# Woman

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Female adult human

For other uses, see [Woman (disambiguation)](/source/Woman_(disambiguation)).

"Women" and "Womanhood" redirect here. For other uses, see [Women (disambiguation)](/source/Women_(disambiguation)) and [Womanhood (disambiguation)](/source/Womanhood_(disambiguation)).

A woman

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A **woman** is an adult female human.[a][2][3] Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a [girl](/source/Girl).[4]

Typically, women inherit a pair of [X chromosomes](/source/X_chromosome), one from each parent. [Sex differentiation](/source/Sex_differentiation) of the female [foetus](/source/Fetus) is governed by the lack of a present functioning *[SRY](/source/SRY)* gene on either one of the respective sex chromosomes.[5] [Female anatomy](/source/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology) is distinguished from male anatomy by the [female reproductive system](/source/Female_reproductive_system), which includes the [ovaries](/source/Ovaries), [fallopian tubes](/source/Fallopian_tube), [uterus](/source/Uterus), [vagina](/source/Vagina), and [vulva](/source/Vulva). A woman generally has a wider [pelvis](/source/Pelvis), broader [hips](/source/Hip), and larger [breasts](/source/Breasts) than a man. These characteristics can facilitate pregnancy, [childbirth](/source/Childbirth) and [breastfeeding](/source/Breastfeeding). Women typically have less facial and other [body hair](/source/Body_hair), have a higher [body fat](/source/Body_fat) composition, and are on average shorter and less muscular than men. Women are at greater risk of certain diseases like breast cancer, and at lower risk of other diseases like lung cancer.

[Transgender women](/source/Transgender_women) were [assigned male at birth](/source/Sex_assignment).[6][7] Some women are [intersex](/source/Intersex), meaning they have unusual sex characteristics (chromosomes, genitalia or internal sex organs), such as [trisomy X](/source/Trisomy_X) or [vaginal atresia](/source/Vaginal_atresia).[8][9]

Throughout human history, [patriarchal](/source/Patriarchal_society) [gender roles](/source/Gender_role) have often limited women's opportunities. With restrictions loosening during the 20th century in many societies, women have gained wider access to [careers](/source/Career) and education. [Violence against women](/source/Violence_against_women) is primarily committed by men. In some countries, some women are denied [reproductive rights](/source/Reproductive_rights) and denied [women's rights](/source/Women's_rights). Many religions and governments stipulate certain rules for women. [Feminist](/source/Feminism) movements aim to achieve [gender equality](/source/Gender_equality).

## Etymology

See also: [Man (word)](/source/Man_(word))

The spelling of *woman* in English has progressed over the past millennium from *wīfmann*[10] to *wīmmann* to *wumman*, and finally, the modern spelling *woman*.[11] In [Old English](/source/Old_English), *mann* had the gender-neutral meaning of 'human', akin to the Modern 'person' or 'someone'. The word for 'woman' was *wīf* or *wīfmann* (lit. 'woman-person') whereas 'man' was *wer* or *wǣpnedmann* (from *wǣpn* 'weapon; penis'). However, following the [Norman Conquest](/source/Norman_Conquest), *man* began to mean 'male human', and by the late 13th century it had largely replaced *wer*.[12] The consonants /f/ and /m/ in *wīfmann* [coalesced](/source/Coalescence_(linguistics)) into the modern *woman*, while *wīf* [narrowed](/source/Narrowing_(historical_linguistics)) to specifically mean a married woman ('wife').[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

It is a [popular misconception](/source/Folk_etymology) that the term "woman" is [etymologically](/source/Etymologically) connected to "womb".[13] "Womb" derives from the Old English word *wamb* meaning 'belly, uterus'[14] (cognate to the modern German colloquial term "*Wamme*" from Old High German *wamba* for 'belly, paunch, lap').[15][16]

## Terminology

Further information: [girl](/source/Girl), [mother](/source/Mother), [wife](/source/Wife), [daughter](/source/Daughter), and [lady](/source/Lady)

"Young Woman" redirects here. For the painting by Isabel Bishop, see [Young Woman (painting)](/source/Young_Woman_(painting)).

Three generations: grandmother, daughter, and granddaughter

The word *woman* can be used generally, to mean any female human, or specifically, to mean an adult female human as contrasted with *girl*. The word *girl* originally meant "young person of either sex" in English;[17] it was only around the beginning of the 16th century that it came to mean specifically a *female* child.[18] The term *girl* is sometimes used colloquially to refer to a young or unmarried woman; however, during the early 1970s, feminists challenged such use because the use of the word to refer to a fully grown woman may cause offence. In particular, previously common terms such as *office girl* are no longer widely used. Conversely, in certain cultures which link family honour with female [virginity](/source/Virginity), the word *girl* (or its equivalent in other languages) is still used to refer to a never-married woman; in this sense it is used in a fashion roughly analogous to the more-or-less obsolete English *maid* or *maiden*.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The social sciences' views on what it means to be a woman have changed significantly since the early 20th century as women gained more rights and greater representation in the workforce, with scholarship in the 1970s moving toward a focus on the [sex–gender distinction](/source/Sex%E2%80%93gender_distinction) and [social construction of gender](/source/Social_construction_of_gender).[19][20]

Different countries have different laws, but age 18 is frequently considered the [age of majority](/source/Age_of_majority) (the age at which a person is legally considered an [adult](/source/Adult)).[21] Menarche, the onset of [menstruation](/source/Menstruation), occurs on average at age 12–13. Many cultures have [rites of passage](/source/Rites_of_passage) to symbolise a girl's [coming of age](/source/Coming_of_age), such as [bat mitzvah](/source/Bat_mitzvah) in [Judaism](/source/Judaism), or a custom of a special celebration for a certain birthday (generally between 12 and 21), like the [quinceañera](/source/Quincea%C3%B1era) of Latin America.

[Alternative spellings of woman](/source/Alternative_spellings_of_woman), such as *womyn* and *wimmin*, have been used in feminist contexts, especially since the 1970s.[22]

## Biology

Photograph of an adult female human, with an adult male for comparison. The [pubic hair](/source/Pubic_hair) of both models is removed.

Main article: [Sex differences in humans](/source/Sex_differences_in_humans)

### Genetic characteristics

Main article: [Sexual differentiation in humans](/source/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans)

[Spectral karyotype](/source/Spectral_karyotype) of a human female

Typically, the cells of female humans contain two X chromosomes, while the cells of male humans have an X and a Y chromosome.[23] During [early foetal development](/source/Human_fertilization), all embryos have phenotypically female genitalia up until week 6 or 7, when a male embryo's gonads differentiate into testes due to the action of the [*SRY* gene](/source/SRY_gene) on the Y chromosome.[24] [Sex differentiation](/source/Sex_differentiation) proceeds in female humans in a way that is independent of gonadal hormones.[24] Because humans inherit [mitochondrial DNA](/source/Mitochondrial_DNA) only from the mother's ovum, [genealogical](/source/Genetic_genealogy) researchers can trace [maternal lineage](/source/Matrilineality) far back in time.[25]

### Puberty, menstruation and menopause

Main articles: [Menstrual cycle](/source/Menstrual_cycle), [Menstruation](/source/Menstruation), and [Menopause](/source/Menopause)

[Female puberty](/source/Female_puberty) triggers many bodily changes. In response to chemical signals from the [pituitary gland](/source/Pituitary_gland), the [ovaries](/source/Ovaries) secrete hormones that stimulate maturation of the body, including increased height and weight, body hair growth, breast development and [menarche](/source/Menarche) (the onset of menstruation).[26] Most girls go through [menarche](/source/Menarche) between ages 12–13.[27][28]

Menstruation is a monthly hormonal cycle that involves the shedding of the [lining of the uterus](/source/Endometrium). Blood and tissue exit through the vagina. Menstrual cycles may be irregular at first, and usually become more regular by a woman's 20s.[29] Most women are able to perform all their daily activities during menstruation,[30] though some women experience symptoms ranging from uncomfortable to disabling[31] or are prohibited from regular activity by strong social stigma.[32]

A pregnant woman

The changes of puberty typically enable [sexual reproduction](/source/Sexual_reproduction). Pregnancy generally requires [fertilisation](/source/Insemination) of a woman's egg cells with a man's [sperm cells](/source/Spermatozoon). Humans are similar to other large mammals in that they usually give birth to a single offspring per pregnancy, but are unusual in being [altricial](/source/Precociality_and_altriciality), meaning young are undeveloped at time of birth and require the aid of their parents or guardians to fully mature.[33] Sometimes humans have [multiple births](/source/Multiple_birth), most commonly twins.[34]

Usually between ages 49–52, a woman reaches [menopause](/source/Menopause), the time when menstrual periods stop permanently, and they are no longer able to bear children.[35][36][37] Symptoms of menopause include hot flashes, night sweats, headaches, and more; both lifestyle changes and medications can help to mitigate these symptoms.[38]

### Morphological and physiological characteristics

The [human female reproductive system](/source/Human_female_reproductive_system)

Main articles: [Sex differences in human physiology](/source/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology) and [Female body shape](/source/Female_body_shape)

In terms of [biology](/source/Biology), the female [sex organs](/source/Sex_organ) are involved in the reproductive system, whereas the [secondary sex characteristics](/source/Secondary_sex_characteristic) are involved in [breastfeeding](/source/Breastfeeding) children and attracting a mate.[39] Humans are [placental mammals](/source/Placental_mammals), which means the mother carries the foetus in the uterus and the placenta facilitates the exchange of nutrients and waste between the mother and foetus.[40][41]

The internal female sex organs consist of:[42]

- the [ovaries](/source/Ovaries), gonads that produce female gametes called [ova](/source/Ovum),

- the [fallopian tubes](/source/Fallopian_tube), tubular structures that transport the egg cells,

- the [uterus](/source/Uterus), an organ with tissue to protect and nurture the developing foetus and its [cervix](/source/Cervix) to expel it,

- the accessory glands ([Bartholin's](/source/Bartholin's_gland) and [Skene's](/source/Skene's_gland)), two pairs of glands that help [lubricate](/source/Vaginal_lubrication) during intercourse, and

- the [vagina](/source/Vagina), an organ used in copulating and birthing.

The [vulva](/source/Vulva) (external female genitalia)[43] consists of the [clitoris](/source/Clitoris), [labia majora](/source/Labia_majora), [labia minora](/source/Labia_minora) and [vestibule](/source/Vulval_vestibule). The vestibule is where the vaginal and urethral openings are located.

The [mammary glands](/source/Mammary_gland) are hypothesised to have evolved from apocrine-like glands to produce milk, a nutritious secretion that is the most distinctive characteristic of mammals, along with live birth.[44] In mature women, the [breast](/source/Breast) is generally more prominent than in most other mammals; this prominence, not necessary for milk production, is thought to be at least partially the result of [sexual selection](/source/Sexual_selection).[39]

[Oestrogens](/source/Estrogens), which are primary female sex hormones, have a significant impact on a female's body shape. They are produced in both men and women, but their levels are significantly higher in women, especially in those of reproductive age. Besides other functions, oestrogens promote the development of female [secondary sexual characteristics](/source/Secondary_sexual_characteristic), such as breasts and [hips](/source/Hip).[45][46][47] As a result of oestrogens, during [puberty](/source/Puberty), girls develop breasts and their hips widen. Working against oestrogen, the presence of [testosterone](/source/Testosterone) in a pubescent female inhibits breast development and promotes muscle and facial hair development.[48]

### Circulatory system

Women have lower [haematocrit](/source/Hematocrit) (the volume percentage of [red blood cells](/source/Red_blood_cell) in blood) than men; this is due to lower testosterone, which stimulates the production of [erythropoietin](/source/Erythropoietin) by the kidney. The normal haematocrit level for a woman is 36% to 48% (for men, 41% to 50%). The normal level of [haemoglobin](/source/Hemoglobin) (an oxygen-transport [protein](/source/Protein) found in red blood cells) for women is 12.0 to 15.5 g/dL (for men, 13.5 to 17.5 g/dL).[49][50][51]

Women's [hearts](/source/Heart) have finer-grained textures in the muscle compared to men's hearts, and the [heart muscle](/source/Cardiac_muscle)'s overall shape and surface area also differs to men's when controlling for body size and age.[52][53] In addition, women's hearts age more slowly compared to men's hearts.[54]

### Sex distribution

Main article: [Human sex ratio](/source/Human_sex_ratio)

Girls are born slightly less frequently than boys (the ratio is around 1:1.05). Out of the total human population in 2015, there were 1018 men for every 1000 women.[55] Historically, male children tended to be preferred over female children, which led to [exposure](/source/Exposure_(infant)) being commonplace.[56] [Female infanticide](/source/Female_infanticide) is less acceptable in contemporary times but still occurs.[57]

### Intersex women

Main article: [Intersex](/source/Intersex)

[Intersex](/source/Intersex) women have an intersex condition, [usually defined](/source/Definitions_of_intersex) as those born with ambiguous genitalia, atypical chromosomes, or atypical gonads.[58][59] Most individuals with ambiguous genitalia [are assigned](/source/Definitions_of_intersex#Assigned_sex) female at birth, and most intersex women are [cisgender](/source/Cisgender).[60][61] The medical practices to assign [binary](/source/Gender_binary) female to intersex youth is often [controversial](/source/Intersex_human_rights).[62]

Some intersex conditions are associated with typical rates of female [gender identity](/source/Gender_identity), while others are associated with substantially higher rates of gender transition compared to the general population.[63][64] For example, women with CAIS showed no psychological differences from non-intersex women, including in gender identity or orientation.[65] Women with other intersex conditions, such as 5alpha-RD-2 or 17beta-HSD-3, showed increased rates of gender transition to live as men.[66]

## Sexual orientation

Most women are [heterosexual](/source/Heterosexual). Fewer than 5% of adults are primarily attracted to the same sex. Women who are primarily attracted to other women may be [lesbian](/source/Lesbian) or [bisexual](/source/Bisexual).[67]

## Gender

Further information: [Gender roles](/source/Gender_roles) and [Trans woman](/source/Trans_woman)

*[The Birth of Venus](/source/The_Birth_of_Venus_(Botticelli))* (1486, [Uffizi](/source/Uffizi)) is a classic representation of femininity by [Sandro Botticelli](/source/Sandro_Botticelli).[68][69]  [Venus](/source/Venus_(mythology)) was a [Roman](/source/Roman_mythology) [goddess](/source/Goddess) associated with love, beauty and [fertility](/source/Sexual_reproduction).

Most cultures use a [gender binary](/source/Gender_binary) by which women are of one of two genders, the others being men; other cultures have a [third gender](/source/Third_gender).[70][71][72] *[Femininity](/source/Femininity)* (also called *womanliness* or *girlishness*) is a set of attributes, behaviours, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Different people have held femininity to be socially constructed,[73] biologically influenced,[73][74][75][76] or on some point in the spectrum between "nature" and "nurture".[75][74][76] It is distinct from the definition of the biological female sex,[77][78] as both men and women can exhibit feminine traits.

Most women are [cisgender](/source/Cisgender), meaning their [female sex assignment at birth](/source/Assigned_female_at_birth) corresponds with their female [gender identity](/source/Gender_identity). Some women are [transgender](/source/Transgender), meaning they were [assigned male at birth](/source/Assigned_male_at_birth).[7] [Trans women](/source/Trans_woman) may experience [gender dysphoria](/source/Gender_dysphoria), the distress brought upon by the discrepancy between a person's gender identity and their sex assigned at birth.[79] Gender dysphoria may be treated with [gender-affirming care](/source/Transgender_health_care), which may include social or medical [transition](/source/Gender_transition). Social transition may involve changes such as [adopting a new name](/source/Name_change), [hairstyle](/source/Hairstyle#Gender), [clothing](/source/Clothing#Gender_differentiation), and [pronoun](/source/Preferred_gender_pronoun) associated with the individual's affirmed female gender identity.[80] A major component of medical transition for trans women is [feminising hormone therapy](/source/Feminizing_hormone_therapy), which causes the development of female [secondary sex characteristics](/source/Secondary_sex_characteristic) (such as [breasts](/source/Breast), redistribution of body fat, and lower [waist–hip ratio](/source/Waist%E2%80%93hip_ratio)). Medical transition may also involve [gender-affirming surgery](/source/Gender-affirming_surgery), and a trans woman may undergo one or more feminising procedures which result in anatomy that is typically gendered female.[81][82]

## Health

Further information: [Women's health](/source/Women's_health) and [Reproductive health](/source/Reproductive_health)

Factors that specifically affect the health of women in comparison with [men](/source/Men's_health) are most evident in those related to [reproduction](/source/Reproductive_health), but [sex differences](/source/Sex_differences_in_medicine) have been identified from the molecular to the behavioural scale. Some of these differences are subtle and difficult to explain, partly due to the fact that it is difficult to separate the health effects of inherent biological factors from the effects of the surrounding environment they exist in. [Sex chromosomes](/source/Sex_chromosomes) and hormones, as well as sex-specific lifestyles, metabolism, immune system function, and sensitivity to environmental factors are believed to contribute to sex differences in health at the levels of physiology, perception, and cognition. Women can have distinct responses to drugs and thresholds for diagnostic parameters.[83][*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

The medical practice dealing with female reproduction and reproductive organs is called [gynaecology](/source/Gynaecology) (etymologically, "science of women").[84][85]

### Disease Risk

Women have higher rates of some diseases, such as osteoporosis, auto-immune diseases, Alzheimer's,[86] and breast cancer.[87]

Women have lower rates of other diseases, such as lung cancer, Parkinson's, chronic liver disease,[86] hypertension, diabetes, and HIV/AIDS.[88][89]

Some female-specific diseases include [endometriosis](/source/Endometriosis).[90] PCOS,[91] and gynecologic cancers such as uterine or cervical cancer.[92]

### Maternal mortality

Main article: [Maternal mortality](/source/Maternal_mortality)

[Maternal mortality](/source/Maternal_mortality) or maternal death is defined by WHO as "the death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the duration and site of the pregnancy, from any cause related to or aggravated by the pregnancy or its management but not from accidental or incidental causes."[93]

Between 2000 and 2023, the rate of maternal mortality dropped by 40% worldwide. In 2023, around 260,000 women died from complications of pregnancy, delivery, or abortion. Over 90% of maternal mortality deaths occurred in low-income or lower-middle income countries, with sub-Saharan African and South Asian women accounting for 87% of the deaths. Most of these deaths were preventable. Maternal mortality can be reduced by ensuring pregnant women have adequate healthcare access, administering medications for [preeclampsia](/source/Preeclampsia) and haemorrhage, and using good sanitation practices during delivery.[94]

### Life expectancy

Main article: [Life expectancy § Sex differences](/source/Life_expectancy#Sex_differences)

Pink: Countries where female life expectancy at birth is higher than males. Blue: A few countries in southern Africa where females have shorter lives due to AIDS.[95]

The [life expectancy](/source/Life_expectancy) for women is generally longer than men's. This advantage begins from birth, with newborn girls more likely to survive the first year than boys. Worldwide, women live six to eight years longer than men.[96] However, this varies by place and situation. For example, [discrimination against women](/source/Discrimination_against_women) has lowered female life expectancy in some parts of Asia so that men there live longer than women.[96]

The difference in life expectancy are believed to be partly due to biological advantages and partly due to gendered behavioural differences between men and women.[96][97] On average, women are less likely to engage in unhealthy behaviours like smoking and alcohol use, and consequently have fewer [preventable premature deaths](/source/Preventable_causes_of_death) from such causes.[96]

In some developed countries, the life expectancy is evening out. This is believed to caused both by worse health behaviours among women, especially an increased rate of [smoking tobacco by women](/source/Women_and_smoking), and improved health among men, such as less [cardiovascular disease](/source/Cardiovascular_disease).[96] The [World Health Organization](/source/World_Health_Organization) (WHO) writes that it is "the extra years of life for women are not always lived in good health."[96]

The fact that humans live a significant amount past reproductive age is unusual for mammals.[98] Many elderly women contribute to the care of grandchildren and other family members,[99] and many biologists believe that the extended human lifespan is evolutionarily driven by [kin selection](/source/Kin_selection), though other theories have also been proposed.[100][101][102][103]

### Reproductive rights

Main article: [Reproductive rights](/source/Reproductive_rights)

A poster from a 1921 [eugenics](/source/Eugenics) conference displays the U.S. states that had implemented sterilisation legislation.

[Reproductive rights](/source/Reproductive_rights) are [legal rights](/source/Legal_right) and freedoms relating to [reproduction](/source/Human_reproduction) and [reproductive health](/source/Reproductive_health). The [International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics](/source/International_Federation_of_Gynecology_and_Obstetrics) has stated that:[104]

- ... the human rights of women include their right to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters related to their sexuality, including sexual and reproductive health, free of coercion, discrimination and violence. Equal relationships between women and men in matters of sexual relations and reproduction, including full respect for the integrity of the person, require mutual respect, consent and shared responsibility for sexual behavior and its consequences.

The World Health Organization reports that based on data from 2010 to 2014, 56 million induced abortions occurred worldwide each year (25% of all pregnancies). Of those, about 25 million were considered as [unsafe](/source/Unsafe_abortions). The WHO reports that in developed regions about 30 women die for every 100,000 unsafe abortions and that number rises to 220 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in developing regions and 520 deaths per 100,000 unsafe abortions in sub-Saharan Africa. The WHO ascribes these deaths to:

- restrictive laws

- poor availability of services

- high cost

- stigma

- conscientious objection of health-care providers

- unnecessary requirements, such as mandatory waiting periods, mandatory counselling, provision of misleading information, third-party authorisation, and medically unnecessary tests that delay care.[105]

## History

The earliest women whose names are known include:

- [Neithhotep](/source/Neithhotep) (c. 3200 BCE), the wife of [Narmer](/source/Narmer) and the first queen of ancient Egypt.[106][107]

- [Merneith](/source/Merneith) (c. 3000 BCE), [consort](/source/Queen_consort) and regent of ancient Egypt during the [first dynasty](/source/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt). She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right.[108][109]

- [Peseshet](/source/Peseshet) (c. 2600 BCE), a physician in [Ancient Egypt](/source/Ancient_Egypt).[110][111]

- [Puabi](/source/Puabi) (c. 2600 BCE), or Shubad – queen of [Ur](/source/Ur) whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artefacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur (royal wives) include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, and Gansamannu.[112]

- [Kugbau](/source/Kubaba) (c. 2500 BCE), a taverness from [Kish](/source/Kish_(Sumer)) chosen by the [Nippur](/source/Nippur) priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of [Sumer](/source/Sumer), and in later ages deified as "Kubaba".

- [Tashlultum](/source/Tashlultum) (c. 2400 BCE), [Akkadian](/source/Akkadian_Empire) queen, wife of [Sargon of Akkad](/source/Sargon_of_Akkad) and mother of Enheduanna.[113][114]

- [Baranamtarra](/source/Baranamtarra) (c. 2384 BCE), prominent and influential queen of [Lugalanda](/source/Lugalanda) of [Lagash](/source/Lagash). Other known pre-Sargonic queens of the first Lagash dynasty include Menbara-abzu, Ashume'eren, Ninkhilisug, Dimtur, and Shagshag, and the names of several princesses are also known.

- [Enheduanna](/source/Enheduanna) (c. 2285 BCE),[115][116] the [high priestess](/source/Ordination_of_women#Sumer_and_Akkad) of the temple of the [Moon God](/source/Sin_(mythology)) in the [Sumerian](/source/Sumer) city-state of [Ur](/source/Ur) and possibly the first known poet and first named author of either gender.[117]

- [Shibtu](/source/Shibtu) (c. 1775 BCE), king [Zimrilim](/source/Zimrilim)'s consort and queen of the Syrian city-state of [Mari](/source/Mari%2C_Syria). During her husband's absence, she ruled as regent of Mari and enjoyed extensive administrative powers as queen.[118]

The glyph (♀) for the [planet](/source/Venus) and Roman goddess [Venus](/source/Venus_(mythology)), or [Aphrodite](/source/Aphrodite) in Greek, is the [symbol](/source/Gender_symbol) used to represent the female sex.[119][120][121] In ancient alchemy, the Venus symbol stood for copper and was associated with [femininity](/source/Femininity).[121]

## Culture and gender roles

Main article: [Gender role](/source/Gender_role)

See also: [Women in the workforce](/source/Women_in_the_workforce) and [Women in the military](/source/Women_in_the_military)

An Egyptian Muslim woman who works as a men's hairdresser to "confront the customs and traditions of her society and conquer their criticism."

In recent history, gender roles have changed greatly. At some earlier points in history, children's occupational aspirations starting at a young age differed according to gender.[122] Traditionally, middle class women were involved in domestic tasks emphasising child care. For poorer women, economic necessity compelled them to seek employment outside the home even if individual poor women may have preferred domestic tasks. Many of the occupations that were available to them were lower in pay than those available to men.[123]

Two women U. S. Marines [patrolling](/source/Patrolling) in Afghanistan, 2010

As changes in the labour market for women came about, availability of employment changed from only "dirty", long hour factory jobs to "cleaner", more respectable office jobs where more education was demanded. Married women's participation in the U.S. labour force rose from 5.6–6% in 1900 to 23.8% in 1923.[124][125]

In the 1970s, many female academics, including scientists, avoided having children. Throughout the 1980s, institutions tried to equalise conditions for men and women in the workplace. Even so, the inequalities at home hampered women's opportunities: professional women were still generally considered responsible for domestic labour and child care, which limited the time and energy they could devote to their careers. Until the early 20th century, U.S. women's colleges required their women faculty members to remain single, on the grounds that a woman could not carry on two full-time professions at once. According to Schiebinger, "Being a scientist and a wife and a mother is a burden in society that expects women more often than men to put family ahead of career." (p. 93).[126]

Movements advocate [equality of opportunity](/source/Equality_of_opportunity) for both sexes and [equal rights](/source/Civil_rights) irrespective of gender. Through a combination of economic changes and the efforts of the [feminist movement](/source/Feminist_movement), in recent decades women in many societies have gained access to careers beyond the traditional [homemaker](/source/Homemaker). Despite these advances, modern women in Western society still face challenges in the workplace as well as with the topics of education, violence, health care, politics, and motherhood, and others. [Sexism](/source/Sexism) can be a main concern and barrier for women almost anywhere, though its forms, perception, and gravity vary between societies and social classes.

The [Gender Parity Index](/source/Gender_Parity_Index) in school enrolment varies by country.[127] The [gender gaps in mathematics and reading](/source/Gender_gaps_in_mathematics_and_reading) show girls tend to have higher reading skills. The [gender pay gap](/source/Gender_pay_gap) varies between countries and age groups.[128]

### Violence against women

Main article: [Violence against women](/source/Violence_against_women)

A campaign against [female genital mutilation](/source/Female_genital_mutilation) – a road sign near [Kapchorwa](/source/Kapchorwa), [Uganda](/source/Uganda)

The UN [Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women](/source/Declaration_on_the_Elimination_of_Violence_against_Women) defines "violence against women" as:[129]

...any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.

It identifies three forms of such violence: that which occurs *in the family*, that which occurs *within the general community*, and that which is perpetrated or condoned *by the State*. It also states that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations between men and women".[130]

Violence against women remains a widespread problem, fueled, especially outside the West, by patriarchal social values, lack of adequate laws, and lack of enforcement of existing laws. Social norms that exist in many parts of the world hinder progress towards protecting women from violence. For example, according to surveys by [UNICEF](/source/UNICEF), the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is as high as 90% in [Afghanistan](/source/Afghanistan) and [Jordan](/source/Jordan), 87% in [Mali](/source/Mali), 86% in [Guinea](/source/Guinea) and [Timor-Leste](/source/Timor-Leste), 81% in [Laos](/source/Laos), and 80% in the [Central African Republic](/source/Central_African_Republic).[131] A 2010 survey conducted by the [Pew Research Center](/source/Pew_Research_Center) found that [stoning](/source/Stoning) as a punishment for [adultery](/source/Adultery) was supported by 82% of respondents in [Egypt](/source/Egypt) and [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), 70% in [Jordan](/source/Jordan), 56% [Nigeria](/source/Nigeria), and 42% in [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia).[132]

Specific forms of violence that affect women include [female genital mutilation](/source/Female_genital_mutilation), [sex trafficking](/source/Sex_trafficking), [forced prostitution](/source/Forced_prostitution), [forced marriage](/source/Forced_marriage), rape, [sexual harassment](/source/Sexual_harassment), [honour killings](/source/Honor_killings), [acid throwing](/source/Acid_throwing), and [dowry related violence](/source/Dowry_death). Laws and policies on violence against women vary by jurisdiction. In the European Union, sexual harassment and human trafficking are subject to [directives](/source/Directive_(European_Union)).[133][134] Governments can be complicit in violence against women, such as when stoning is used as a legal punishment, mostly for women accused of adultery.[135]

There have also been many forms of violence against women which have been prevalent historically, notably the [burning of witches](/source/Witch-hunt), the sacrifice of [widows](/source/Widows) (such as [sati](/source/Sati_(practice))) and [foot binding](/source/Foot_binding). The prosecution of women accused of [witchcraft](/source/Witchcraft) has a long tradition; for example, during the early modern period (between the 15th and 18th centuries), [witch trials](/source/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period) were common in Europe and in the European colonies in North America. Today, there remain regions of the world (such as parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, rural North India, and Papua New Guinea) where belief in witchcraft is held by many people, and women accused of being witches are subjected to serious violence.[136][137][138] In addition, there are also countries which have criminal legislation against the practice of witchcraft. In [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia), witchcraft remains a crime [punishable by death](/source/Punishable_by_death), and in 2011 the country beheaded a woman for 'witchcraft and sorcery'.[139][140]

It is also the case that certain forms of violence against women have been recognised as criminal offences only during recent decades, and are not universally prohibited, in that many countries continue to allow them. This is especially the case with [marital rape](/source/Marital_rape).[141][142] In the Western World, there has been a trend towards ensuring [gender equality](/source/Gender_equality) within marriage and prosecuting [domestic violence](/source/Domestic_violence), but in many parts of the world women still lose significant legal rights when entering a marriage.[143]

Sexual violence against women greatly increases during times of war and [armed conflict](/source/Armed_conflict), during [military occupation](/source/Military_occupation), or [ethnic conflicts](/source/Ethnic_conflict); most often in the form of [war rape](/source/War_rape) and [sexual slavery](/source/Sexual_slavery). Contemporary examples of sexual violence during war include [rape during the Armenian genocide](/source/Rape_during_the_Armenian_genocide), [rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War](/source/Rape_during_the_Bangladesh_Liberation_War), [rape in the Bosnian War](/source/Rape_in_the_Bosnian_War), [rape during the Rwandan genocide](/source/Rape_during_the_Rwandan_genocide), and [rape during Second Congo War](/source/War_rape#Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo). In Colombia, the armed conflict has also resulted in increased sexual violence against women.[144] The most recent case was the [sexual jihad](/source/Sexual_jihad) done by [ISIL](/source/ISIL) where 5000–7000 Yazidi and Christian girls and children were sold into sexual slavery during the [genocide and rape of Yazidi and Christian women](/source/Sexual_violence_in_the_Iraqi_insurgency), some of whom jumped to their death from [Mount Sinjar](/source/Mount_Sinjar), as described in a witness statement.[145]

## Fertility and family life

Further information: [Mother](/source/Mother)

Map of countries by fertility rate (2020), according to the [Population Reference Bureau](/source/Population_Reference_Bureau)

Percentage of births to unmarried women, selected countries, 1980 and 2007[146]

The [total fertility rate](/source/Total_fertility_rate) (TFR) – the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime – differs significantly between different regions of the world. In 2016, the highest estimated TFR was in [Niger](/source/Niger) (6.62 children born per woman) and the lowest in Singapore (0.82 children/woman).[147] While most Sub-Saharan African countries have a high TFR, which creates problems due to lack of resources and contributes to [overpopulation](/source/Overpopulation), most Western countries currently experience a [sub replacement fertility rate](/source/Sub_replacement_fertility_rate) which may lead to [population ageing](/source/Population_ageing) and [population decline](/source/Population_decline).

In many parts of the world, there has been a change in family structure over the past few decades. For instance, in the West, there has been a trend of moving away from living arrangements that include the [extended family](/source/Extended_family) to those which only consist of the [nuclear family](/source/Nuclear_family). There has also been a trend to move from marital fertility to non-marital fertility. Children born outside marriage may be born to [cohabiting couples](/source/Cohabitation) or to [single women](/source/Single_parent). While births outside marriage are common and fully accepted in some parts of the world, in other places they are highly stigmatised, with unmarried mothers facing ostracism, including violence from family members, and in extreme cases even [honour killings](/source/Honor_killings).[148][149] In addition, [sex outside marriage](/source/Sex_outside_marriage) remains illegal in many countries (such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan,[150] Afghanistan,[151][152] Iran,[152] Kuwait,[153] Maldives,[154] Morocco,[155] Oman,[156] Mauritania,[157] United Arab Emirates,[158][159] Sudan,[160] and Yemen[161]).

The social role of the mother differs between cultures. In many parts of the world, women with dependent children are expected to stay at home and dedicate all their energy to child raising, while in other places mothers most often return to paid work (see [working mother](/source/Working_parent) and [stay-at-home mother](/source/Housewife)).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Education

Main article: [Female education](/source/Female_education)

Women attending an adult literacy class in the [El Alto](/source/El_Alto) section of [La Paz](/source/La_Paz), [Bolivia](/source/Bolivia)

[Single-sex education](/source/Single-sex_education) has traditionally been dominant and is still highly relevant.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender, is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education. For example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelor's degrees, 60% of master's degrees, and 50% of doctorates.[162][163]

In 2020, 87% of the world's women were literate, compared to 90% of men; at the same time, only 59% of women in sub-Saharan Africa were literate.[164] The educational [gender gap](/source/Sex_ratio) in [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development](/source/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development) (OECD) countries has been reduced over the last 30 years. Younger women today are far more likely to have completed a tertiary qualification: in 19 of the 30 OECD countries, more than twice as many women aged 25 to 34 have completed tertiary education than have women aged 55 to 64. In 21 of 27 OECD countries with comparable data, the number of women graduating from university-level programmes is equal to or exceeds that of men. 15-year-old girls tend to show much higher expectations for their careers than boys of the same age.[165] While women account for more than half of university graduates in several OECD countries, they receive only 30% of tertiary degrees granted in science and engineering fields, and women account for only 25% to 35% of researchers in most OECD countries.[166]

Research shows that while women are studying at prestigious universities at the same rate as men they are not being given the same chance to join the faculty.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Sociologist [Harriet Zuckerman](/source/Harriet_Zuckerman) has observed that the more prestigious an institute is, the more difficult and time-consuming it will be for women to obtain a faculty position there. In 1989, Harvard University tenured its first woman in chemistry, Cynthia Friend, and in 1992 its first woman in physics, Melissa Franklin.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] She also observed that women were more likely to hold their first professional positions as instructors and lecturers while men are more likely to work first in tenure positions.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] According to Smith and Tang, as of 1989, 65% of men and only 40% of women held tenured positions and only 29% of all scientists and engineers employed as assistant professors in four-year colleges and universities were women.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Women show a drop in self-esteem in the first year of college.[167] In the Soviet Union, 40% of chemistry PhDs went to women in the 1960s.[168]

In 1992, women earned 9% of the PhDs awarded in engineering, but only one percent of those women became professors. In 1995, 11% of professors in science and engineering were women. In relation, only 311 deans of engineering schools were women, which is less than 1% of the total. Even in psychology, a degree in which women earn the majority of PhDs, they hold a significant amount of fewer tenured positions, roughly 19% in 1994.[169]

## Government and politics

Main articles: [Timeline of women's suffrage](/source/Timeline_of_women's_suffrage) and [List of elected and appointed female heads of state and government](/source/List_of_elected_and_appointed_female_heads_of_state_and_government)

A world map showing female governmental participation by country, 2010

Women are underrepresented in government in most countries. In January 2019, the global average of women in national assemblies was 24.3%.[170]

[Sirimavo Bandaranaike](/source/Sirimavo_Bandaranaike) was the first female prime minister; she was democratically elected in [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka) in 1960.

Suffrage is the civil right to vote, and [women's suffrage](/source/Women's_suffrage) movements have a long [historic timeline](/source/Timeline_of_women's_suffrage). As an early example, in districts of [Friesland](/source/Friesland), in the Netherlands, women began voting in 1689.[171] On the other end of the spectrum, in [Kuwait](/source/Kuwait) women gained the right to vote in 2005,[172] and in [Saudi Arabia](/source/Saudi_Arabia) women gained the right to vote in 2015.[173] Organisations that fought for women's right to vote in different countries are numerous, from Switzerland's [Association internationale des femmes](/source/Association_internationale_des_femmes) (which was formed in 1868) to Liechtenstein's [Komitée für das Frauenstimmrecht](/source/Komit%C3%A9e_f%C3%BCr_das_Frauenstimmrecht) (founded in 1969).[174] As of 2025, the [Vatican City](/source/Vatican_City) only allows women to vote in limited lay capacity,[175] and other countries such as [Afghanistan](/source/Afghanistan) lack functional democracies entirely.[176]

## Science, literature and art

### Science and medicine

Main article: [Women in science](/source/Women_in_science)

Chemist and physicist [Marie Curie](/source/Marie_Curie) was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize, and the only person to win a Nobel Prize in two different scientific fields.[177]

Women have historically had access to practice [midwifery](/source/Midwifery), [obstetrics](/source/Obstetrics) and [gynaecology](/source/Gynaecology). In Europe, prior to the 18th century, caring for pregnant women was undertaken by other women. However, from the mid-18th century onwards, society began to require rigorous formal education to practice medicine. Since women were prohibited from higher education, women's reproductive healthcare was transferred to male practitioners.[178][179]

Early women in other scientific fields include [Hypatia](/source/Hypatia) (b. 350-370 CE), a mathematician and astronomer who edited the *[Almagest](/source/Almagest)*.

### Literature

Main article: [Women writers](/source/Women_writers)

The earliest author known by name was an Akkadian woman named [Enheduanna](/source/Enheduanna), who wrote in the 23rd century BCE.[180] [Ghosha](/source/Ghosha), an Indian composer of hymns in the [Rigveda](/source/Rigveda), was active around 1500-900 BCE.[181] The first recorded female Chinese poet was [Duchess Mu of Xu](/source/Duchess_Mu_of_Xu), who wrote in the 7th century BCE.[182] The [Tale of Genji](/source/Tale_of_Genji), one of the earliest novel-like works and sometimes called "the first novel", was written by the Japanese [Murasaki Shikibu](/source/Murasaki_Shikibu) in the 11th century CE.[183]

In Western society, writing was generally considered acceptable for upper-class women. However, achieving success as a female writer in a male-dominated world could be very difficult; as a result, some women writers adopted male pen names (e.g. [George Sand](/source/George_Sand), [George Eliot](/source/George_Eliot), [Currer Bell](/source/Currer_Bell), [Ellis Bell](/source/Ellis_Bell), [Acton Bell](/source/Acton_Bell), and [Vernon Lee](/source/Vernon_Lee)).[184] This has continued into more modern times, with 20th-century writers such as [Andre Norton](/source/Andre_Norton) and [James Tiptree Jr](/source/James_Tiptree_Jr)[185] adopting male pseudonyms, and some authors such as [J.K. Rowling](/source/J.K._Rowling)[186] and [Harper Lee](/source/Harper_Lee) adopting purposefully unisex pen names.

### Music

Main article: [Women musicians](/source/Women_musicians)

Women have been composers, songwriters, [instrumental performers](/source/Musician), singers, conductors, [music scholars](/source/Musicology), [music educators](/source/Music_teacher), [music critics](/source/Music_criticism)/[music journalists](/source/Music_journalist) and other musical professions. There are music movements,[*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*] events and genres related to women, [women's issues](/source/Women's_rights) and [feminism](/source/Feminism).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] In the 2010s, while women comprise a significant proportion of [popular music](/source/Popular_music) and classical music singers, and a significant proportion of songwriters (many of them being singer-songwriters), there are few women record producers, [rock critics](/source/Music_journalist) and rock instrumentalists. Although there have been a huge number of [women composers](/source/List_of_women_composers) in classical music, from the Medieval period to the present day, women composers are significantly underrepresented in the [commonly performed classical music repertoire](/source/Western_canon), music history textbooks and music encyclopaedias; for example, in the *Concise Oxford History of Music*, [Clara Schumann](/source/Clara_Schumann) is one of the only female composers who is mentioned.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A 2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, indicated that 84% of the soloists with the [Montreal Symphony Orchestra](/source/Montreal_Symphony_Orchestra) were men. In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked [Vienna Philharmonic](/source/Vienna_Philharmonic) orchestra. Women are less common as instrumental players in popular music genres such as rock and [heavy metal](/source/Heavy_metal_music), although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists and [all-female bands](/source/All-female_band). Women are particularly underrepresented in [extreme metal](/source/Extreme_metal) genres.[187] Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, [music producing](/source/Music_producer), and [sound engineering](/source/Sound_engineering). While women were discouraged from composing in the 19th century, and there are few women [musicologists](/source/Musicology), women became involved in [music education](/source/Music_education) "... to such a degree that women dominated [this field] during the later half of the 19th century and well into the 20th century."[188]

According to [Jessica Duchen](/source/Jessica_Duchen), a music writer for London's *[The Independent](/source/The_Independent)*, women musicians in classical music are "... too often judged for their appearances, rather than their talent" and they face pressure "... to look sexy onstage and in photos."[189] Duchen states that while "[t]here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks, ... the ones who do tend to be more materially successful."[189]

According to the UK's Radio 3 editor, Edwina Wolstencroft, the classical music industry has long been open to having women in performance or entertainment roles, but women are much less likely to have positions of authority, such as being the [leader of an orchestra](/source/Conducting).[190] In popular music, while there are many women singers recording songs, there are very few women behind the [audio console](/source/Audio_mixer) acting as music producers, the individuals who direct and manage the recording process.[191]

## See also

**General**

- [Lists of women](/source/Lists_of_women)

- [UN Women](/source/UN_Women)

**Sociological:**

- [Women's studies](/source/Women's_studies)

**Dynamics:**
- [Feminization (sociology)](/source/Feminization_(sociology))

- [Matriarchy](/source/Matriarchy)

**Medical:**
- [Feminine psychology](/source/Feminine_psychology)

**Other:**
- [Womyn](/source/Womyn) / [Womxn](/source/Womxn)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** *Female* may refer to sex or [gender](/source/Gender).[1] The plural *women* is sometimes used in certain phrases such as *[women's rights](/source/Women's_rights)* to denote female humans regardless of age.

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["female"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/female). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mosby_3-0)** ["woman"](https://books.google.com/books?id=_QGaoiFCIDMC&pg=PA1453). *Mosby's Pocket Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions*. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2009. p. 1453. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-323-06604-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-323-06604-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Venes_4-0)** Venes, Donald (2017). ["woman"](https://books.google.com/books?id=OA37DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2539). *Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary*. F.A. Davis. p. 2539. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8036-5940-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8036-5940-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Definition of girl noun"](https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/girl?q=girl). *Oxford learner's Dictionary*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Passarge_6-0)** Passarge, Eberhard (2017). *Color Atlas of Genetics*. New York. p. 362. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-13-241440-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-13-241440-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["trans woman"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/trans%20woman). *[Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary](/source/Merriam-Webster)*. Merriam-Webster. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1032680871](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1032680871).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-apa.org_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-apa.org_8-1) ["Understanding transgender people, gender identity and gender expression"](https://web.archive.org/web/20250501074517/https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/transgender-people-gender-identity-gender-expression). *American Psychological Association*. 9 March 2023. Archived from [the original](https://www.apa.org/topics/lgbtq/transgender-people-gender-identity-gender-expression) on 1 May 2025. Retrieved 14 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** ["Intersex people"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240704234650/https://www.ohchr.org/en/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity/intersex-people). *OHCHR*. [Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights](/source/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights). Archived from [the original](https://www.ohchr.org/en/sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity/intersex-people) on 4 July 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** [United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights](/source/Office_of_the_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights) (2015). ["Free & Equal Campaign Fact Sheet: Intersex"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240420201431/https://unfe.org/system/unfe-65-Intersex_Factsheet_ENGLISH.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](https://unfe.org/system/unfe-65-Intersex_Factsheet_ENGLISH.pdf) (PDF) on 20 April 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** "wīfmann": Bosworth & Toller, *Anglo-Saxon Dictionary* (Oxford, 1898–1921) p. 1219. The spelling "wifman" also occurs: C.T. Onions, *[Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology](/source/Oxford_Dictionary_of_English_Etymology)* (Oxford, 1966) p. 1011

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** *Webster's New World Dictionary, Second College Edition*, entry for "woman".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [man](http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=man) – definition Dictionary.reference.com

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (2002). "The Book of Genesis, Chapter II". [*The Woman's Bible: A Classic Feminist Perspective*](https://archive.org/details/womansbibleclass0000stan). Mineola, New York: [Dover Publications](/source/Dover_Publications). pp. 21–22. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-486-42491-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-42491-0). Next comes the naming of the mother of the race. "She shall be called Woman", in the ancient form of the word Womb-man. She was man and more than man because of her maternity. (Originally published in two volumes, 1895 and 1898, by The European Publishing Company.)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-OED_15-0)** ["womb (n.)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241204074608/https://www.etymonline.com/word/womb). *[Online Etymology Dictionary](/source/Online_Etymology_Dictionary)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.etymonline.com/word/womb) on 4 December 2024. Retrieved 29 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Starostin_16-0)** S. Starostin. ["Germanic etymology"](http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/ie/germet&text_number=%20562). *The Tower of Babel*.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Used in Middle English from c. 1300, meaning 'a child of either sex, a young person'. Its derivation is uncertain, perhaps from an Old English word which has not survived: another theory is that it developed from Old English 'gyrela', meaning 'dress, apparel': or was a diminutive form of a borrowing from another West Germanic Language. (Middle Low German has Gör, Göre, meaning 'girl or small child'.) "girl, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. 13 September 2013

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** By late 14th century a distinction was arising between female children, often called 'gay girls' – and male, or 'knave girls' -: a1375 William of Palerne (1867) l. 816 ' Whan þe gaye gerles were in-to þe gardin come, Faire floures þei founde.' ('When the gay girls came into the garden, Fair flowers they found.') By the 16th century, the unsupported word had begun to mean specifically a female: 1546 J. Heywood Dialogue Prouerbes Eng. Tongue i. x. sig. D, 'The boy thy husbande, and thou the gyrle his wyfe.' The usage meaning 'child of either sex' survived much longer in [Irish English](/source/Hiberno-English). "girl, n.". OED Online. September 2013. Oxford University Press. 13 September 2013

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Schott2005_122-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Schott2005_122-1) Schott, GD (December 2005). ["Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322246). *[The BMJ](/source/The_BMJ)*. **331** (7531): 1509–10. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.331.7531.1509). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1322246](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1322246). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16373733](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16373733).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-124)** Hartmann, Heidi I. (1976). "Women's Work in the United States". *Current History*. **70** (416): 215–229. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [45313850](https://www.jstor.org/stable/45313850).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-125)** ["The First Measured Century: Book: Section 2.8"](https://www.pbs.org/fmc/book/2work8.htm). *www.pbs.org*. Retrieved 20 December 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** [Fosu, Augustin Kwasi](/source/Augustin_Fosu) (1990). "Labor Force Participation by Married Women: Recent Intercity Evidence". *Eastern Economic Journal*. **16** (3): 229–238. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [40326204](https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326204).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-127)** Schiebinger, Londa (1999). *Has Feminism Changed Science?: Science and Private Life*. [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/source/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts): Harvard University Press. pp. 92–103.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** ["School enrollment, gender parity index"](https://genderdata.worldbank.org/indicators/se-enr/?education=Primary). *World Bank Gender Data Portal*. Retrieved 22 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-p218_129-0)** ["Gender pay gap statistics"](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Gender_pay_gap_statistics). *Eurostat*. Retrieved 30 March 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-130)** ["A/RES/48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women"](https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm). Un.org. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-131)** United Nations General Assembly. ["A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements"](http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm). UN Documents. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** ["Statistics by Area – Attitudes towards wife-beating – Statistical table"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140704112113/http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php). Childinfo.org. Archived from [the original](http://www.childinfo.org/attitudes_data.php) on 4 July 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-133)** ["Muslim Publics Divided on Hamas and Hezbollah"](https://www.pewglobal.org/2010/12/02/muslims-around-the-world-divided-on-hamas-and-hezbollah/). *Pew Research Center's Global Attitudes Project*. Pewglobal.org. 2 December 2010. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-134)** Directive 2002/73/EC – equal treatment of 23 September 2002 amending Council Directive 76/207/EEC on the implementation of the principle of equal treatment for men and women as regards access to employment, vocational training and promotion, and working conditions [\[1\]](http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1976L0207:20021005:EN:PDF)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** ["Directive 2011/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and protecting its victims, and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/629/JH"](http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:101:0001:0011:EN:PDF).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Batha, Emma (28 September 2013). ["Special report: The punishment was death by stoning. The crime? Having a mobile phone"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/special-report-punishment-was-death-stoning-crime-having-mobile-phone-8846585.html). *The Independent*. Retrieved 13 May 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** Diwan, Mohammed A. (2004). ["Conflict Between State Legal Norms and Norms Underlying Popular Beliefs: Witchcraft In Africa As A Case Study*"](http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1129&context=djcil#H2N1). *Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law*. **14**: 351–387. Retrieved 11 August 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-138)** Ally, Yaseen (June 2009). ["Witch hunts in modern South Africa: an under-represented facet of gender-based violence"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170506125641/http://www.mrc.ac.za/crime/witchhunts.pdf) (PDF). *South African Medical Research Council*. Archived from [the original](http://www.mrc.ac.za/crime/witchhunts.pdf) (PDF) on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** ["Woman burned alive for 'sorcery' in Papua New Guinea"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21363894). *BBC News*. 7 February 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-140)** ["Saudi Arabia: Beheading for 'sorcery' shocking | Amnesty International"](https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/saudi-arabia-beheading-sorcery-shocking-2011-12-12). Amnesty.org. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-141)** ["Saudi woman beheaded for 'witchcraft and sorcery'"](https://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/saudi-arabia-beheading/). *CNN.com*. 14 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-142)** In 2006, the UN Secretary-General's *In-depth study on all forms of violence against women* found that (p. 113): "Marital rape may be prosecuted in at least 104 States. Of these, 32 have made marital rape a specific criminal offence, while the remaining 74 do not exempt marital rape from general rape provisions. Marital rape is not a prosecutable offence in at least 53 States. Four States criminalize marital rape only when the spouses are judicially separated. Four States are considering legislation that would allow marital rape to be prosecuted."[\[2\]](https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/vaw/publications/English%20Study.pdf)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-143)** In [England and Wales](/source/England_and_Wales), marital rape was made illegal in 1991. The views of Sir Matthew Hale, a 17th-century jurist, published in *The History of the Pleas of the Crown (1736)*, stated that a husband cannot be guilty of the rape of his wife because the wife "*hath given up herself in this kind to her husband, which she cannot retract*"; in England and Wales this would remain law for more than 250 years, until it was abolished by the [Appellate Committee of the House of Lords](/source/Appellate_Committee_of_the_House_of_Lords), [in the case of *R v R* in 1991.](http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/1991/12.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-144)** For example, in [Yemen](/source/Yemen), marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.[\[3\]](http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf) In [Iraq](/source/Iraq) husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives. The criminal code states at Paragraph 41 that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right; examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".["The Penal Code – With Amendments"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf) (PDF). Iraqi Ministry of Justice. Archived from [the original](http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf) (PDF) on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 21 October 2012. In the [Democratic Republic of Congo](/source/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo) the Family Code states that the husband is the head of the household; the wife owes her obedience to her husband; a wife has to live with her husband wherever he chooses to live; and wives must have their husbands' authorisation to bring a case in court or to initiate other legal proceedings.[\[4\]](https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/drc/Congo0602-09.htm)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-145)** ["Colombian authorities fail to stop or punish sexual violence against women | Amnesty International"](https://www.amnesty.org/en/news/colombian-authorities-fail-stop-or-punish-sexual-violence-against-women-2012-10-04). Amnesty.org. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-rudaw-26082014_146-0)** Ahmed, Havidar (14 August 2014). ["The Yezidi Exodus, Girls Raped by ISIS Jump to their Death on Mount Shingal"](http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/140820142). [Rudaw Media Network](/source/Rudaw_Media_Network). Retrieved 26 August 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-non_mar1_147-0)** ["Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States"](https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db18.htm). *CDC/National Center for Health Statistics*. 13 May 2009. Retrieved 24 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-148)** ["The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091028133713/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html). Archived from [the original](https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2127rank.html) on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 8 January 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** ["RRT Research Response"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130501013343/http://www.mrt-rrt.gov.au/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=91cf943a-3fa6-4fce-afec-4ab2c2a356fd). Refugee Review Tribunal Australia. 1 May 2013. Archived from [the original](http://www.mrt-rrt.gov.au/CMSPages/GetFile.aspx?guid=91cf943a-3fa6-4fce-afec-4ab2c2a356fd) on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 28 June 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-150)** ["Turkey condemns 'honour killings'"](https://web.archive.org/web/20250614035509/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3523123.stm). *BBC News*. 1 March 2004. Archived from [the original](https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3523123.stm) on 14 June 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** ["Human Rights Voices – Pakistan, August 21, 2008"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130121175822/http://www.eyeontheun.org/voices.asp?p=632). Eyeontheun.org. Archived from [the original](http://www.eyeontheun.org/voices.asp?p=632) on 21 January 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** ["Home"](http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081026065259/http://www.aidsportal.org/news_details.aspx?ID=4236). AIDSPortal. Archived from [the original](http://www.aidsportal.org/news_details.aspx?ID=4236) on 26 October 2008.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-travel.state.gov_153-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-travel.state.gov_153-1) ["Iran"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130801084310/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html). Travel.state.gov. Archived from [the original](https://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1142.html) on 1 August 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** ["United Nations Human Rights Website – Treaty Bodies Database – Document – Summary Record – Kuwait"](http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/2f5665ae20b956cb8025675a0033cafb?Opendocument). Unhchr.ch.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** Sathuendrakumar, Rajasundram (21 June 2022). ["Maldives – Countries and Their Cultures"](https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/asia/indian-political-geography/maldives). *Encyclopedia.com*. Retrieved 21 July 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-156)** Fakim, Nora (9 August 2012). ["BBC News – Morocco: Should pre-marital sex be legal?"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-19049000). *BBC*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-157)** ["Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children – Oman"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071215043802/http://www.interpol.com/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaOman.pdf) (PDF). Interpol. Archived from [the original](http://www.interpol.com/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaOman.pdf) (PDF) on 15 December 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-158)** ["2010 Human Rights Report: Mauritania"](https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/af/154358.htm). State.gov. 8 April 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-159)** Dubai FAQs. ["Education in Dubai"](http://www.dubaifaqs.com/education-dubai.php). Dubaifaqs.com.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-160)** Judd, Terri (10 July 2008). ["Briton faces jail for sex on Dubai beach – Middle East – World"](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/briton-faces-jail-for-sex-on-dubai-beach-863918.html). *The Independent*. London.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-161)** ["Sudan must rewrite rape laws to protect victims"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121209050025/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400). *Reuters*. 28 June 2007. Archived from [the original](https://www.reuters.com/article/2007/06/28/idUSL28849488._CH_.2400) on 9 December 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-162)** United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. ["Refworld | Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa – Yemen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20250418181020/http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47387b712f.html/). UNHCR. Archived from [the original](http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47387b712f.html/) on 18 April 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-163)** ["Historical summary of faculty, students, degrees, and finances in degree-granting institutions: Selected years, 1869–70 through 2005–06"](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d07/tables/dt07_178.asp). National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved 22 August 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-164)** Eisenhart, A. Margaret; Finkel, Elizabeth (2001). *Women (Still) Need Not Apply:The Gender and Science Reader*. New York: Routledge. pp. 13–23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** ["This is how much global literacy has changed over 200 years"](https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/09/reading-writing-global-literacy-rate-changed/). *World Economic Forum*. 12 September 2022. Retrieved 10 March 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** [Education Levels Rising in OECD Countries but Low Attainment Still Hampers Some, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development](http://www.oecd.org/document/31/0,2340,en_2649_201185_33710751_1_1_1_1,00.html), Publication Date: 14 September 2004. Retrieved December 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-167)** [Women in Scientific Careers: Unleashing the Potential, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development](http://www.oecd.org/document/13/0,2340,en_2649_33703_37682893_1_1_1_1,00.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070210190113/http://www.oecd.org/document/13/0,2340,en_2649_33703_37682893_1_1_1_1,00.html) 2007-02-10 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [92-64-02537-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-64-02537-5), 2006. Retrieved December 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-168)** Brainard, Suzanne G.; Carlin, Linda (October 1998). "A Six-Year Longitudinal Study of Undergraduate Women in Engineering and Science". *Journal of Engineering Education*. **87** (4): 369–375. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/j.2168-9830.1998.tb00367.x](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.2168-9830.1998.tb00367.x). [ProQuest](/source/ProQuest) [217940422](https://www.proquest.com/docview/217940422).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-169)** Magazine, Smithsonian; Eveleth, Rose. ["Soviet Russia Had a Better Record of Training Women in STEM Than America Does Today"](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/soviet-russia-had-a-better-record-of-training-women-in-stem-than-america-does-today-180948141/?no-ist). *Smithsonian Magazine*. Retrieved 17 January 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-170)** Schiebinger, Londa (1999). "Meters of Equity". *Has Feminism Changed Science?*. Harvard University Press. pp. 33–53. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/j.ctv1msswnm.6](https://doi.org/10.2307%2Fj.ctv1msswnm.6). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-38113-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-38113-1). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [j.ctv1msswnm.6](https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1msswnm.6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-171)** ["Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages"](http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm). Ipu.org. 14 February 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-172)** Wierdsma Schik, P. (1857). ["Akademisch proefschrift over de staatsregtelijke geschiedenis der Staten van Friesland van 1581 tot 1795"](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYw6AAAAcAAJ&q=staten+van+friesland+geschiedenis). *Google Books* (in Dutch). W. Eekhoff. p. 18. Retrieved 11 June 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-173)** Sadeq, Kianne (16 May 2005). ["Kuwait grants women right to vote"](http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/05/16/kuwait.women/). *CNN*. Retrieved 20 November 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-174)** ["Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706). *[Oman Observer](/source/Oman_Observer)*. Agence France-Presse. 30 September 2011. Archived from [the original](http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706) on 19 January 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-175)** Frick, Julia (17 September 2024). ["Komitee für das Frauenstimmrecht"](https://historisches-lexikon.li/Komitee_für_das_Frauenstimmrecht).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-176)** ["In a historic shift, Pope Francis allows women to vote at bishops' meetings"](https://www.npr.org/2023/04/26/1172201884/pope-francis-women-vote-bishops-meetings). NPR. 26 April 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-177)** ["Women's Right to Vote in Afghanistan"](https://redyellowblue.org/data/af/wdaf/). *Red Yellow Blue (RYB)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** ["Marie Curie"](https://www.awis.org/historical-women/marie-curie/). [AWIS](/source/AWIS). 16 April 2021. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211201083418/https://www.awis.org/historical-women/marie-curie/) from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 1 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Gelis_179-0)** Gelis, Jacues. History of Childbirth. Boston: Northern University Press, 1991: 96–98

1. **[^](#cite_ref-180)** Bynum, W.F., & Porter, Roy, eds. Companion Encyclopedia of the History of Medicine. London and New York: Routledge, 1993: 1051–1052.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-181)** Mark, Joshua (24 March 2014). ["Enheduanna"](https://www.worldhistory.org/Enheduanna/). *World History Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 19 November 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-182)** ["GHOSHA"](https://www.hinduscriptures.in/gurus/rushi-women/ghosha). Retrieved 19 November 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-183)** Anne Cunningham (2018). [*The Most Influential Female Writers*](https://books.google.com/books?id=x91oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22). Rosen Young Adult. p. 22. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5081-7966-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5081-7966-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-184)** Tyler, Royall (2003). *The Tale of Genji*. [Penguin Classics](/source/Penguin_Classics). pp. i–ii & xii. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-14-243714-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-243714-X).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-185)** Jung, Daun (December 2017). "Critical Names Matter: 'Currer Bell,' 'George Eliot,' and 'Mrs. Gaskell'". *Victorian Literature and Culture*. **45** (4): 763–781. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S1060150317000201](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1060150317000201).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:1_186-0)** ["The Secret Sci-Fi Life of Alice B. Sheldon. (Transcript)"](https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6468136). *NPR.org*. 12 November 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-187)** Elizabeth, De (10 July 2017). ["J.K. Rowling Explains the Reason Behind Her Pen Name"](https://www.teenvogue.com/story/jk-rowling-reason-pen-name).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-188)** Julian Schaap and Pauwke Berkers. "Grunting Alone? Online Gender Inequality in Extreme Metal Music" in *IASPM Journal*. Vol. 4, no. 1 (2014) p. 103

1. **[^](#cite_ref-parlorsongs.com_189-0)** ["Women Composers In American Popular Song"](http://parlorsongs.com/issues/2002-9/thismonth/feature.php). Parlorsongs.com. 25 March 1911. p. 1. Retrieved 20 January 2016.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-music.cbc.ca_190-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-music.cbc.ca_190-1) ["CBC Music"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160301002442/http://music.cbc.ca/). Archived from [the original](http://music.cbc.ca/#!/blogs/2014/3/Classical-musics-shocking-gender-gap) on 1 March 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-theguardian.com_191-0)** Jessica Duchen. ["Why the male domination of classical music might be coming to an end | Music"](https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/feb/28/why-male-domination-of-classical-music-might-end). *The Guardian*. Retrieved 20 January 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ReferenceB_192-0)** Ncube, Rosina (September 2013). ["Sounding Off: Why So Few Women In Audio?"](http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/sep13/articles/sounding-off-0913.htm). *Sound on Sound*.

## Further reading

- [Chafe, William H.](http://www.aas.duke.edu/admin/deans/faculty/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090113175123/http://www.aas.duke.edu/admin/deans/faculty/) 2009-01-13 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *The American Woman: Her Changing Social, Economic, And Political Roles, 1920–1970*, Oxford University Press, 1972. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-501785-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-501785-4)

- Rosalie Maggio, ed. (1996). [*The New Beacon Book of Quotations by Women*](https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780807067833). Boston: Beacon Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8070-6783-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-6783-0).

- *Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women*, 4 vls., ed. by Cheris Kramarae and Dale Spender, Routledge 2000

- *[Women in World History : a biographical encyclopedia](/source/Women_in_World_History)*, 17 vls., ed. by [Anne Commire](/source/Anne_Commire), Waterford, Conn. [etc.] : Yorkin Publ. [etc.], 1999–2002

- [*Woman In all ages and in all countries in 10 volumes*](http://www.gutenberg.org/files/32937/32937-h/32937-h.htm). Illustrated edition deluxe limited to 1,000 numbered copies with an index by Rénald Lévesque

## External links

Look up ***[woman](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/woman)*** or ***[muliebrity](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muliebrity)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Look up ***[Wikisaurus:woman](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wikisaurus:woman)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- Quotations related to [Women](https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Women) at Wikiquote

- Media related to [Women](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Women) at Wikimedia Commons

v t e Gender and sexual identities Sex as a biological variable Sex–gender distinction Sexuality and gender identity–based cultures Gender identities Genders Man Woman Non-binary Agender Third gender Gender fluidity Androgyne Gender and sex Male Female Intersex Sex assignment Cisgender Transgender Trans man Trans woman Social aspects Anti-gender movement Gender binary Gender neutrality Gender nonconformity Gender roles Gender self-identification Postgenderism Social construction of gender Related terms Androgynos Apwint Bakla Binabinaaine Boi Bugis genders Bissu Calabai Calalai Chibados Cross-dresser Enaree Eunuch Galli Faʻafafine Faʻatama Fakafifine Femboy Femminiello Gender bender Güevedoce Hijra Kathoey Köçek Koekchuch Lhamana Māhū Masculine of center Mudoko dako Mukhannath Mustarjil Muxe Nádleehi Palopa Sipiniq Sworn virgin Travesti Transsexual Akava'ine Rae-rae Fakaleitī Mak nyah Tumtum Two-spirit Vakasalewalewa Winkte X-gender Sexual orientation identities Sexual orientations Asexual Gray Aegosexual Demisexual Monosexual Heterosexual Homosexual Plurisexual Bisexual Pansexual Polysexual Social aspects Analloeroticism Antisexuality Asociality Attraction to transgender people Heterosociality Homoaffectivity Homosociality Romantic orientation Aromanticism Sociosexuality Alternative labels Allosexual Androphilia and gynephilia Banjee Bi-curious Down-low Gay Gay men Heteroflexible Khanith Lesbian/Sapphic Non-heterosexual Queer Questioning Same gender loving Takatāpui See also Aphobia Acephobia Arophobia Discrimination against non-binary people Discrimination against transgender people Transmisandry Transmisogyny Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay LGBTQ Health Mental health Suicide Legal recognition of non-binary gender Legal status of transgender people Right to personal identity Split attraction model Transgender archaeology Transgender inequality

v t e Women in Africa Sovereign states Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon The Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Morocco Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe States with limited recognition Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic Somaliland Dependencies and other territories Canary Islands / Ceuta / Melilla (Spain) Madeira (Portugal) Mayotte / Réunion (France) Saint Helena / Ascension Island / Tristan da Cunha (United Kingdom) Western Sahara

v t e Women in Asia Sovereign states Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus Egypt Georgia India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Palestine Pakistan Philippines Qatar Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste (East Timor) Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen States with limited recognition Abkhazia Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Taiwan Dependencies and other territories British Indian Ocean Territory Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Hong Kong Macau Category Asia portal

v t e Women in Europe Sovereign states Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kazakhstan Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom Vatican City States with limited recognition Abkhazia Kosovo Northern Cyprus South Ossetia Transnistria Dependencies and other entities Åland Faroe Islands Gibraltar Guernsey Isle of Man Jersey Svalbard

v t e Women in North America Sovereign states Antigua and Barbuda Bahamas Barbados Belize Canada Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Grenada Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago United States Dependencies and other territories Anguilla Aruba Bermuda Bonaire British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Curaçao Greenland Guadeloupe Martinique Montserrat Puerto Rico Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Saba Sint Eustatius Sint Maarten Turks and Caicos Islands United States Virgin Islands

v t e Women in Oceania Sovereign states Australia Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Indonesia Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Associated states of New Zealand Cook Islands Niue Dependencies and other territories American Samoa Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Easter Island French Polynesia Guam Hawaii New Caledonia Norfolk Island Northern Mariana Islands Pitcairn Islands Tokelau Wallis and Futuna

v t e Women in South America Sovereign states Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Dependencies and other territories Falkland Islands French Guiana South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

v t e Feminism History Timeline First-wave Second-wave timeline Third-wave Fourth-wave Social Bicycling and feminism Feminist history Women's history Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting) Women's suffrage Timeline Australia Canada Japan Kuwait Majority-Muslim countries New Zealand Switzerland United Kingdom Wales United States Timeline African-American States of Utah Virginia Wyoming Movements and ideologies Abortion-rights Analytical Anarchist Anti-abortion Anti-fascist Atheist Bodily integrity Carceral Conservative Cultural Cyber HCI Difference Eco Vegetarian Equality Eugenic Fat Global Hip hop Activism Individualist Intersectional Labor Lesbian Liberal Equity Lipstick Materialist Maternal Neo- New Post- Postcolonial Postmodern Post-structural Radical Reactionary Reproductive rights Separatism Sex workers' rights Sex-positive Sexual and reproductive health and rights Social Socialist Marxist Standpoint State Trans Transnational Victim Womanism Africana Women's liberation Religious Atheist Buddhist Christian Mormon New Womanist Asian Neopagan Dianic Wicca Reclaiming Ecofeminist Hindu Islamic Jewish Orthodox Sikh Ethnic and racial Black Chicana Indigenous Native American Sámi Jewish Mizrahi Romani White Concepts Antinaturalism Choice feminism Cognitive labor Conscription Complementarianism Literature Children's literature Diversity (politics) Diversity, equity, and inclusion Effects on society Equality Female education Female genital mutilation Femicide Transfemicide Femonationalism Femosphere Feminism in culture Feminist movement African-American Art movement In hip hop Formal equality Gender equality Gender quota Gender role Girl power Honor killing Ideal womanhood Invisible labor Internalized sexism International Girl's Day and Women's Day Language reform Feminist capitalism Gender-blind Likeability trap Male privilege Matriarchal religion Media Men in feminism Misogyny Transmisogyny Oedipus complex Opposition to feminism Pro-feminism Protofeminism Purplewashing Racism Reproductive justice Sentencing disparity Sex workers' rights Sexual harassment Sexual objectification Substantive equality Toxic masculinity Triple oppression Violence against women War on women Women's empowerment Women-only space Women's health Women's rights Women in the workforce Theory Complementarianism Gender studies Gender mainstreaming Gynocentrism Matriarchy Women's studies Kyriarchy Patriarchy Écriture féminine Economics Post-structuralist discourse analysis Method Oedipus complex Political theory Theology Thealogy Womanist Sexology Sociology Rhetoric Legal theory Art Art criticism Literary criticism Film theory Biology Political ecology Architecture Anthropology Archaeology Criminology Pathways perspective Geography Pedagogy Philosophy Aesthetics Empiricism Epistemology Ethics Justice ethics Existentialism Metaphysics Science Pornography Psychology Therapy Seriality International relations Existentialism Revisionist mythology Technoscience Science fiction Composition studies By country Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo Egypt Ethiopia Ghana Mali Nigeria Senegal South Africa Albania Australia Balkans Bangladesh Canada China Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Haiti Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Japan Latin America Argentina Brazil Chile Honduras Mexico Paraguay Lebanon Malaysia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Northern Cyprus Norway Pakistan Philippines Poland Portugal Russia Saudi Arabia South Korea Sweden Syria Taiwan Thailand Trinidad and Tobago Turkey Vietnam Ukraine United Kingdom United States History of women People Art critics Ecofeminist authors Economists Jewish Muslim Philosophers Parties Poets Rhetoricians Suffragists and suffragettes Women's rights activists Media Literature American Comic books Women's studies journals SCUM Manifesto (1967) Related LGBTQ movements Women in peacekeeping Feminism portal Category Index

v t e Suffrage Basic topics Universal suffrage Right to run for office Age of candidacy Banned Term limit Women Suffragette Women's liberation movement Men Black Youth Demeny voting Non-citizen Non-resident citizen One man, one vote Multiple citizenship Voting age Free and fair election Secret ballot Compulsory voting Disfranchisement Voter turnout Wasted vote By country Austria Australia 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act aboriginal women Canada Chile Colombia Ecuador Hong Kong India Japan Kuwait Liechtenstein Mexico New Zealand Spain (Civil War, Francoist) Philippines Sri Lanka Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom women Cayman Islands Scotland Wales laws 1832 1918 1928 United States women African Americans Native Americans felons foreigners District of Columbia Puerto Rico states Constitutional amendments: 15th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, 26th Indian Citizenship Act 1965 Voting Rights Act Events International International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th Hong Kong Hong Kong 1 July marches 2014 Hong Kong protests 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests United Kingdom WSPU march (1906) Mud March (1907) Women's Sunday (1908) Black Friday (1910) Battle of Downing Street (1910) Women's Coronation Procession (1911) Great Pilgrimage (1913) Open Christmas Letter (1914) Suffragette bombing and arson campaign United States Seneca Falls Convention (1848) Declaration of Sentiments (1848) Rochester Convention (1848) Ohio Women's Convention (1850) Ohio Women's Convention (1851) National Women's Rights Convention (1850–1869) Trial of Susan B. Anthony (1872–1873) Suffrage Hikes (1912–1914) Woman Suffrage Procession (1913) Suffrage Torch Suffrage Special (1916) Silent Sentinels (1917–1919) Night of Terror Prison Special 1920 United States presidential election "Give Us the Ballot" (1957) Freedom Summer (1964) Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) Women (memorials) List of suffragists and suffragettes Timeline of women's suffrage US in majority-Muslim countries Historiography of the Suffragettes Women's suffrage organizations and publications Women's rights activists Leser v. Garnett Auckland Women's Suffrage Memorial Belmont–Paul Monument Rise up, Women (Emmeline Pankhurst statue) Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial Elizabeth Cady Stanton statue Suffragette Memorial Portrait Monument Women's Rights Pioneers Monument Forward statue Kate Sheppard National Memorial Millicent Fawcett statue Great Petition (2008 sculpture) Centenary of Women's Suffrage Commemorative Fountain Resilience Turning Point Suffragist Memorial Eagle House Pankhurst Centre Paulsdale Suffragette Handkerchief Holloway banner Holloway brooch Holloway Jingles Hunger Strike Medal Justice Bell Suffrage jewellery Suffragette penny Suffrage Oak Women's Rights National Historical Park Women's Suffrage National Monument International Women's Day Susan B. Anthony Day Women's Equality Day Popular culture "The Women's Marseillaise" "The March of the Women" (1910 song) The Mother of Us All (1947 opera) "Sister Suffragette" (1964 song) Suffrage plays Women's suffrage in film Votes for Women (1912 film) Shoulder to Shoulder (1974 series) Not for Ourselves Alone (1999 documentary) Iron Jawed Angels (2004 film) Up the Women (2013 sitcom) Selma (2014 film) Suffragette (2015 film) Sylvia (2018 musical) Suffs (2022 musical) Susan B. Anthony dollar National Voting Rights Museum (US) New Zealand ten-dollar note Women's Suffrage Centennial silver dollar (2020 U.S. commemorative) 2020 US ten-dollar bill Art in the women's suffrage movement in the United States Music and women's suffrage in the United States

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Feminism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Feminism)
- [Society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Society)
- [Sports](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Sports)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Woman](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.