# White Fathers

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Roman Catholic society of apostolic life

"Missionaries of Africa" redirects here. For other uses, see [Category:Christian missions in Africa](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Christian_missions_in_Africa).

Missionaries of Africa Missionarii Africae Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie Abbreviation M.Afr. Nickname White Fathers Formation 1868 (158 years ago) (1868) Founder Archbishop Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie Founded at Algiers, French Algeria Type Society of apostolic life of pontifical right (for men) Headquarters Via Aurelia 269, Rome, Italy Members 1,371 members (includes 1,029 priests) as of 2020 Superior General Fr. Stanley Lubungo, M. Afr. Ministries Evangelism and education Parent organization Roman Catholic Church Website mafrome.org

The **White Fathers** ([French](/source/French_language): *Pères Blancs*), officially known as the **Missionaries of Africa** ([Latin](/source/Latin_language): *Missionarii Africae*) and abbreviated **MAfr**, are a [Catholic](/source/Catholic_Church) [society of apostolic life](/source/Society_of_apostolic_life) of [pontifical right](/source/Pontifical_right) for men. They were founded in 1868 by [Charles Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie), who was then the [Archbishop of Algiers](/source/Archbishop_of_Algiers).[1] The society focuses on [evangelization](/source/Evangelism) and education, primarily in Africa. As of 2021, the Missionaries of Africa comprised 1,428 members from 36 nationalities, working in 42 countries across 217 communities.[2]

## History

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The first convent in Maison-Carrée (now [El-Harrach](/source/El-Harrach)), near [Algiers](/source/Algiers), [French Algeria](/source/French_Algeria).

The [cholera epidemic of 1867](/source/1863%E2%80%931875_cholera_pandemic) caused the death of 80,000 people in [French Algeria](/source/French_Algeria)[3] and left a large number of [Algerian orphans](/source/Algerians), prompting the establishment of the society of White Fathers in Maison-Carrée (now [El-Harrach](/source/El-Harrach)), near [Algiers](/source/Algiers). While the initial focus of the White Fathers was on the education and Christian instruction of these children, the society's founder, [Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie), who was then the [Archbishop of Algiers](/source/Archbishop_of_Algiers), envisioned the society's mission extending to the [conversion](/source/Conversion_to_Christianity) of [Arabs](/source/Arabs) in the [Maghreb](/source/Maghreb) and the [peoples of Central Africa](/source/Africans) to Christianity.

Lavigerie instructed his missionaries to integrate with local cultures by speaking the native language, eating the same food, and wearing the same clothing. As a result, they adopted traditional North African attire for their [vestments](/source/Vestments): the *[gandoura](/source/Gandoura)* for the [cassock](/source/Cassock), the *[burnous](/source/Burnous)* for the [mantle](/source/Mantle_(vesture)), and the [*chechia*](/source/Taqiyah_(cap)) for the [zucchetto](/source/Zucchetto).[2] They also wore their [rosaries](/source/Rosary) with [crucifixes](/source/Crucifix) as necklaces, symbolizing their religion and imitating the *[misbaha](/source/Misbaha)* of the [marabouts](/source/Marabouts).[4] This distinctive attire earned them the nickname "White Fathers".

Some missionaries in South Africa had changing attitudes towards indigenous cultures over time, as more interaction led to more nuanced understanding, instead of dismissive views.[5]

A novitiate was established in 1868, and missionary posts were set up in [Kabylie](/source/Kabylie) and the [Sahara](/source/Sahara). In 1876, three missionaries traveling to [Timbuktu](/source/Timbuktu) were killed by desert nomads.[2] In 1878, ten missionaries departed from [Algiers](/source/Algiers) to establish missions at [Lakes](/source/African_Great_Lakes) [Victoria](/source/Lake_Victoria), [Nyassa](/source/Lake_Malawi), and [Tanganyika](/source/Lake_Tanganyika).[4] That same year, a caravan of missionaries arrived at the port of [Mombasa](/source/Mombasa) and, after a three-month trek, reached [Lake Victoria](/source/Lake_Victoria).

The White Fathers were the largest [Christian missionary society](/source/Christian_mission) operating in [Zambia](/source/Zambia) and among the earliest to settle in the country. Their first station, established in 1891 among the [Mambwe people](/source/Mambwe_people) in the Tanganyika-Malawi corridor, predated the establishment of [British rule](/source/British_Empire). The Mambwe had been harassed by the politically and linguistically dominant [Bemba people](/source/Bemba_people) of northern [Zambia](/source/Zambia), towards whom the White Fathers subsequently directed their efforts.

In 1898, the establishment of the Chilubula mission by Bishop [Joseph Dunpont](/source/Joseph_Dupont_(bishop)) of the Nyasa Vicariate marked the beginning of the White Fathers' mission in Lubemba. This expansion allowed the society to extend its influence further than any other missionary organization in northern [Rhodesia](/source/Rhodesia). By the mid-1930s, the White Fathers had established approximately twenty missions, primarily in present-day northern and [Luapula](/source/Luapula_Province) provinces, with a smaller presence in the eastern Province of Zambia.[6]

Additionally, much of the documentation on the [Luganda](/source/Luganda), spoken in [Uganda](/source/Uganda)—such as grammars, dictionaries, and individual articles—is available in English or French. This can be traced back to the French Catholic missionary congregation of the White Fathers and their influence during the [colonial period](/source/History_of_colonialism), between 1885 and 1921. The White Fathers, who arrived in the [Lake Victoria](/source/Lake_Victoria) region in 1879, published six Luganda grammars and dictionaries in French.[7]

Missionaries in the Lake Victoria area actively worked to learn and use local languages, such as Luganda in their work. This was advantageous for them in their goal to integrate themselves into the community and assimilate to the culture.[8]

White Father missionaries in [French Algeria](/source/French_Algeria) ransomed a young slave, [Adrien Atiman](/source/Adrien_Atiman), and arranged for his education.[9] Atiman later became a medical catechist with the White Fathers at [Karema](/source/Karema%2C_Tanzania) and is known for providing a significant autobiographical account of his enslavement, subsequent freedom, and integration into the White Fathers' mission.[10]

In 1882, at the request of the Holy See, the White Fathers established [St. Anne's Seminary](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:St._Anne%27s_Seminary_(Jerusalem)) in Jerusalem to train [Greek Melchite](/source/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church) clergy of that rite. The seminary operated until 1967.[11] In 1894, a mission was founded in [French Sudan](/source/French_Sudan) (now [Mali](/source/Mali)).[4]

The Missionaries of Africa experienced more conversions among the LoDagaa in northern Ghana in 1932, during a period of drought and political issues. [12]

Missionaries in northwestern Ghana also got converts through gaining their trust and credibility by healing them. They also used education and through building bonds with local community, and the overall appeal to emotion helped locals have less fear towards conversion to Christianity.[13]

## Present day

These now form the present [Archdioceses](/source/Archdiocese) of [Kampala](/source/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Kampala), [Lilongwe](/source/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Lilongwe), [Gitega](/source/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Gitega), and [Tabora](/source/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Tabora), as well as the dioceses of [Kigoma](/source/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Kigoma), and [Kalemie-Kirungu](/source/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Kalemie-Kirungu).

The society is composed of missionary priests and brothers. The members take an oath committing them to labor for the conversion of Africa, in accordance with the constitutions of their society. The missionaries are not, strictly speaking, a [religious institute](/source/Religious_institute), whether an "[order](/source/Catholic_religious_order)" or "[congregation](/source/Congregation_of_Papal_Right)". Instead, they are a [society of apostolic life](/source/Society_of_apostolic_life). While they may retain their own property, they may only use it within the society at the direction of their superiors.

The White Fathers, members of the international Missionary Society of priests and brothers, numbered:

- 2,098 in 1998

- 1,712 in 2007

As of 2021, the Society is constituted as follows:

-1,144 Missionaries of Africa – fully professed priests, [deacons](/source/Deacon), and brothers:

-467 are living and working in Europe

-120 in the Americas

-510 in Africa

-16 in Asia

-31 in the Generalate in [Rome](/source/Rome)

Although there are currently 460 students at various stages of preparation, many of the White Fathers are retired due to age or ill health. This raises concerns about the future of the Society, which is diminishing in Europe.[14]

### Formation

Currently, the process of becoming a White Father is much longer than it was before. Candidates must first spend one year in a preparatory center. This is followed by 3 or 4 years of philosophy studies. The next step is the Spiritual Year, which takes place in one of three centers in Africa: two are English-speaking, and one is French-speaking. The final period of study, lasting 4 years, takes place either in Africa or [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem).[14]

## Aims

One of the key aspects of the rule concerns community life in the missions, with each house required to have at least three members. The head of the society is the General Superior, who is elected every six years by the chapter. He resides in Rome at the Generalate house on Via Aurelia.

Those desiring to become priests or brothers are admitted to the [novitiate](/source/Novitiate) after completing their philosophical studies. Following the novitiate, they spend two years in missionary training in the field and four years studying theology. The training may vary slightly for brother candidates. The theological studies are conducted at scholasticates currently located in Abidjan ([Ivory Coast](/source/Ivory_Coast)), Nairobi ([Kenya](/source/Kenya)), [Merrivale (Devon)](/source/Merrivale%2C_Devon), South Africa, and [Jerusalem](/source/Jerusalem). The society admits individuals of all nationalities.

The Missionaries of Africa society claims that, from its origins, it has aimed at the [evangelization](/source/Evangelism) of the African continent and addressing the presence of [Islam](/source/Islam) in the world. Since its founding by [Charles- Martial Allemand- Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie), the White Fathers have been predominantly active in the following areas: the establishment and development of new Christian communities in Africa; the formation of laity and clergy; social work; the struggle for justice within African countries; rural development; and the attempt to convert followers of other faiths, particularly in opposition to Islam.[15]

Some early Christian missionaries in Africa were often against traditional funeral rituals, viewing them as pagan, though some scholars later emphasized the importance of these practices in a social manner in African communities.[16]

Missionary activity in colonial Africa often involved not only religious teaching but also public lectures, the formation of institutions, and engagement with communities locally, which would sometimes draw a large audience and influenced society in both social and personal aspects. [17]

The White Fathers live in Regional Houses, with each house required to contain at least three members. The General Superior is at the head of the society and is elected every six years by the chapter. These Regional Houses often have archives that document the progress and goals the White Fathers aimed to achieve. The archives at the Regional House outside [Mwanza](/source/Mwanza), Tanzania, provide valuable insight into the research conducted in the areas where the White Fathers lived and worked.

The archives contain the *Rapports Annuales* and a complete set of *Chronique Trimestrielle*, which document the White Fathers' progress in pursuing their goals from the 1880s to the late 1950s. The *Chronique Trimestrielle* was published quarterly and provided information about the mission and their work in the surrounding area and community. The Rapports Annuales included various statistics, such as the number of missionaries, [catechists](/source/Catechesis), neophytes, catechumans, [baptisms](/source/Baptism) of various categories, marriages, [confessions](/source/Confession_(religion)), confirmations, and the number of boys and girls attending school at each mission station. Education was one of the main objectives highlighted in these records and reports.[18]

Cypress Grove House, home of the White Fathers in Ireland

### Leadership

From 1874, under the leadership of Archbishop (later Cardinal) [Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie), the General Superiors served as the overall leaders of the Society. After the death of [Charles-Martial Allemand-Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie) in 1892, the position of Superior General evolved into one of ultimate leadership, as the Society's work was no longer overseen by a [Cardinal](/source/Cardinal_(Catholic_Church)) or [Archbishop](/source/Archbishop).[19]

Today, the leader of the General Council is the [Superior General](/source/Superior_General_(Christianity)), Father Stanley Lubungo from [Zambia](/source/Zambia), who is assisted by four councillors: Didier Sawadogo ([Burkina Faso](/source/Burkina_Faso)), Francis Barnes (British), Martin Grenier (Canadian), and Ignatius Anipu (Ghanaian).[20] Each councillor has specific areas of responsibility, such as overseeing particular countries, which allows them to travel and visit various regions before returning to Rome. All members of the council who hold leadership positions are elected, with the next election scheduled for 2022.[19]

The table below lists all the [General Superiors](/source/Superior_General_(Christianity)) from 1874 to the present day:[21]

Years in Role General Superiors 1874-1880 Fr. Francisque Deguerry 1880-1885 Fr. Jean-Baptiste-Frézal Charbonnier (later Bishop) 1885-1886 Fr. Léonce Bridoux (later Bishop) 1886-1889 Fr. Francisque Deguerry 1889-1894 Bishop Léon Livinhac (later Archbishop) 1894-11 November 1922 Archbishop Léon Livinhac 1922-1936 Fr. Paul Voillard 22 April 1936 – 30 April 1947 Bishop Joseph-Marie Birraux 5 May 1947 – 1957 Bishop Louis-Marie-Joseph Durrieu 1957-1967 Fr. Léon Volker 1967-1974 Fr. Théoz Van Asten 1974-1980 Fr. Jean-Marie Vasseur 1980-1986 Fr. Robert Marie Gay (later Bishop) 1986-1992 Fr. Etienne Renaud 1992-1998 Fr. Gothard Rosner 1998-2 June 2004 Fr. François Richard 2 June 2004 – 31 May 2010 Fr. Gérard Chabanon 31 May 2010 – 17 February 2016 Fr. Richard Baawobr (became Bishop of Wa, Ghana, earlier in 2016) 27 May 2016 – Present Fr. Stanley Lubungo

## Zambia

The White Fathers were once the largest missionary society in [Zambia](/source/Zambia). In 1891, they established their first station among the [Mambwe](/source/Mambwe_people), an ethnic group from northeastern Zambia, in the Tanganyika-Malawi corridor. This made them the earliest missionaries to settle in the country, even before the effective establishment of British rule following the [Berlin Conference in 1885](/source/Berlin_Conference), which placed the Zambian territory under British control.[22]

In 1895, [Joseph Dupont](/source/Joseph_Dupont_(bishop)) took over the Mambwe mission and directed his efforts toward the dominant ethnic group in Northern Zambia, [the Bemba](/source/Bemba_people).

Joseph Dupont then contacted the Bemba royalty, following the instructions of [Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie). The founding Cardinal believed in the "Clovis Model," a strategy for converting indigenous people in Zambia. This model proposed that convincing the king to convert first would lead to the conversion of the population, as the people would follow the king's example and embrace Christianity.[23]

The White Fathers claimed success in converting at least some of the Bemba to Christianity. However, Britain, which sought to exercise indirect colonial control in the region, refused to allow the French White Fathers to establish missions before 1900.[24] By the 1930s, however, the White Fathers were overseeing twenty missions located in the eastern provinces of Zambia.[22] As European institutions remained weak, and mainly depended on local leaders for survival, African political dynamics noticeably changed missionary activity in northern Katanga. They also influenced colonial administration, as they no longer had the same power they once did. This challenged previous ideas and assumptions of dominance of missionaries.[25]

The White Fathers often struggled to get converts and enforce their authority in the northern Katanga region. This happened more particularly in mission areas where they had to compete with Protestant missionaries and local traditions.[26]

Following a request from Zambian authorities for the remains of Joseph Dupont, the bishop's bones were reburied at Chilubula Mission on 15 December 2000. This event was unusual, occurring 88 years after the White Fathers had left Zambia. It highlights the significant influence the White Fathers had at the time and continue to have in Zambia to this day.[27]

Even today, [Lusaka](/source/Lusaka) is home to the White Fathers' headquarters, where the archival collection remains and was updated in 2001 by Father Hugo Hinfelaar.[22]

## Dress and membership

Africa is a continent with high levels of Islamic worship, which influenced the White Fathers' choice of robes resembling those of [Algerian Arabs](/source/Arab-Berber). Algerian Arab robes were often colorful and patterned, known as [kaftans](/source/Kaftan), while the White Father missionaries typically wore pure white robes, and in some cases, black. The design was also different, resembling a [cassock](/source/Cassock), the traditional clerical attire in Catholicism. However, due to the African climate, wearing a full cassock was impractical, so robes were designed with inspiration from the *[gandoura](/source/Gandoura)*, a popular African garment made from cotton or light material that suited the weather conditions. To complete the attire, they wore a long white cloak known as a *[burnous](/source/Burnous)*. The missionaries also wore a rosary around their necks, symbolizing their devotion to religion and prayer, resembling the *[misbaha](/source/Misbaha)* of the [Marabouts](/source/Marabout).

## Archives

The official archives of the Missionaries of Africa ("The White Fathers") are located in [Rome, Italy](/source/Rome).[28] This archival collection is considered private; however, researchers can gain access upon request. The archives are currently managed by the General Secretariat of the Society, with Father Dominique Arnauld serving as the archivist.[29]

While today the official languages of the society are French and English, most records and the limited electronic collection are organized in French. The archives hold a variety of materials, including correspondence, reports, general administration documents, and publications from their founder, [Cardinal Lavigerie](/source/Charles_Lavigerie).[29]

This centralized archive is considered essential for those researching African history, as it contains a wealth of resources.[29] However, many are unaware of the regional "White Fathers" archives that exist within Africa itself.

The archive at the "White Fathers" headquarters in [Lusaka, Zambia](/source/Lusaka), was most recently updated in 2001, under the supervision of Father Hugo Hinfelaar. Prior to this, the collections were held at the Ilondola Mission's Language Learning Centre, which had been an open facility for researchers since 1960. The collections were primarily created and cataloged by Father Louis Oger until his death in 1996. These materials included documents detailing the society's administration, history, and personnel. By moving the collections to [Lusaka](/source/Lusaka), the archive has become much more accessible, and efforts are underway to actively expand the collections.[30]

A similar regional archive exists in [Mwanza, Tanzania](/source/Mwanza), documenting the activities of the "White Fathers" who worked in this area. Although small, it provides valuable insight into the society's missions and contains documents such as the *Rapports Annuels*. The latter compiles statistics related to the "White Fathers" work, including the number of [Sisters](/source/Sisters_of_Mercy) and [baptisms](/source/Baptism). Records like these are not available in Rome, highlighting the importance of seeking various archival sources, not just those from the central archive.[31]

Photographic archives related to the "White Fathers" missionary work throughout the 20th century can be found in various institutions, such as the [Smithsonian](/source/Smithsonian_Institution), which provides images of the missions and the Africans living near them in [Rwanda](/source/Rwanda) and [Burundi](/source/Burundi). Similar photographs are also held in the [University of Birmingham](/source/University_of_Birmingham) archives, documenting a variety of missionary activities across several African countries.[28]

## Publications

- *Proche-Orient Chrétien*, a journal published in Jerusalem

## See also

General House in Rome

- [Catholic missions](/source/Catholic_missions)

- [Bishop Burkhard Huwiler](/source/Burkard_Huwiler)

- [Bishop Joseph Dupont](/source/Joseph_Dupont_(bishop))

- [Melkite Greek Catholic Church](/source/Melkite_Greek_Catholic_Church)

- [Mua Mission, Malawi](/source/Kungoni)

- [Catholic youth sports associations of French Algeria](/source/Catholic_youth_sports_associations_of_French_Algeria)

- [The White Fathers Mission in Uganda](/source/The_White_Fathers_Mission_in_Uganda)

## References

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-blanc_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-blanc_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-blanc_2-2) Ceillier, Jean-Claude. ["The Missionaries of Africa - The White Fathers- The origins of Our Society"](http://peresblancs.org/histoi1a.htm). *peresblancs.org*. Retrieved 12 December 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pandemics_3-0)** Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). [*Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A–M*](https://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf) (PDF). ABC-CLIO. p. 107. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0313341021](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313341021). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200215143932/https://www.academia.dk/MedHist/Sygdomme/PDF/Encyclopedia_of_Pestilence_Pandemics_and_Plagues.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2024.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Forbes_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Forbes_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Forbes_4-2) [Forbes, John. "White Fathers." The Catholic Encyclopedia](https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15613d.htm) Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 3 March 2020 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the [public domain](/source/Public_domain).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Hale, Frederick (2015). ["Nils Astrup and Indigenous African Cultures: A Study in Evolving Missionary Attitudes"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/24805691.pdf?refreqid=fastly-default%3Aea8a674f40784b8278387da076955905&ab_segments=&initiator=&acceptTC=1) (PDF). *Journal for the Study of Religion*. **28** (2): 42–63 – via JSTOR.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Marja Hinfelaar, Giacomo Macola, ‘The White Fathers’ Archive in Zambia’, History in Africa, Vol. 30, Publisher: Cambridge University Press, (2003).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Michael Meeuwis, ‘THE WHITE FATHERS AND LUGANDA To the Origins of French Missionaries linguistics in the Lake Victoria region.’, Annales Aequatoria, Vol. 20, Publisher: Honore Vinck, (1999).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Meeuwis, Michael (1999). ["The White Fathers and Luganda: To the origins of French missionary linguistics in the Lake Victoria region"](http://www.jstor.org/stable/25836660). *Annales Aequatoria*: 413–443.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Rockel, Stephen (16 April 2013). ["The Remarkable Story of Adrian Atiman: Freed Slave to Medical Missionary"](https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2252267). *[SSRN](/source/SSRN)*. [SSRN](/source/SSRN_(identifier)) [2252267](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2252267).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["African history specialist discusses Adrien Atiman, freed slave to medical missionary"](https://yfile.news.yorku.ca/2014/03/14/african-history-specialist-discusses-adrien-atiman-freed-slave-to-medical-missionary/). *14 March 2014*. York University. Retrieved 18 August 2020.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Hawkins, Sean (January 1997). ["To Pray or Not To Pray: Politics, Medicine, and Conversion among the LoDagaa of Northern Ghana, 1929-1939"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00083968.1997.10751105). *Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue canadienne des études africaines*. **31** (1): 50–85. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00083968.1997.10751105](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00083968.1997.10751105). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0008-3968](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-3968).

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Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). ["White Fathers"](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/White_Fathers). *[Catholic Encyclopedia](/source/Catholic_Encyclopedia)*. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

## External links

- [International Website of the Missionaries of Africa](https://mafrome.org/home/)

- [Missionaries of Africa UK](https://www.missionariesofafrica.org/)

- [Missionaries of Africa in West Africa](http://www.mafrwestafrica.net/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140517212402/http://www.mafrwestafrica.net/) 17 May 2014 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF 2 GND National United States France BnF data Czech Republic 2 Norway Poland Vatican Israel Academics CiNii Other IdRef Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [White Fathers](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Fathers) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Fathers?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.