish territories along hedges or woodland fringes and sing from a tree or bush, often continuing well into July or August. The male displays to the female by raising his wings and running towards her.<ref name = BWP/> The nest is built by the female on or near the ground, and is typically well hidden in tussocks, against a bank or low in a bush. It is constructed from nearby plant material, such as leaves, dry grass, and stalks, and is lined with fine grasses and sometimes animal hair.<ref name=Olsson/> It is {{convert|11.5|–|13|cm|in|abbr=on}} across with a cup {{convert|4|–|4.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} deep.<ref name=hbwonline/>

The [clutch](/source/clutch_(eggs)) is usually three to five whitish eggs, typically patterned with a network of fine, dark lines. The eggs average {{convert|21|x|16|mm|in|abbr=on}} in size and weigh {{convert|2.9|g|oz|abbr=on}}, of which 6% is shell.<ref name = bto>{{cite web | title= Yellowhammer ''Emberiza citrinella'' [Linnaeus, 1758] | work= Bird Facts | date= 16 July 2010 | url= http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob18570.htm | publisher= [British Trust for Ornithology](/source/British_Trust_for_Ornithology) | access-date= 27 April 2014 | archive-date= 14 April 2012 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120414231233/http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob18570.htm | url-status= live }}</ref> The female incubates the eggs for 12–14&nbsp;days to hatching, and broods the [altricial](/source/altricial), downy chicks until they [fledge](/source/fledge) 11–13&nbsp;days later. Both adults feed the chicks in the nest and two or three broods are raised each year.<ref name=Olsson/><ref name = bto/>

The adult annual survival rate in the UK is around 54%, and that for juveniles in their first year is 53%. The typical lifespan is three years,<ref name = bto/> although records from Great Britain and Germany indicate birds surviving more than 13 years.<ref name = EURING>{{cite web| title= European Longevity Records| url= http://www.euring.org/data_and_codes/longevity-voous.htm | publisher=EURING| access-date =15 April 2014 }}</ref>

===Feeding===
Foraging is mainly on the ground, and the bird's diet consists mainly of seeds. Oily seeds, such as those of [brassicas](/source/Brassicaceae), are ignored in favour of more starchy items. Typical food plants include [common nettle](/source/Urtica_dioica), [docks](/source/Rumex), [common knotgrass](/source/Polygonum_aviculare), [fat hen](/source/Chenopodium_album), [common chickweed](/source/Stellaria_media), and [yarrow](/source/Achillea_millefolium). Grasses are also important, particularly [cereal](/source/cereal)s, and grain makes up a significant part of the food consumed in autumn and winter, wheat and oats being preferred to barley. When not breeding, yellowhammers forage in flocks that can occasionally number hundreds of birds, and often [contain](/source/mixed-species_foraging_flock) other buntings and [finch](/source/finch)es.<ref name=hbwonline/>

The yellowhammer adds [invertebrate](/source/invertebrate)s to its diet in the breeding season, particularly as food for its growing chicks. A wide range of species is taken, including [springtail](/source/springtail)s, [grasshopper](/source/grasshopper)s, [flies](/source/Fly), [beetle](/source/beetle)s, [caterpillar](/source/caterpillar)s, [earthworm](/source/earthworm)s, [spiders](/source/spiders), and [snail](/source/snail)s.<ref name=hbwonline/>  During the first few days, chicks are exclusively fed invertebrate prey, but from day three they are also fed cereal grains, which the chicks can digest efficiently.  This is thought to be intentional by the parents to allow the nestlings to adjust their physiology to eating seed.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Orłowski, G. |author2=Wuczyński, A. |author3=Karg, J. |author4=Grzesiak, W. | year=2017| title=The significance of seed food in chick development re-evaluated by tracking day-to-day dietary variation in the nestlings of a granivorous passerine| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=124–138|doi=10.1111/ibi.12410| issue=1|s2cid=4488345 }}</ref>

==Predators and parasites==
[[File:Accipiter nisus 1 (Bohuš Číčel).jpg|thumb|upright|The [Eurasian sparrowhawk](/source/Eurasian_sparrowhawk) is a predator of the yellowhammer.]]
Predators of the yellowhammer include the [sparrowhawk](/source/Eurasian_sparrowhawk),<ref name= Jedrzejewska257>Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (1998) p. 257.</ref> [Eurasian goshawk](/source/Eurasian_goshawk),<ref name= Jedrzejewska250>Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (1998) p. 250.</ref> [lesser spotted eagle](/source/lesser_spotted_eagle), and [Eurasian hobby](/source/Eurasian_hobby).<ref name= Jedrzejewska272>Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (1998) p. 272.</ref><ref name= Jedrzejewska282>Jedrzejewska & Jedrzejewski (1998) p. 282.</ref> It is not a significant host of the [common cuckoo](/source/common_cuckoo), a [brood parasite](/source/brood_parasite),<ref name= glue>{{cite journal |last= Glue |first=David |author2=Morgan, Robert  |year=1972 |title= Cuckoo hosts in British habitats | journal= Bird Study | volume= 19| pages=187–192 |doi=10.1080/00063657209476342|issue=4|bibcode=1972BirdS..19..187G }}</ref> although as a ground-nesting bird, its eggs and chicks are vulnerable to predation from small mammals such as [mice](/source/Muridae) and other rodents. Nests are also raided by [crows](/source/Corvus_(genus)), [Eurasian jay](/source/Eurasian_jay)s, and [Eurasian magpie](/source/Eurasian_magpie)s. Predation accounted for more than 60% of nest failures in a 2012 survey in Germany.<ref name=hbwonline/><ref name=ludwig>{{cite journal|last1=Ludwig |first1=Martin |last2=Schlinkert |first2=Hella |last3=Holzschuh |first3=Andrea |last4=Fischer |first4=Christina |last5=Scherber |first5=Christoph |last6=Trnka |first6=Alfréd |last7=Tscharntke |first7=Teja |last8=Batáry |first8=Péter |year=2012 |title=Landscape-moderated bird nest predation in hedges and forest edges |journal=Acta Oecologica |volume=45 |pages=50–56 |url=http://www.nhmus.hu/~batary/Publications/2012/ActaOecol_2012_Ludwig.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426202047/http://www.nhmus.hu/~batary/Publications/2012/ActaOecol_2012_Ludwig.pdf |archive-date=26 April 2014 |doi=10.1016/j.actao.2012.08.008 |bibcode=2012AcO....45...50L }}</ref>

Thirteen species of [flea](/source/flea)s in the genera ''[Ceratophyllus](/source/Ceratophyllus)'' and ''[Dasypsyllus](/source/Dasypsyllus)'' have been found on this bunting,<ref name = nhm>{{cite web| title= Distribution of British fleas | url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/british-flea-distribution/database/Searchpage.do?species=&fleaname=&host=71&hostname=&county=&publication=&sortorder=| publisher= Natural History Museum | access-date = 25 April 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220959/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/research-curation/scientific-resources/biodiversity/uk-biodiversity/british-flea-distribution/database/Searchpage.do?species=&fleaname=&host=71&hostname=&county=&publication=&sortorder=| archive-date=2016-03-03}}</ref> and internal parasites include ''[Ascaridia galli](/source/Ascaridia_galli)''.<ref name= Atkinson>Atkinson et al. (2008) p. 401.</ref> The yellowhammer may carry [haematozoa](/source/haematozoa)n blood parasites such as ''[Haemoproteus coatneyi](/source/Haemoproteus_coatneyi)''. Males with high parasite levels produced fewer offspring (there is no such effect for females), and tend to be less brightly coloured. The striking plumage of the male may therefore have arisen as a signal of fitness to breed.<ref name= Sundberg>{{cite journal |last1= Sundberg |first1= Jan |year=1995 |title= Parasites, plumage coloration and reproductive success in the Yellowhammer, ''Emberiza citrinella'' | journal= Oikos | volume= 742| pages= 331–339 |doi=10.2307/3545664|jstor=3545664 |issue=2|bibcode= 1995Oikos..74..331S }}</ref> Yellowhammers infected with ''[Haemoproteus](/source/Haemoproteus)'' may have lower winter survival rates due to a tendency to having shorter wings.<ref name="dunn">{{cite journal |last1= Dunn |first1= Jenny C |last2= Goodman |first2= Simon J |last3= Benton |first3= Tim G |last4= Hamer |first4= Keith C |year=2013 |title= Avian blood parasite infection during the non-breeding season: an overlooked issue in declining populations? | journal= BMC Ecology | volume= 13| pages=1–9 | url= |doi=10.1186/1472-6785-13-30|pmid= 24011390 |pmc= 3848531 |issue=30 |doi-access= free |bibcode= 2013BMCE...13...30D }}</ref>

==Status and conservation==
The [International Union for Conservation of Nature](/source/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature) estimates the European population of the yellowhammer to be from 54–93&nbsp;million individuals, suggesting a Eurasian total of 73–186&nbsp;million birds. Although the population appears to be in a decline, the decrease is not rapid enough to trigger their vulnerability criteria. The large numbers and huge breeding range of about 12.9&nbsp;million km<sup>2</sup> (5&nbsp;million sq mi),<ref name=BirdLife>{{cite web |title = BirdLife International Species factsheet: Yellowhammer ''Emberiza citrinella '' |publisher = BirdLife International |access-date = 24 April 2014 |url = http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=8930 |archive-date = 27 March 2014 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140327040801/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=8930 |url-status = live }}</ref> mean that this bunting is classified by the IUCN as being of [least concern](/source/least_concern).<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" />

Populations have declined in recent decades in western Europe, including the British Isles, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, and Italy.<ref name=hbwonline/> The yellowhammer is a red-list (severely declining) species in Ireland and the UK.<ref name = bto/><ref name=kingston>{{cite web | author=Kingston, N | title=Checklist of protected & rare species in Ireland | url=http://www.npws.ie/media/npwsie/content/files/publications/Listed_species_checklist_Dec12.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428003240/http://www.npws.ie/media/npwsie/content/files/publications/Listed_species_checklist_Dec12.pdf | archive-date=28 April 2014 | publisher=National Parks & Wildlife Service | access-date=27 April 2014 }}</ref> In 2016 the species went extinct on the [Isle of Man](/source/Isle_of_Man).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bellamy |first=David |date=2022 |title=Extinct: the Loss of the Yellowhammer ''Emberiza citrinella'' in the Isle of Man |journal=Peregrine |location=Isle of Man |publisher=Manx Ornithological Society |publication-place=Douglas |volume=13 |pages=190–211}}</ref> In eastern Europe, numbers appear to be stable, although the trend in Russia is unknown. Changes to agricultural practices are thought to be responsible for reduced breeding densities.<ref name=hbwonline/> The introduced population in New Zealand has been very successful, with breeding densities much higher than in the UK.<ref name=Lever/><ref name= prins>Komdeur, Jan; Hammers, Martin "Failed introductions: finches from outside Australia" in Prins & Gordon (2014) p. 330.</ref>

==In culture==
[[File:John Clare.jpg|thumb|upright|[John Clare](/source/John_Clare) wrote two poems about the yellowhammer.]]
The yellowhammer is a conspicuous, vocal, and formerly common country bird, and has attracted human interest. Yellowham Wood and Yellowham Hill, near [Dorchester](/source/Dorchester%2C_Dorset) England, both derive their names from the bird. [Robbie Burns'](/source/Robert_Burns) poem "The Yellow, Yellow Yorlin'" gets its title from a Scottish name for the yellowhammer, which is given an obvious sexual connotation: "I met a pretty maid, an' unto her I said,/ 'I wad fain fin' your yellow, yellow yorlin'.' "<ref name= Cocker>Cocker & Mabey (2005) pp. 460–461.</ref> More factual descriptions of the bird and its behaviour can be found in John Clare's "The Yellowhammer's Nest" and "The Yellowhammer", whose final lines read:<ref name= Clare>Clare (1835) [https://archive.org/stream/ruralmusepoems00claruoft#page/79/mode/1up p. 79.]</ref><ref name= Haughton>Haughton et al. (1994) p. 139.</ref>
<blockquote><poem>
In early spring, when winds blow chilly cold,
The yellowhammer, trailing grass, will come
To fix a place and choose an early home,
With yellow breast and head of solid gold.
</poem></blockquote>

Enid Blyton helped to popularize the bird's song as "little bit of bread and no cheese" in books such as ''The Ship of Adventure'' and ''[Five Go Off in a Caravan](/source/Five_Go_Off_in_a_Caravan)'', and wrote a poem called "The Yellow-hammer".<ref name= bto/><ref name= Blyton>Blyton (2008) p. 164.</ref>
{{listen
 | filename = Beethoven concerto4 1.ogg
 | title = Piano Concerto 4, 1st movement
 | description = Piano Concerto No. 4 in G major, 1st movement
 | format = [Ogg](/source/Ogg)
}}
Beethoven's student, [Carl Czerny](/source/Carl_Czerny), and biographer [Anton Schindler](/source/Anton_Schindler), both suggested that the composer got the idea for the first four notes of [his 5th symphony](/source/Symphony_No._5_(Beethoven)) from the yellowhammer's call, although  more likely the opening of the [4th Piano Concerto](/source/Piano_Concerto_No._4_(Beethoven)) was actually the work in question.<ref name=bowden>{{cite journal|title=The theming magpie: the influence of birdsong on Beethoven motifs|last=Bowden|first=Sylvia|periodical=[The Musical Times](/source/The_Musical_Times) |volume=149 |issue=1903| pages=17–35 |year=2008|doi=10.2307/25434536|jstor=25434536|publisher = Musical Times Publications Ltd.}}</ref><ref name= Thayer>Thayer (1991) p. 437.</ref> Beethoven also used the yellowhammer theme in two [piano sonatas](/source/piano_sonatas_(Beethoven)), [no. 21 in C major](/source/Piano_Sonata_No._21_(Beethoven)) (the "Waldstein", Op.53) and [No. 23 in F minor](/source/Piano_Sonata_No._23_(Beethoven)) (the "Appassionata", Op.57).<ref name=bowden/>

[Olivier Messiaen](/source/Olivier_Messiaen) often used birdsong as an inspiration for his music, and the yellowhammer features in ''[Chronochromie](/source/Chronochromie)'',<ref name= Dingle1>Dingle & Fallon (2013) pp. 155–158.</ref> ''[Catalogue d'oiseaux](/source/Catalogue_d'oiseaux)'',<ref name= shenton>Shenton (2008) pp. 61–63.</ref> ''[La fauvette des jardins](/source/La_fauvette_des_jardins)'' and ''[Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité](/source/M%C3%A9ditations_sur_le_myst%C3%A8re_de_la_Sainte_Trinit%C3%A9)'',<ref name= Bruhn>Bruhn (2008) p. 144.</ref><ref name= Dingle2 >Dingle & Fallon (2013) pp. 170–171.</ref> appearing in four movements of the last piece.<ref name= shenton/>

An old legend links the yellowhammer to the devil. Its tongue was supposed to bear a drop of his blood, and the intricate pattern on the eggs was said to carry a concealed, possibly evil, message; these satanic associations sometimes led to the persecution of the bird. The unusual appearance of the eggs also led to the alternative names of '''scribble lark''' or '''scribble jack'''.<ref name= Cocker/><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Opie |first1=Iona Archibald |url=http://archive.org/details/lorelanguageof00opie |title=The lore and language of schoolchildren |last2=Opie |first2=Peter |date=1987 |publisher=Oxford [Oxfordshire] ; New York : Oxford University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-282059-4}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Cited texts==
* {{cite book |last1= Atkinson |first1= Carter T |last2= Thomas |first2=Nancy J |last3=Hunter |first3=D Bruce |year=2008 |title= Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds | publisher= Wiley-Blackwell | location= London |isbn=978-0-8138-2081-1}}
* {{cite book |last1= Blyton |first1= Enid |year=2008 |orig-date=1944 |title= Enid Blyton's Nature Lover's Book| publisher= Evans Brothers | location= Chicago |isbn=978-0-237-53568-1| author-link=Enid Blyton}}
* {{cite book |last1= Bruhn |first1= Siglind |year=2008 |title= Messiaen's Interpretations of Holiness and Trinity: Echoes of Medieval Theology in the Oratorio, Organ Meditations, and Opera | publisher= Pendragon Press | location= Hillsdale, New York | isbn = 978-1-57647-139-5}}
* {{cite book |last1= Clare |first1= John| author-link=John Clare |year= 1835|title= The Rural Muse | publisher= Whittaker & Co | location= London | url =https://archive.org/details/ruralmusepoems00claruoft }}
* {{cite book | last1 = Cocker | first1 = Mark | author1-link=Mark Cocker |last2=Mabey |first2=Richard  |title = Birds Britannica | year = 2005 |location = London | publisher = Chatto & Windus | isbn = 978-0-7011-6907-7}}
* {{cite book |last1= Dingle |first1= Christopher |last2= Fallon |first2= Robert |year= 2013|title= Messiaen Perspectives 2: Techniques, Influence and Reception | publisher= Ashgate | location= Farnham, Surrey |isbn=978-1-4724-1518-9 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1= Haughton |editor-first1= Hugh |editor-last2= Phillips |editor-first2= Adam |editor-last3= Summerfield |editor-first3 =Geoffrey |year= 1994|title= John Clare in Context | publisher= Cambridge University Press | location= Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-44547-4}}
* {{cite book |last1= Jedrzejewska |first1= Bogumila |last2= Jedrzejewski |first2= Wlodzimierz |year=1998 |title= Predation in Vertebrate Communities: The Bialowieza Primeval Forest as a Case Study | publisher= Springer | location= Berlin |isbn=978-3-540-64138-4}}
* {{cite book | last= Jobling | first= James A | year= 2010| title= The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | url= https://archive.org/details/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling | publisher = Christopher Helm | location = London | isbn = 978-1-4081-2501-4 }}
* {{cite book |last1= Lever |first1= Christopher |year=2005 |title= Naturalised Birds of the World (Poyser Monographs) | publisher= Poyser | location=London |isbn=978-1-4081-2825-1}}
* {{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae | year=1758 | language=la | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#/summary | archive-date=10 October 2008 | access-date=13 January 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010032456/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/542#/summary | url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last= Oliver |first=Walter Reginald Brook |year=1955 |title= New Zealand Birds| publisher= A H & A W Reed | location= Auckland |oclc=1575647}}
* {{cite book |last1= Olsson |first1=Urban|last2= Curson |first2= Jon |last3= Byers |first3 = Clive |year= 1995|title= Buntings and Sparrows A Guide to the Buntings and North American Sparrows | publisher= Pica Press | location= Robertsbridge, East Sussex|isbn= 978-1-873403-19-8}}
* {{cite book |last1= Porter |first1= Richard |last2= Aspinall |first2= Simon |year=2011 |title= Birds of the United Arab Emirates | publisher= Christopher Helm | location= London|isbn=978-1-4081-5257-7}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1= Prins |editor-first1= Herbert H T |editor-last2= Gordon |editor-first2= Iain J |year=2014 |title= Invasion Biology and Ecological Theory: Insights from a Continent in Transformation | publisher= Cambridge University Press | location= Cambridge |isbn=978-1-107-03581-2}}
* {{cite book|last1=Rasmussen |first1=Pamela C | author-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen|last2=Anderton| first2=John | year=2005|title=Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide| volume =2 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions |place=Washington, D C & Barcelona }}
* {{cite book |last1= Shenton |first1= Andrew |year=2008 |title= Olivier Messiaen's System of Signs: Notes Towards Understanding His Music | publisher= Ashgate | location= Farnham, Surrey |isbn=978-0-7546-6168-9}}
* {{cite book | editor1-last= Snow | editor1-first= David | editor1-link=David Snow (ornithologist) | editor2-last= Perrins | editor2-first= Christopher M | editor2-link=Chris Perrins | title = The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition (2 volumes) | publisher = Oxford University Press |year = 1998| location =Oxford | isbn = 978-0-19-854099-1}}
*{{cite book |editor-last1= Thayer |editor-first1= Alexander Wheelock|editor-last2=Forbes|editor-first2=Elliot |year=1991 |title= Thayer's Life of Beethoven | publisher= Princeton University Press | volume=1 | location= Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-691-02717-3}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20141202063110/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/444_YellowhammerEcitrinella.pdf Ageing and sexing by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze]
*[http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Emberiza_citrinella/Emberiza_citrinella.htm Feather images at Ornithos] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140314235219/http://www.ornithos.de/Ornithos/Feather_Collection/Emberiza_citrinella/Emberiza_citrinella.htm |date=14 March 2014 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060814124420/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/birds/Emberiza_citrinella/ Images and videos at Arkive]
*[http://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Emberiza-citrinella Song at Xeno-canto] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140508111131/http://www.xeno-canto.org/species/Emberiza-citrinella |date=8 May 2014 }}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/334/431.html "The Yellow, Yellow Yorlin'"] by Robert Burns
*[http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/the-yellowhammer/ "The Yellowhammer"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140727024739/http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/the-yellowhammer/ |date=27 July 2014 }} by John Clare
*[http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/179904 "The Yellowhammer's Nest"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710144834/http://www.poetryfoundation.org/poem/179904 |date=10 July 2014 }} by John Clare

{{taxonbar|from=Q26205}}
{{Authority control}}

Category:Emberiza
Category:Birds of Europe
Category:Birds of Russia
Category:Birds of New Zealand
Category:Birds described in 1758
Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Yellowhammer](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowhammer) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowhammer?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.