# Will-o'-the-wisp

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Atmospheric ghost lights

For other uses, see [Will-o'-the-wisp (disambiguation)](/source/Will-o'-the-wisp_(disambiguation)).

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The Will o' the Wisp and the Snake by [Hermann Hendrich](/source/Hermann_Hendrich) (1854–1931)

In [folklore](/source/Folklore), a **will-o'-the-wisp**, or **will-o'-wisp** ([Latin](/source/Latin_language): *ignis fatuus*, "foolish flame"),[1] is an [atmospheric ghost light](/source/Atmospheric_ghost_light) seen by travellers at night, especially over bogs, swamps, or marshes.

The phenomenon is known in the United Kingdom by a variety of names, including **jack-o'-lantern**,[a] **friar's lantern**,[b][4] and **hinkypunk**, and is said to mislead and / or guide travellers by resembling a flickering lamp or lantern.[5] Equivalents of the will-o'-the-wisps appear in [European folklore](/source/European_folklore) by various names, e.g., *ignis fatuus* in Latin, *feu follet* in French, *Irrlicht* or *Irrwisch* in Germany or *dwaallicht* in The Netherlands and *fuoco fatuo* in Italy. Equivalents occur in traditions of cultures worldwide (cf. [§ Global terms](#Global_terms)); e.g., the [Naga fireballs](/source/Naga_fireball) on the [Mekong](/source/Mekong) in Thailand. In North America the phenomenon is known as the [Paulding Light](/source/Paulding_Light) in [Upper Peninsula of Michigan](/source/Upper_Peninsula_of_Michigan), [the Spooklight](/source/The_Spooklight) in Southwestern Missouri and Northeastern Oklahoma, and [St. Louis Light](/source/St._Louis_Light) in [Saskatchewan](/source/Saskatchewan). In Arab folklore it is known as [Abu Fanous](/source/Abu_Fanous).

In folklore, will-o'-the-wisps are typically attributed as ghosts, fairies or elemental spirits meant to reveal (or conceal) a path or direction. These wisps are portrayed as dancing or flowing in a static form, until noticed or followed, in which case they visually fade or disappear. Modern science explains the light aspect as natural phenomena such as [bioluminescence](/source/Bioluminescence) or [chemiluminescence](/source/Chemiluminescence), caused by the [oxidation](/source/Oxidation) of [phosphine](/source/Phosphine) (PH 3), [diphosphane](/source/Diphosphane) (P 2H 4) and methane (CH 4), produced by [organic](/source/Organic_compound) decay.

## Nomenclature

### Etymology

The term *will-o'-the-wisp* comes from *wisp*, a bundle of sticks or paper sometimes used as a torch and the name 'Will', thus meaning 'Will of the torch'. The term *jack-o'-lantern* ('Jack of the lantern') originally referred to a will-o'-the-wisp.[6] In the United States, they are often called *spook-lights*, *ghost-lights*, or *orbs* by folklorists.[7][8][9]

The Latin name *ignis fatuus* is composed of *[ignis](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ignis#Latin)*, meaning 'fire' and *[fatuus](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fatuus)*, an adjective meaning 'foolish', 'silly' or 'simple'; it can thus be literally translated into English as 'foolish fire' or more idiomatically as 'giddy flame'.[1] Despite its [Latin](/source/Latin) origins, the term *ignis fatuus* is not attested in antiquity, and the name for the will-o'-the-wisp used by the ancient Romans is uncertain.[1] The term is not attested in the Middle Ages either. Instead, the Latin *ignis fatuus* is documented no earlier than the 16th century in Germany, where it was coined by a German humanist, and appears to be a free translation of the long-existing German name *[Irrlicht](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Irrlicht)* ('wandering light' or 'deceiving light') conceived of in [German folklore](/source/German_folklore) as a mischievous spirit of nature; the Latin translation was made to lend the German name intellectual credibility.[10][11]

Beside *Irrlicht*, the will-o'-the-wisp has also been called in German *Irrwisch* (where *[Wisch](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wisch)* translates to 'wisp'), as found in e.g. Martin Luther's writings of the same 16th century.[11]

In [Irish](/source/Irish_language), it is called *tine ghealáin* ('flashing fire') or *Seán na Gealaí* ('Jack of the Moon'), a name linked to the legend of [Stingy Jack](/source/Stingy_Jack) and the jack o' lantern.[12][13]

### Synonyms

The names *will-o'-the-wisp* and *jack-o'-lantern* are used in [etiological folk-tales](/source/Origin_myth), recorded in many variant forms in Ireland, Scotland, England, Wales, Appalachia, and Newfoundland.[14][15][16]

Folk belief attributes the phenomenon explicitly in the term *[hob](/source/Hob_(folklore)) lantern* or *hobby lantern*[17] (var. 'Hob and his Lantern',[2] 'hob-and-lanthorns").[18][c] In her book *A Dictionary of Fairies,* [K. M. Briggs](/source/Katharine_Mary_Briggs) provides an extensive list of other names for the same phenomenon, though the place where they are observed (graveyard, bogs, etc.) influences the naming considerably. When observed in graveyards, it is known as a *ghost candle* or *corpse candle*.[19][20]

## Folklore

### Americas

"Feu follet" redirects here. For other uses, see [Feu follet (disambiguation)](/source/Feu_follet_(disambiguation)).

Mexico has equivalents. Folklore explains the phenomenon to be witches who transformed into these lights. Another explanation refers to the lights as indicators to places where gold or hidden treasures are buried which can be found only with the help of children. In this one, they are called luces del dinero (money lights) or luces del tesoro (treasure lights).

The swampy area of Massachusetts known as the [Bridgewater Triangle](/source/Bridgewater_Triangle) has folklore of ghostly orbs of light, and there have been modern observations of these ghost-lights in this area as well.

The fifollet (or feu-follet) of Louisiana derives from the French. The legend says that the fifollet is a soul sent back from the dead to do God's penance, but instead attacks people for vengeance. While it mostly takes part in harmless mischievous acts, the fifollet sometimes sucked the blood of children. Some legends say that it was the soul of a child who died before baptism.[21][22]

Boi-tatá (Portuguese pronunciation: [\[bojtaˈta\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Portuguese)) is the Brazilian equivalent of the will-o'-the-wisp.[23] Regionally it is called *Boitatá*, *Baitatá*, *Batatá*, *Bitatá*, *Batatão*, *Biatatá*, *M'boiguaçu*, *Mboitatá* and *Mbaê-Tata*. The name comes from the [Old Tupi language](/source/Old_Tupi_language) and means "fiery serpent" (*mboî tatá*). Its great fiery eyes leave it almost blind by day, but by night, it can see everything. According to legend, Boi-tatá was a big serpent which survived a great [deluge](/source/Flood_myth). A "boiguaçu" (cave anaconda) left its cave after the deluge and, in the dark, went through the fields preying on the animals and corpses, eating exclusively its favourite morsel, the eyes. The collected light from the eaten eyes gave "Boitatá" its fiery gaze. Not really a dragon but a giant snake (in the native language, *boa* or *mboi* or *mboa*).

In Argentina and Uruguay, the will-o'-the-wisp phenomenon is known as luz mala (*evil light*) and is one of the most important myths in both countries' folklore. This phenomenon is quite feared and is mostly seen in rural areas. It consists of an extremely shiny ball of light floating a few inches from the ground.

In Paraguay, will-o’-the-wisps are interpreted in popular tradition as indicators of the so-called [plata yvyguy,](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plata_yvyguy,&action=edit&redlink=1) referring to goods buried underground that are believed to have been hidden both by the Jesuits after their expulsion in 1767 and during the Paraguayan War (1864–1870). According to popular belief, the nocturnal appearance of a brief, moving flame, which travels from one place to another and extinguishes at a specific point, marks the exact location where such a treasure is buried

In Colombia, [la Bolefuego](/source/La_Bolefuego) or Candileja is the will-o'-the-wisp ghost of a vicious grandmother who raised her grandchildren without morals, and as such they became thieves and murderers. In the afterlife, the grandmother's spirit was condemned to wander the world surrounded in flames. In Trinidad and Tobago, a [soucouyant](/source/Soucouyant) is a "fireball witch"—an evil spirit that takes on the form of a flame at night. It enters homes through any gap it can find and drinks the blood of its victims.

### Asia

See also: [Chir Batti](/source/Chir_Batti) and [Naga fireball](/source/Naga_fireball)

Aleya (or marsh ghost-light) is the name given to a strange light phenomenon occurring over the marshes as observed by Bengalis, especially the fishermen of Bangladesh and West Bengal. This marsh light is attributed to some kind of [marsh gas](/source/Marsh_gas) apparitions that confuse fishermen, make them lose their bearings, and may even lead to drowning if one decided to follow them moving over the marshes. Local communities in the region believe that these strange hovering marsh-lights are in fact Ghost-lights representing the ghosts of fisherman who died fishing. Sometimes they confuse the fishermen, and sometimes they help them avoid future dangers.[24][25] Chir batti (ghost-light), also spelled "chhir batti" or "cheer batti", is a dancing light phenomenon occurring on dark nights reported from the [Banni grasslands](/source/Banni_grasslands), its seasonal marshy wetlands[26] and the adjoining desert of the marshy [salt flats](/source/Salt_pan_(geology)) of the [Rann of Kutch](/source/Rann_of_Kutch)[d][26] Other varieties (and sources) of ghost-lights appear in folklore across India, including the Kollivay Pey of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, the Kuliyande Choote of Kerala, and many variants from different tribes in Northeast India.[29] In Kashmir, the [Bramrachokh](/source/Bramrachokh) carries a pot of fire on its head.

A Japanese rendition of a Russian will-o'-the-wisp

Similar phenomena are described in Japanese folklore, including *[hitodama](/source/Hitodama)* (人魂; literally "Human Soul" as a ball of energy), *hi no tama* ("ball of flame"), *aburagae*, *koemonbi* (小右衛門火), *ushionibi*, etc. All these phenomena are described as associated with graveyards. [Kitsune](/source/Kitsune), mythical [yokai](/source/Yokai) demons, are also associated with will 'o the wisp, with the marriage of two kitsune producing *kitsune-bi* (狐火), literally meaning 'fox-fire'.[30] These phenomena are described in Shigeru Mizuki's 1985 book *Graphic World of Japanese Phantoms* (妖怪伝 in Japanese).[31]

In Korea the lights are associated with rice paddies, old trees, mountains or even in some houses and were called '[dokkebi](/source/Dokkaebi) bul' (도깨비 불), meaning goblin fire (or goblin light). They were deemed malevolent and impish, as they confused and lured passersby to lose their way or fall into pits at night.

Character 粦 in bronze script. Its shape depicts  a person surrounded by fire like dots and dancing with emphasised feet.

The earliest Chinese reference to a will-o'-the-wisp appears to be the Chinese character 粦 lín, attested as far back as the Shang dynasty oracle bones, depicting a human-like figure surrounded by dots presumably representing the glowing lights of the will-o'-the-wisp, to which feet such as those under 舞 wǔ, 'to dance' were added in bronze script. Before the Han dynasty the top had evolved or been corrupted to represent fire (later further corrupted to resemble 米 mǐ, rice), as the small seal script graph in a dictionary *Shuowen Jiezi*, compiled in the Han dynasty, shows. The dictionary explained that it was "ghost fire" coming from dead men, horses and cattle during wars and their blood turned into this kind of fire after many years. Although no longer in use alone, 粦 lín is in the character 磷 lín phosphorus, an element involved in scientific explanations of the will-o'-the-wisp phenomenon, and is also a phonetic component in other common characters with the same pronunciation.[32]

Chinese polymath [Shen Gua](/source/Shen_Kuo) may have recorded such a phenomenon in the*Book of Dreams*, stating, "In the middle of the reign of emperor Jia You, at Yanzhou, in the Jiangsu province, an enormous pearl was seen especially in gloomy weather. At first it appeared in the marsh… and disappeared finally in the Xinkai Lake." It was described as very bright, illuminating the surrounding countryside and was a reliable phenomenon over ten years, an elaborate Pearl Pavilion being built by local inhabitants for those who wished to observe it.[33]

### Europe

See also: [Supernatural beings in Slavic folklore](/source/Supernatural_beings_in_Slavic_folklore)

An 1862 oil painting of a will-o'-the-wisp by [Arnold Böcklin](/source/Arnold_B%C3%B6cklin)

In European folklore the lights are often believed to be the spirits of un-baptised or stillborn children, flitting between heaven and hell ([purgatory](/source/Purgatory)).[34]

In Germany there was a belief that an *Irrlicht* was the soul of an unbaptised child, but that it could be redeemed if the remains are first buried near the eaves of the church, so that at the moment rainwater splashes onto this grave, the churchman could pronounce the baptismal formula to sanctify the child.[37]

In Sweden also, the will-o'-the-wisp represents the soul of an unbaptised person "trying to lead travellers to water in the hope of being baptized".[38][*[unreliable source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources)*]

Danes, Finns, Swedes, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, and Irish people and amongst some other groups believed that a will-o'-the-wisp also marked the location of a treasure deep in ground or water, which could be taken only when the fire was there. Sometimes magical procedures, and even a dead man's hand, were required as well, to uncover the treasure. In Finland and several other northern countries, it was believed that early autumn was the best time to search for will-o'-the-wisps and treasures below them. It was believed that when someone hid treasure in the ground, he made the treasure available only at the summer solstice [(Midsummer, or Saint John's Day)](/source/Midsummer), and set a will-o'-the-wisp to mark the exact place and time so that he could reclaim the treasure.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The Aarnivalkea (also known as virvatuli, aarretuli and aarreliekki), in [Finnish mythology](/source/Finnish_mythology), are spots where an eternal flame associated with will-o'-the-wisps burns. They are claimed to mark the places where [faerie](/source/Faerie) gold is buried. They are protected by a glamour that would prevent anyone finding them by pure chance. However, if one finds a fern seed from a mythical flowering fern, the magical properties of that seed will lead the fortunate person to these treasures, in addition to providing one with a glamour of invisibility. Since in reality the fern produces no flower and reproduces via spores under the leaves, the myth specifies that it blooms only extremely rarely.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

#### Britain

See also: [Puck (mythology)](/source/Puck_(mythology))

Sculpture of a will-o'-the-wisp by [Harriet Hosmer](/source/Harriet_Hosmer)

In the original British tales, protagonists named either Will or Jack are doomed to haunt the marshes with a light for some misdeed. One version from [Shropshire](/source/Shropshire) is recounted by Briggs in *A Dictionary of Fairies* and refers to Will Smith. Will is a wicked blacksmith who is given a second chance by [Saint Peter](/source/Saint_Peter) at the gates of heaven, but leads such a bad life that he ends up being doomed to wander the earth. The Devil provides him with a single burning coal with which to warm himself, which he then uses to lure foolish travellers into the marshes.

An Irish version of the tale has a ne'er-do-well named Drunk Jack or [Stingy Jack](/source/Stingy_Jack) who, when the Devil comes to collect his soul, tricks him into turning into a coin, so he can pay for his one last drink. When the Devil obliges, Jack places him in his pocket next to a crucifix, preventing him from returning to his original form. In exchange for his freedom, the Devil grants Jack ten more years of life. When the term expires, the Devil comes to collect his due. But Jack tricks him again by making him climb a tree and then carving a cross underneath, preventing him from climbing down. In exchange for removing the cross, the Devil forgives Jack's debt. However, no one as bad as Jack would ever be allowed into heaven, so Jack is forced upon his death to travel to hell and ask for a place there. The Devil denies him entrance in revenge but grants him an ember from the fires of hell to light his way through the twilight world to which lost souls are forever condemned. Jack places it in a carved turnip to serve as a lantern.[39][40] Another version of the tale is "Willy the Whisp", related in *Irish Folktales* by [Henry Glassie](/source/Henry_Glassie). *Séadna* by [Peadar Ua Laoghaire](/source/Peadar_Ua_Laoghaire) is yet another version—and also the first modern novel in the Irish language.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*][*[clarification needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify)*]

In Welsh folklore, it is said that the light is "fairy fire" held in the hand of a [púca](/source/P%C3%BAca), or pwca, a small goblin-like fairy that mischievously leads lone travellers off the beaten path at night.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] As the traveller follows the púca through the marsh or bog, the fire is extinguished, leaving them lost. The púca is said to be one of the [Tylwyth Teg](/source/Tylwyth_Teg), or fairy family. In Wales the light predicts a funeral that will take place soon in the locality. [Wirt Sikes](/source/Wirt_Sikes) in his book *British Goblins* mentions the following [Welsh](/source/Welsh_mythology) tale about púca.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

A peasant travelling home at dusk sees a bright light travelling along ahead of him. Looking closer, he sees that the light is a lantern held by a "dusky little figure", which he follows for several miles. All of a sudden he finds himself standing on the edge of a vast chasm with a roaring torrent of water rushing below him. At that precise moment the lantern-carrier leaps across the gap, lifts the light high over its head, lets out a malicious laugh and blows out the light, leaving the poor peasant a long way from home, standing in pitch darkness at the edge of a precipice. This is a fairly common cautionary tale concerning the phenomenon; however, the *ignis fatuus* was not always considered dangerous. Some tales present the will-o'-the-wisp as a treasure-guardian, leading those brave enough to follow it to certain riches—a form of behaviour sometimes ascribed also to the Irish [leprechaun](/source/Leprechaun). Other stories tell of travellers surprising a will-o'-the-wisp while lost in the woods and being either guided out or led further astray, depending on whether they treated the spirit kindly or harshly.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Also related, the pixy-light from [Devon](/source/Devon) and [Cornwall](/source/Cornwall) which leads travellers away from the safe and reliable route and into the bogs with glowing lights. "Like Poltergeist they can generate uncanny sounds. They were less serious than their German [Weiße Frauen](/source/Wei%C3%9Fe_Frauen) kin, frequently blowing out candles on unsuspecting courting couples or producing obscene kissing sounds, which were always misinterpreted by parents."[41] Pixy-Light was also associated with "lambent light"[42] which the [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse) might have seen guarding their tombs. In Cornish folklore, Pixy-Light also has associations with the [Colt pixie](/source/Colt_pixie). "A colt pixie is a pixie that has taken the shape of a horse and enjoys playing tricks such as neighing at the other horses to lead them astray".[43][44] In Guernsey, the light is known as the *faeu boulanger* (rolling fire), and is believed to be a lost soul. On being confronted with the spectre, tradition prescribes two remedies. The first is to turn one's cap or coat inside out. This has the effect of stopping the *faeu boulanger* in its tracks. The other solution is to stick a knife into the ground, blade up. The faeu, in an attempt to kill itself, will attack the blade.[45]

The will-o'-the-wisp was also known as the Spunkie in the Scottish Highlands where it would take the form of a [linkboy](/source/Linkboy) (a boy who carried a flaming torch to light the way for pedestrians in exchange for a fee), or else simply a light that always seemed to recede, in order to lead unwary travellers to their doom.[46] The spunkie has also been blamed for shipwrecks at night after being spotted on land and mistaken for a harbour light.[47] Other tales of Scottish folklore regard these mysterious lights as omens of death or the ghosts of once living human beings. They often appeared over lochs[48] or on roads along which funeral processions were known to travel.[49] A strange light sometimes seen in the [Hebrides](/source/Hebrides) is referred to as the *teine sith*, or "fairy light", though there was no formal connection between it and the fairy race.[50]

#### Ireland

In the late 1930s, schoolchildren across Ireland were tasked with the interviewing of older neighbours and relatives with regards to collecting local history and folklore as part of the [Irish Folklore Commission](/source/Irish_Folklore_Commission)'s *[Schools' Collection](/source/Irish_Folklore_Commission#School's_Collection)*.[51] Numerous sightings of the phenomenon were recorded as part of the project. One such child, James Curran, relayed information taken from his father about a sighting in Harristown, County Kildare:

My father told me that when he was about fourteen years of age, he was crossing the limekiln of Harristown and he saw a little red ball of fire rolling along in front of him. He ran after it, but he could not catch it as when he would run it would roll quicker, and quicker, and when he would stop, it would stop. He followed it, all through Clarke's bottoms, across Major Mc Gees land and on to the railway and then it disappeared. He did not know what it was, but his father told him it was Will o' the Wisp.[52]

### Oceania

See also: [Min Min light](/source/Min_Min_light)

The Australian equivalent, known as the Min Min light is reportedly seen in parts of the outback after dark.[53][54] The majority of sightings are reported to have occurred in the [Channel Country](/source/Channel_Country) region.[53]

Stories about the lights can be found in aboriginal myth pre-dating western settlement of the region and have since become part of wider [Australian folklore](/source/Australian_folklore).[53] [Indigenous Australians](/source/Indigenous_Australians) hold that the number of sightings has increased alongside the increasing ingression of Europeans into the region.[53] According to folklore, the lights sometimes followed or approached people and have disappeared when fired upon, only to reappear later on.[53][54]

## Scientific explanations

Scientists propose that will-o'-the-wisp phenomena (*ignis fatuus*) are caused by the [oxidation](/source/Oxidation) of [phosphine](/source/Phosphine) (PH3), [diphosphane](/source/Diphosphane) (P2H4), and methane (CH4). These compounds, produced by [organic decay](/source/Decomposition), can cause [photon](/source/Photon) emissions. Since phosphine and diphosphane mixtures spontaneously ignite on contact with the oxygen in air, only small quantities of it would be needed to ignite the much more abundant methane to create ephemeral fires.[55] Furthermore, phosphine produces [phosphorus pentoxide](/source/Phosphorus_pentoxide) as a by-product, which forms [phosphoric acid](/source/Phosphoric_acid) upon contact with water vapor, which can explain "viscous moisture" sometimes described as accompanying *ignis fatuus*.

### Historical explanations

The idea of the will-o'-the-wisp phenomena being caused by natural gases can be found as early as 1596, as mentioned in the works of [Ludwig Lavater](/source/Ludwig_Lavater).[e][56] In 1776 [Alessandro Volta](/source/Alessandro_Volta) first proposed that natural electrical phenomena (like lightning) interacting with [methane](/source/Methane) marsh gas may be the cause of *ignis fatuus*.[57] This was supported by the British [polymath](/source/Polymath) [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley) in his series of works *[Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air](/source/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air)* (1772–1790); and by the French physicist [Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare](/source/Pierre_Bertholon_de_Saint-Lazare) in *De l'électricité des météores* (1787).[58]

Early critics of the marsh gas hypothesis often dismissed it on various grounds including the unlikeliness of spontaneous combustion, the absence of warmth in some observed *ignis fatuus*, the odd behavior of *ignis fatuus* receding upon being approached, and the differing accounts of [ball lightning](/source/Ball_lightning) (which was also classified as a kind of *ignis fatuus*).[58] An example of such criticism is found in *Folk-Lore from Buffalo Valley* (1891) by the American anthropologist [John G. Owens](/source/John_G._Owens).[f][59]

The apparent retreat of *ignis fatuus* upon being approached might be explained simply by the agitation of the air by nearby moving objects, causing the gases to disperse. This was observed in the very detailed accounts of several close interactions with *ignis fatuus* published earlier in 1832 by Major Louis Blesson after a series of experiments in various localities where they were known to occur.[60] Of note is his first encounter with *ignis fatuus* in a marshland between a deep valley in the forest of Gorbitz, [Newmark](/source/Neumark), Germany. Blesson observed that the water was covered by an iridescent film, and during day-time, bubbles could be observed rising abundantly from certain areas. At night, Blesson observed bluish-purple flames in the same areas and concluded that it was connected to the rising gas. He spent several days investigating the phenomenon, finding to his dismay that the flames retreated every time he tried to approach them. He eventually succeeded and was able to confirm that the lights were indeed caused by ignited gas. The British scientist [Charles Tomlinson](/source/Charles_Tomlinson_(scientist)) in *On Certain Low-Lying Meteors* (1893) described Blesson's experiments.[g][58]

Blesson also observed differences in the colour and heat of the flames in different marshes. The *ignis fatuus* in Malapane, [Upper Silesia](/source/Upper_Silesia) (now [Ozimek, Poland](/source/Ozimek)) could be ignited and extinguished, but were unable to burn pieces of paper or wood shavings. Similarly, the *ignis fatuus* in another forest in Poland coated pieces of paper and wood shavings with an oily viscous fluid instead of burning them. Blesson also accidentally created ignis fatuus in the marshes of [Porta Westfalica](/source/Porta_Westfalica), Germany, while launching fireworks.[58][60]

#### 20th century

A description of 'the will-o'-the wisp' appeared in a 1936 UK publication of *The Scout's Book of Gadgets and Dodges*,[61] where the author (Sam F. Braham), describes it as follows:

'This is an uncertain light which may sometimes be seen dancing over churchyards and marshy places. None really knows how it is produced, and chemists are continually experimenting to discover its nature. It is thought that it is formed by the mixing of marsh gas, which is giving off decaying vegetable matter, with phosphoretted hydrogen, a gas which ignites instantly. But this theory has not been definitely proved.'[61]

Glowing firefly (*[Lampyris noctiluca](/source/Lampyris_noctiluca)*)

One attempt to replicate *ignis fatuus* under laboratory conditions was in 1980 by British geologist Alan A. Mills of [Leicester University](/source/Leicester_University). Though he did succeed in creating a cool glowing cloud by mixing crude phosphine and natural gas, the color of the light was green and it produced copious amounts of acrid smoke. This was contrary to most eyewitness accounts of *ignis fatuus*.[62][63] As an alternative, Mills proposed in 2000 that *ignis fatuus* may instead be [cold flames](/source/Cool_flame).[62][64] These are luminescent pre-combustion halos that occur when various compounds are heated to just below [ignition point](/source/Ignition_point). Cold flames are indeed typically bluish in color and as their name suggests, they generate very little heat. Cold flames occur in a wide variety of compounds, including [hydrocarbons](/source/Hydrocarbons) (including methane), [alcohols](/source/Alcohols), [aldehydes](/source/Aldehydes), [oils](/source/Oils), [acids](/source/Acids), and even [waxes](/source/Waxes). However it is unknown if cold flames occur naturally, though a lot of compounds which exhibit cold flames are the natural byproducts of organic decay.[62][65]

*[Panellus stipticus](/source/Panellus_stipticus)*, [Mt. Vernon, Wisconsin](/source/Mount_Vernon%2C_Wisconsin) (long exposure)

A related hypothesis involves the natural [chemiluminescence](/source/Chemiluminescence) of phosphine. In 2008 the Italian chemists Luigi Garlaschelli and Paolo Boschetti attempted to recreate Mills' experiments. They successfully created a faint cool light by mixing phosphine with air and nitrogen. Though the glow was still greenish in colour, Garlaschelli and Boschetti noted that under low-light conditions, the human eye cannot easily distinguish between colours. Furthermore, by adjusting the concentrations of the gases and the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.), it was possible to eliminate the smoke and smell, or at least render it to undetectable levels. Garlaschelli and Boschetti also agreed with Mills that cold flames may also be a plausible explanation for other instances of *ignis fatuus*.[64]

In 1993 professors Derr and Persinger proposed that some *ignis fatuus* may be geologic in origin, [piezoelectrically](/source/Piezoelectric) generated under tectonic strain. The strains that move faults would also heat up the rocks, vaporizing the water in them. Rock or soil containing something piezoelectric, like [quartz](/source/Quartz), [silicon](/source/Silicon), or [arsenic](/source/Arsenic), may also produce electricity, channelled up to the surface through the soil via a column of vaporized water, there somehow appearing as earth lights. This would explain why the lights appear electrical, erratic, or even intelligent in their behaviour.[66][67]

The will-o'-the-wisp phenomena may occur due to the [bioluminescence](/source/Bioluminescence) of various forest dwelling micro-organisms and insects. The eerie glow emitted from certain fungal species, such as the [honey fungus](/source/Honey_fungus), during chemical reactions to form white rot could be mistaken for the mysterious will-o'-the-wisp or [foxfire](/source/Foxfire) lights. There are many other bioluminescent organisms that could create the illusions of fairy lights, such as [fireflies](/source/Fireflies). Light reflecting off larger forest dwelling creatures could explain the phenomenon of will-o'-the-wisp moving and reacting to other lights. The white plumage of [barn owls](/source/Western_barn_owl) may reflect enough light from the Moon to appear as a will-o'-the-wisp; hence the possibility of the lights moving, reacting to other lights, etc.[68]

*Ignis fatuus* sightings are rarely reported today. The decline is believed to be the result of the draining and reclamation of swamplands in recent centuries, such as the formerly vast [fenlands](/source/The_Fens) of eastern England which have now been converted to farmlands.[63]

Recent research has proposed a novel mechanism for the ignition of will-o'-the-wisps. Scientists have demonstrated that spontaneous electrical discharges, termed "microlightning", can occur between rising methane-containing microbubbles in water. These discharges, arising from strong electric fields at gas-liquid interfaces, initiate nonthermal oxidation of methane, producing luminescence and measurable heat. This finding offers a scientific basis for *ignis fatuus* by providing a previously unknown ignition mechanism for the marsh gas hypothesis, without requiring external ignition sources.[69]

## Literature and popular culture

Two will-o'-the-wisps feature as characters in [Goethe's](/source/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe) short story "[The Green Snake and the Beautiful Lily](/source/The_Green_Snake_and_the_Beautiful_Lily)."[70]

## Global terms

Americas Canada Fireship of Baie des Chaleurs in New Brunswick United States Arbyrd / Senath Light of Missouri Bragg Road ghost light (Light of Saratoga) of Texas Brown Mountain Lights of North Carolina Devil's Torchlight or Devil's Lantern in the Southern United States and Deep South Gurdon light of Arkansas Hornet ghost light (The Spooklight) of Missouri-Oklahoma state line Maco light of North Carolina Swamp lights of Louisiana Marfa lights of Texas Paulding Light of Michigan's Upper Peninsula Cohoke Light of eastern Virginia's Cohoke Swamp wetlands Argentina and Uruguay Luz Mala Asia Chir batti in Gujarat Naga fireballs on the Mekong in Thailand Aleya in Bengal Dhon guloi in Assam Abu Fanous in the Middle East Andaru in Indonesia (though sometimes refers to meteors or comets as well) Europe Hessdalen light, Norway Martebo lights, Sweden Paasselkä devil, Finland Lidércfény, Hungary Ballybar, near Carlow, Ireland Ferbane, County Offaly, Ireland Dwaallichtjes in the Netherlands and Belgium Sheeries, Ireland Liam na lasóige, Ireland Fuego fatuo, Spain Fuoco fatuo, Italy Irrlicht, Germany Bludička or svetlonos, Slovakia Žaltvykslės, Lithuania Błędny ognik, Poland Oceania Min Min light of the Outback Australia

## See also

- [Wetlands portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Wetlands)

- [Chir Batti](/source/Chir_Batti) – Ghost light reported in the Banni grasslands, Kutch district, Gujarat State, IndiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

- [Corpse road](/source/Corpse_road) – Road historically used to transport corpses to cemeteries

- [Feuermann (ghost)](/source/Feuermann_(ghost)) – Fiery ghost from German folklore

- [Foo fighter](/source/Foo_fighter) – UFOs reported in the 1940s

- [Hessdalen Lights](/source/Hessdalen_Lights) – Unidentified phenomenon at Hessdalen valley in NorwayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

- [Kitsunebi](/source/Kitsunebi) – Atmospheric ghost lights in Japanese folklore

- [Lantern man](/source/Lantern_man) – Paranormal creature in England

- [Lidérc](/source/Lid%C3%A9rc) – Unique supernatural being of Hungarian folklore

- [Mãe-do-Ouro](/source/M%C3%A3e-do-Ouro) – Brazilian mythological figure

- [Omphalotus olearius](/source/Omphalotus_olearius) – Species of fungus

- [Santelmo](/source/Santelmo) – Creature of Philippine mythology

- [Shiranui](/source/Shiranui_(optical_phenomenon)) – Atmospheric ghost light

- [Simonside Dwarfs](/source/Simonside_Dwarfs) – Race of dwarfs in English folklore

- [St. Elmo's fire](/source/St._Elmo's_fire) – Luminous plasma created in an electric field

- *[Willo the Wisp](/source/Willo_the_Wisp)* – A British television show from 1981 and remade in 2005

- [Yan-gant-y-tan](/source/Yan-gant-y-tan) – Demon from Brittany, France

## Footnotes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** [Kittredge (1900)](#CITEREFKittredge1900), p. 440: Jack-with-a-lantern, Jack-a-Lantern, and (n3) Jack-o'-Lantern, citing Allies (1846)[2]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** In [Milton](/source/John_Milton)'s *[L'Allegro](/source/L'Allegro)*.[3]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** And "Hoberdy's Lantern", "Hobany's Lantern" "Hob and his Lantern"[2] probably corrupted from "Hob and his Lantern" accord. Kittredge, 440, n3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** "I read somewhere that on dark nights there are strange lights that dance on the Rann. The locals call them *cheer batti* or 'ghost lights'. It's a phenomenon widely documented but not explained."[27][28]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** "That many naturall things are taken to be ghoasts": "Many times candles & small fires appeare in the night, and seeme to runne up and downe... Sometime these fires goe alone in the night season, and put such as see them, as they travel by night, in great feare. But these things, and many such lyke have their naturall causes... Natural Philosophers write, that thicke exhilations aryse out of the earth, and are kindled. Mynes full of sulphur and brimstone, if the aire enter unto it, as it lyeth in the holes and veines of the earth, will kindle on fier, and strive to get out." From *[Of Ghostes and Spirites, Walking by Night, And of Straunge Noyses, Crackes, and Sundrie forewarnings, which commonly happen before the death of men: Great Slaughters, and alterations of Kingdomes](https://archive.org/details/ofghostesspirite00lava)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** "This is a name that is sometimes applied to a phenomenon perhaps more frequently called Jack-o'-the-Lantern, or Will-o'-the-Wisp. It seems to be a ball of fire, varying in size from that of a candle-flame to that of a man's head. It is generally observed in damp, marshy places, moving to and fro; but it has been known to stand perfectly still and send off scintillations. As you approach it, it will move on, keeping just beyond your reach; if you retire, it will follow you. That these fireballs do occur, and that they will repeat your motion, seems to be established, but no satisfactory explanation has yet been offered that I have heard. Those who are less superstitious say that it is the ignition of the gases rising from the marsh. But how a light produced from burning gas could have the form described and move as described, advancing as you advance, receding as you recede, and at other times remaining stationary, without having any visible connection with the earth, is not clear to me".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** "On visiting the spot at night, the sensitive flames retired as the major advanced; but on standing quite still, they returned, and he tried to light a piece of paper at them, but the current of air produced by his breath kept them at too great a distance. On turning away his head, and screening his breath, he succeeded in setting fire to the paper. He was also able to extinguish the flame by driving it before him to a part of the ground where no gas was produced; then applying a flame to the place whence the gas issued, a kind of explosion was heard over eight or nine square feet of the marsh; a red light was seen, which faded to a blue flame about three feet high and this continued to burn with an unsteady motion. As the morning dawned the flames became pale and they seemed to approach nearer and nearer to the earth, until at last they faded from sight".

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bergovia_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bergovia_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Bergovia_1-2) Phipson, T.L. (October 1868). ["Will-o'-the-wisp"](https://books.google.com/books?id=KtcYAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA392). *[Belgravia](/source/Belgravia_(magazine))*. Vol. 6. London, UK: Robson and Son. p. 392. Retrieved 24 July 2020.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-allies1846_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-allies1846_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-allies1846_2-2) [Allies, J.](/source/Jabez_Allies) (1846). ["Hob"](https://books.google.com/books?id=rKQUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3). *On the*ignis fatuus*: Or, Will-o'-the-wisp, and the Fairies*. London, UK: Simpkin, Marshall, and Company. p. 3. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-608-32391-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-608-32391-6). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKittredge1900429–430_4-0)** [Kittredge (1900)](#CITEREFKittredge1900), pp. 429–430.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Denham (1895)](#CITEREFDenham1895), **2**: 78: friars' lanthorns

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wagner_9-0)** Wagner, Stephen. ["Spooklights: Where to Find Them"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071022153333/http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm). *About.com*. Archived from [the original](http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm) on 22 October 2007. Retrieved 8 December 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Floyd_10-0)** Floyd, Randall (1997). ["Historical Mysteries: Ghostly lights as common as dew in Dixie"](http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/060897/fea_floyd.html). *[The Augusta Chronicle](/source/The_Augusta_Chronicle)*. Retrieved 8 December 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** ["Ghost Lights and Orbs"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070311080723/http://www.moonslipper.com/ghostlightsandorbs.html). *Moonslipper.com*. Archived from [the original](http://www.moonslipper.com/ghostlightsandorbs.html) on 11 March 2007. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Brown, Jane K. (2020). ["Irrlichtelieren"](https://muse.jhu.edu/article/762257/summary). *Goethe Yearbook*. **27**: 337–344. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/gyr.2020.0017](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fgyr.2020.0017). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [240765012](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240765012).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-HdA-Olbrich-irrlicht_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-HdA-Olbrich-irrlicht_13-1) Olbrich, Karl (1932). ["Irrlicht"](https://books.google.com/books?id=UQdSKGeFoaIC&pg=PA786). *Hieb- und stichfest-Knistern*. Vol. 4. pp. 779–786, esp. 785.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["The Legend of Sean na Gealaí/Stingy Jack: From Mischievous Crook to Piteous Spook | Blog | Gaelchultúr"](https://www.gaelchultur.com/en/blog/the-origin-of-the-jack-o-lantern). *www.gaelchultur.com*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Tine Ghealáin – Will-o'-the-Wisp"](https://beanfeasa9.wordpress.com/tine-ghealain-will-o-the-wisp/). 8 March 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Ashliman, D. (19 January 2019). ["Will-o'-the-Wisp, Jack-o'-Lantern"](https://www.pitt.edu/~dash/willowisp.html). *University of Pittsburgh*. Retrieved 23 October 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Jackson, Darla (3 September 2015). *Mystical Mountains*. pp. 109–110.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Jarvis, Dale. ["Jack the Lantern in Shoe Cove Bight"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170103161228/http://www.nlunexplained.ca/2016/09/jack-lantern-in-shoe-cove-bight-will-o.html). *www.nlunexplained.ca*. Archived from [the original](http://www.nlunexplained.ca/2016/09/jack-lantern-in-shoe-cove-bight-will-o.html) on 3 January 2017. Retrieved 23 October 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-wright1914_19-0)** [Wright, E.M.](/source/Elizabeth_Mary_Wright) (1914). [*Rustic Speech and Folk-lore*](https://books.google.com/books?id=_ckzAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA200) (2 ed.). London, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 200–201.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenham1895'''2''':_78_20-0)** [Denham (1895)](#CITEREFDenham1895), **2**: 78.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-odonnell1955_22-0)** [O'Donnell, E.](/source/Elliott_O'Donnell) (1955). [*Haunted People*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SmKittGBhz0C&q=wisp++%22ghost+candle%22). London, UK: Rider. p. 75.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** [Denham (1895)](#CITEREFDenham1895), **2**: 79: "corpse lights or candles"

1. **[^](#cite_ref-J._Gordon_Melton_24-0)** Melton, J. Gordon (1999). [*The Vampire Book*](https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc00melt/page/7). Visible Ink Press. p. [7](https://archive.org/details/vampirebookencyc00melt/page/7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57859-281-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57859-281-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** ["North American Vampires"](http://vampireunderworld.com/category/types-of-vampires/north-american-vampires/). *VampireUnderworld.com*. 25 March 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** ["O Boitatá"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091218220628/http://www.terrabrasileira.net/folclore/regioes/3contos/boitata.html) [The Boitatá]. *Terrabrasileira.net* (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 18 December 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Pandey, Ambarish (7 April 2009). ["Bengali Ghosts"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111025215051/http://www.pak-times.com/2009/04/07/bengali-ghosts/). *[Pakistan Times](/source/Pakistan_Times)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.pak-times.com/2009/04/07/bengali-ghosts/) on 25 October 2011. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["Blog post by the author Saundra Mitchel of the novel "Shadowed Summer" at Books Obsession"](http://booksobsession.blogspot.com/2009/10/hbt-guest-post-with-author-saundra.html). *Booksobsession.blogspot.com*. 9 October 2009. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ghost_lights_that_dance_on_Banni_grasslands_when_it's_very_dark;_August_28,_2007;_The_Indian_Express_Newspaper_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ghost_lights_that_dance_on_Banni_grasslands_when_it's_very_dark;_August_28,_2007;_The_Indian_Express_Newspaper_29-1) D V Maheshwari (28 August 2007). ["Ghost lights that dance on Banni grasslands when it's very dark"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090114034106/http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=253114). *[The Indian Express](/source/The_Indian_Express)*. Archived from [the original](http://cities.expressindia.com/fullstory.php?newsid=253114) on 14 January 2009.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [Stark beauty (Rann of Kutch)](http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&issueid=&id=313&Itemid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&completeview=1)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Bharati Motwani; September 23, 2008; [India Today](/source/India_Today) Magazine, Cached: Page 2 of 3 page article with these search terms highlighted: *cheer batti*, ghost lights, *rann kutch* [\[1\]](http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=313&Itemid=1&issueid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&limit=1&limitstart=1), Cached: Complete View – 3 page article seen as a single page [\[2\]](https://archive.today/20120803102541/http://www.intoday.in/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&issueid=&id=313&Itemid=&sectionid=8&secid=48&completeview=1)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKittredge1900p._438,_n3_38-0)** [Kittredge (1900)](#CITEREFKittredge1900), p. 438, n3.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-zerrenner1783_39-0)** [Zerrenner, H.G.](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Gottlieb_Zerrenner) [in German] (1783). [*Natur- und Akkerpredigten, oder: Natur- und Akkerbau als eine Anleitung zur Gottseligkeit, ganz für Landleute*](https://books.google.com/books?id=eOtWAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA247). Magdeburg, DE: Scheidhauer. pp. 247–248.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-rochholz1862_40-0)** [Rochholz, E.L.](https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Ludvig_Rochholz) [in German] (1862). ["8.3 Irrlich unter Dach"](https://books.google.com/books?id=OD8PAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA178). *Naturmythen: neue Schweizersagen*. Leipzig, DE: B.G. Teubner. p. 178.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Zerrenner (1783)[35] cited by Rochholz.[36]

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Hoerrner, Mark (2006). ["History of the Jack-O-Lantern"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061114193117/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/history-jacko-lantern-irish-tale-halloween.html). *buzzle.com*. Archived from the original on 14 November 2006. Retrieved 9 May 2007.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** ["Colypixy"](http://www.pandius.com/coltpixy.html). *Pandius.com*. Retrieved 18 November 2011.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Campbell_54-0)** John Gregorson Campbell (1900). *Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland*. James MacLehose and Sons. pp. 6–7. [*[ISBN missing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** ["National Folklore Collection (NFC) and its collections"](https://www.duchas.ie/en/info/cbe). *[Dúchas](/source/D%C3%BAchas).ie*. 1 January 2014. Retrieved 26 April 2025.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-duchas_cat_56-0)** Curran, James (2 February 1938). ["Will o' the Wisp"](https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/5260470/5256180?HighlightText=%22harristown%22&Route=stories&SearchLanguage=ga). *[The Schools' Collection 1937-1939](/source/Irish_Folklore_Commission#School's_Collection) ([The Irish Folklore Commission](/source/Irish_Folklore_Commission))*. 0776C: 12_037. Retrieved 27 April 2025.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-perrigrew1_57-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-perrigrew1_57-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-perrigrew1_57-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-perrigrew1_57-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-perrigrew1_57-4) Pettigrew, John D. (March 2003). ["The Min Min light and the Fata Morgana. An optical account of a mysterious Australian phenomenon"](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1444-0938.2003.tb03069.x). *Clin Exp Optom*. **86** (2): 109–120. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1444-0938.2003.tb03069.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1444-0938.2003.tb03069.x). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12643807](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12643807).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-kozicka1_58-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-kozicka1_58-1) Kozicka, M.G. "The Mystery of the Min Min Light". Bolton Imprint, Cairns 1994 [*[ISBN missing](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-roels2001_59-0)** Joris Roels & Willy Verstrae (2001). ["Biological formation of volatile phosphorus compounds"](https://web.archive.org/web/20060919012514/http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/ckhachi/phosphorous/Roels_2001.pdf) (PDF). *Bioresource Technology*. **79** (3): 243–250. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001BiTec..79..243R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001BiTec..79..243R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0960-8524(01)00032-3](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0960-8524%2801%2900032-3). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11499578](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11499578). Archived from [the original](http://www.calstatela.edu/faculty/ckhachi/phosphorous/Roels_2001.pdf) (PDF) on 19 September 2006.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Lavatar, Ludwig (1596). [*Of ghostes and spirites, walking by night: and of straunge noyses, crackes, and sundrie forewarnings: which commonly happen before the death of men: great slaughters, and alterations of kingdoms*](https://archive.org/details/ofghostesspirite00lava). Blough-Weis Library Susquehanna University. Thomas Creede. pp. [51](https://archive.org/details/ofghostesspirite00lava/page/51)–52.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-volta_62-0)** Ciardi, Marco (2000). ["Falling Stars, Instruments and Myths: Volta and the Birth of Modern Meteorology"](http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Pages/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap2/2.pdf) (PDF). In Fabio Bevilacqua; Lucio Fregonese (eds.). *Nuova Voltiana: Studies on Volta and His Times*. Editore Ulrico Hoepli. p. 43.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-tomlinson_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-tomlinson_63-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-tomlinson_63-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-tomlinson_63-3) Tomlinson, Charles (1893). A. Cowper Ranyard (ed.). ["On Certain Low-Lying Meteors"](https://archive.org/details/knowledgev140nov16londuoft) (PDF). *[Knowledge: An Illustrated Magazine of Science. Simply Worded – Exactly Described](/source/Knowledge_(magazine))*. **16** (New Series, Vol. III): [46](https://archive.org/details/knowledgev140nov16londuoft/page/46)–48.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Owens J.G. (1891). "Folk-Lore from Buffalo Valley". *Journal of American Folk-Lore*. **4**: 123–124.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-blesson_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-blesson_66-1) Blesson, Louis (1832–1833). ["Observations on the *ignis fatuus*, or will-with-the-wisp, falling stars, and thunder storms"](http://inamidst.com/lights/wisp/blesson1832). *The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal*. **14**: 90–94.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Braham_1936_p54_68-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Braham_1936_p54_68-1) Braham, Sam F. (1936). *The Scout's Book of Gadgets and Dodges*. London, UK: The Scout. p. 54.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-mills_69-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-mills_69-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-mills_69-2) A. A. Mills (2000). "Will-o'-the-wisp revisited". *Weather*. **55** (7): 20–26. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000Wthr...55..239M](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Wthr...55..239M). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/j.1477-8696.2000.tb04067.x](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1477-8696.2000.tb04067.x). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [121340285](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:121340285).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-paleo_70-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-paleo_70-1) Zalasiewicz, Jan (2007). ["The spirit of biodiversity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110727184243/http://newsletter.palass-pubs.org/pdf/News64.pdf) (PDF). *The Palaeontology Newsletter* (64): 20–26. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-garl_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-garl_71-1) Luigi Garlaschelli & Paolo Boschetti. [*On the track of the will-o'-the-wisp*](https://44cc653b-a-62cb3a1a-s-sites.googlegroups.com/site/luigigarlaschelli/WILLOWISexperiments.pdf?attachauth=ANoY7cpHRffGlOiCwYxPlrtxd2lTvwsEAMQGgBpRGfI7Y-FSRb5um5lKbRMP0MRniEcJQNazW1rv21_sSUv0z7rcprszClTsadRbFE9Xxy71H_KwKf664KGyQh4qSTmVURo7yIbcG-UcqktElznNxbFHiFZam7ecLQ5N84AxbnmVOkSFpPCDVt4dGztZ6nrMoge0hmnLMmTcRKu7R2IjvyKV2bpVc41_YKLiXIUHE12qr2wabmq33J8%3D&attredirects=0) (PDF). Dipartimento di Chimica Organica, Università di Pavia.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-nasa_72-0)** Pearlman, Howard; Chapek, Richard M. (1999). [*Cool Flames and Autoignition: Thermal-Ingnition Theory of Combustion Experimentally Validated in Microgravity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BwKdl5NHALUC&pg=PA142). [NASA](/source/NASA). p. 142. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4289-1823-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4289-1823-8)., [Web version at NASA](https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/6000/6711wu.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100501223626/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/6000/6711wu.html) 2010-05-01 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** [Persinger, M.A.](/source/Michael_Persinger) (1993). *Perceptual and Motor Skills*. Geophysical variables and behavior. Vol. LXXIV. Man-made fluid injections into the crust and reports of luminous phenomena (UFO Reports) – Is the strain field an aseismically propagating hydrological pulse?.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** [Derr, J.S.](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J.S._Derr&action=edit&redlink=1) (1993). *Perceptual and Motor Skills*. Seasonal hydrological load and regional luminous phenomena (UFO reports) within river systems: the Mississippi Valley test.[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** ["A review of accounts of luminosity in barn owls *Tyto alba*"](http://www.owlpages.com/articles.php?section=Studies+and+Papers&title=Min+Min) – via owlpages.com.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-XiaPNAS_76-0)** Xia, Yu; Meng, Yifan; Shi, Jianbo; Zare, Richard N. (29 September 2025). ["Unveiling *ignis fatuus*: Microlightning between microbubbles"](https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2521255122). *[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences](/source/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences)*. **122** (41) e2521255122. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1073/pnas.2521255122](https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2521255122). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [12541408](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12541408).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** [von Goethe, J.W.](/source/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe) (1904). [Goethe's*das Märchen*](http://archive.org/details/goethesdasmrche00goetgoog). University of Michigan (archival source). D.C. Heath & co.

### Bibliography

- [Corliss, W.](/source/William_Corliss) (2001). *Remarkable Luminous Phenomena in Nature*.

- [Denham, M.](/source/Michael_Aislabie_Denham) (1895). [Hardy, James](/source/James_Hardy_(naturalist)) (ed.). [*The Denham Tracts: A collection of folklore*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Th4rwskBN1EC&pg=PA78). Vol. 2. London, UK: David Nutt for the Folklore Society. p. 78. Reprinted from the original tracts and pamphlets printed by Mr. Denhman between 1846 and 1859

- [Elsschot, W.](/source/Willem_Elsschot) *Het dwaallicht*.

- [Kittredge, G.L.](/source/George_Lyman_Kittredge) (1900). ["The Friar's Lantern and Friar Rush"](https://books.google.com/books?id=6NRQwEVJqU8C&pg=PA415). *Publications of the Modern Language Association*. **15**: 415–441.

- [Tremayne, P.](/source/Peter_Tremayne) *The Haunted Abbot*.

## External links

- Lindell, Jeff. ["The *ignis erraticus* – a bibliographic survey of the names of the will-'o-the-wisp"](https://web.archive.org/web/20090725120148/http://jeff.lindell.home.comcast.net/~jeff.lindell/Ignis%20Erraticus.html). Archived from [the original](http://jeff.lindell.home.comcast.net/~jeff.lindell/Ignis%20Erraticus.html) on 25 July 2009 – via jeff.lindell.home.comcast.net.

v t e Nordic folklore Beings Askafroa Bøyg Bysen Changeling Church grim Cyprianus Deildegast Di sma undar jordi Draugr Dwarf Elf Erlking Fossegrim Gjenganger Helhest Kraken Lindworm Mare Marmennill Myling Nisse Nis Puk Neck Pixie Rå Bergsrå Hulder Sjörå Skogsrå Sea serpent Selma Storsjöodjuret Skrømt Troll Troll cat Valravn Vardøger Vargr Vittra Vörðr Wight Will-o'-the-wisp Ysätters-Kajsa People Amleth Askeladden Blenda Disa Feng Påskkärring Origins Norse mythology Old Norse religion Danish folklore Finnish mythology

v t e German folklore Folklore of German-speaking countries Beings Alberich Alp Askafroa Aufhocker Bahkauv Beerwolf Belsnickel Bergmönch Bieresel Bogeyman Buschgroßmutter Changeling Christkind Companions of Saint Nicholas Devil's grandmother Doppelgänger Drak Drude Dwarf Easter Bunny Ekke Nekkepenn Elwetritsch Erdhenne Erlking Ewiger Jäger Fänggen Fasolt Fenixmännlein Feuermann Feldgeister Frau Holle Gütel Heimchen Heinzelmännchen Hemann Hinzelmann Hödekin Irrwurz Jack o' the bowl Klabautermann Klagmuhme King Goldemar King Laurin Knecht Ruprecht Kobold Krampus Lindworm Lorelei Lutzelfrau Mare Mephistopheles Moss people Nachzehrer Night raven Nis Puk Nixie Ork Perchta Petermännchen Poltergeist Rasselbock Rhinemaidens Rübezahl Salige Frau Santa Claus Schießschlange Schrat Tatzelwurm Türst Uhaml Weiße Frauen Wiedergänger Wild Hunt Wild man Will-o'-the-wisp Witte Wiwer Wolpertinger People Albrecht Gessler Arnold von Winkelried Attila Baron Munchausen Brunhild Christman Genipperteinga Dietrich von Bern Eppelein von Gailingen Faust Frederick Barbarossa Friar Rush Genevieve of Brabant Giselher of Burgundy Götz von Berlichingen Gunther Gudrun Gundomar I Hagen Hannikel Hans von Sagan Hans von Trotha Heinrich von Winkelried Hildebrand Johann Peter Petri (Black Peter) Klaus Störtebeker Knight of the Swan Konrad Baumgarten Kunigunde von Orlamünde Lohengrin Matthias Klostermayr Nibelung Ortnit Otto the Younger Peter Klaus Peter Nikoll (Black Peter) Pied Piper of Hamelin Princess Ilse Punker of Rohrbach Rüdiger von Bechelaren Schildbürger Schinderhannes Sigurd Stauffacherin Tannhäuser The Smith of Kochel Till Eulenspiegel Treuer Eckart Volker von Alzey Walram of Thierstein Walter of Aquitaine Werner Stauffacher William Tell Witege Wolfdietrich Xaver Hohenleiter Legends and fairy tales Grimms' Fairy Tales Deutsche Sagen Volksmärchen der Deutschen Gespensterbuch Nibelungenlied Freischütz Hirschsprung Venusberg Vineta Walpurgis Night Traditions Laternelaufen Perchtenlaufen Räbeliechtli Rübengeistern [de] Traulicht [de] Related folklore English Low Countries Nordic Danish Swiss Jewish

v t e Fairies in folklore Classifications of fairies Related articles Celtic sacred trees Changeling Elfshot Fairy fort Fairy godmother Fairyland Fairy-lock Fairy painting Fairy path Fairy riding Fairy ring Fairy tale List Familiar Household deity Hungry grass Attested fairies A–E Adhene Aibell Alp Luachra Anjana Aos Sí (Aes Sídhe) Arkan Sonney Asrai Baobhan sith Banshee Barghest Bean nighe Bergmönch Bieresel Billy Blind Biróg Bloody Bones Bluecap Blue men of the Minch Bodach Boggart Bogle Boobrie Brag Brownie Brown Man of the Muirs Bucca Buggane Bugbear Bugul Noz Buschgroßmutter Caoineag Cat sìth Cù Sìth Ceffyl Dŵr Clíodhna Clurichaun Coblynau Colt pixie Cyhyraeth Drak Drude Duergar Dullahan Dunnie Each-uisge Elf Alp Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar Elegast Erlking Half-elf Huldufólk Queen of Elphame Svartálfar F–L Fachan Fairy Queen Fänggen Fear dearg Fear gorta Fenixmännlein Fenodyree Finfolk Finvarra Fuath Gancanagh Ghillie Dhu Glaistig Glashtyn Groac'h Grindylow Gütel Gwragedd Annwn Gwyllion Gwyn ap Nudd Habetrot Hag Haltija The Hedley Kow Heimchen Heinzelmännchen Hinzelmann Hob Hobbididance Hobgoblin Hödekin Iannic-ann-ôd Jack-o'-lantern Jack o' the bowl Jenny Greenteeth Joan the Wad Joint-eater Kabouter Kelpie Kilmoulis Klagmuhme Knocker Knucker Kobold Klabautermann Korrigan Lady of the Lake Lazy Laurence Leanan sídhe Leprechaun Lubber fiend Lutin Ly Erg M–Z Mare Margot the fairy Meg Mullach Melusine Merrow Mooinjer veggey Morgen Morvarc'h Moss people Nain Rouge Nelly Longarms Nicnevin/Gyre-Carling Nis Puk Nisse Nixie Nuckelavee Nuggle Oberon Ork Peg Powler Petermännchen Pillywiggin Pixie Púca/Pwca Puck Rå Bergsrå Hulder Radande Sjörå Skogsrå Redcap Salige Frau Schrat Sebile Selkie Seonaidh Shellycoat Sleih beggey Sluagh Spriggan Sprite/Water sprite Sylph Titania Tomte Tooth fairy Trow Tylwyth Teg Undine Water bull Water horse Wicked fairy Wight Will-o'-the-wisp Wirry-cow Xana Yallery Brown Yan-gant-y-tan Fairy-like beings worldwide Worldwide Bogeyman Crone Hag Demon Classification of Devil Fallen angel Ghost Humanoid Jinn Ifrit Little people Merfolk Mermaid Merman UFO Vampire Africa Abatwa Aisha Qandicha Asanbosam Aziza Bultungin Eloko Jengu Kishi Mami Wata Obayifo Rompo Simbi Tikoloshe Yumboes Americas Alux Anchimayen Caipora Canotila Chaneque Christmas elf Chullachaqui Curupira Encantado Fastachee Fearsome critters Grey alien Hopkinsville Goblin Ishigaq Jogah Little green men Muki Nimerigar Nordic alien Nûñnë'hï Pombero Pukwudgie Saci Trauco Yunwi Tsunsdi Asia Apsara Archura Diwata Dokkaebi Fox spirit Hồ ly tinh Huli jing Huxian Inari Ōkami Kitsune Kumiho Hyang Irshi Kijimuna Korpokkur Mazzikin Mogwai Mrenh kongveal Orang bunian Peri Preta Hungry ghost Tennin Yaksha/Yakshini Yōkai Yōsei Oceania Bunyip Manaia Menehune Mimis Muldjewangk Nawao Patupaiarehe Ponaturi Taniwha Tipua Wandjina Yara-ma-yha-who Europe Eastern Bannik Căpcăun Domovoy Iele Karzełek Kikimora Leshy Lidérc Likho Ovinnik Polevik Rübezahl Rusalka Samodiva Sânziană Siren Spiriduș Ursitory Vadleany Vâlvă Vântoase Vodyanoy Zână Northern Aitvaras Ajatar Badb Black dog Ent Gabija Gremlin Halfling Haltija Headless Horseman Hiisi Jack Frost Jimmy Squarefoot Lauma Menninkäinen Morgan Le Fay Pictish Beast Troll Tuatha Dé Danann Vittra Southern Basajaun Centaur Cercopes Circe Dionysus Korybantes Maenades and Bacchantes Doñas de fuera Duende Farfadet Faun Hecate Hippocampus Kallikantzaros Kobalos Lamia Lamina Mairu Mouro Enchanted Moura Nymph List Pan Satyr Satyress Silenus Siren Thiasus Trenti Vila Western Dames blanches Dusios Dwarf Ekke Nekkepenn Frau Holle Imp Lorelei Perchta Venus in German legend Witte Wieven/Weiße Frauen/Witte Wiwer Cross-regional Christmas gift-bringer Santa Claus Companions of Christmas elf Elemental Fates Moirai Norns Green Man Goblin Gnome Ogre Salamander Sandman Wild man Category List of beings referred to as fairies

Authority control databases International GND 2 FAST National United States Czech Republic Israel

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Will-o'-the-wisp](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will-o'-the-wisp) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Will-o'-the-wisp?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.