# Westron

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Language invented by J. R. R. Tolkien

According to [Tom Shippey](/source/Tom_Shippey), Tolkien invented parts of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth) to resolve the linguistic puzzle he had accidentally created by using three different [pseudo-translated](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings) European languages for those of peoples in his legendarium.[1]

**Westron** (called ***Adûni*** in Westron, or ***Sôval Phârë***, meaning "Common Speech") is the constructed language that was supposedly the **Common Speech** used in [J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien)'s world of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth) in the [Third Age](/source/Third_Age), at the time of *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)*. It ostensibly developed from [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic), the ancient language of [Númenor](/source/N%C3%BAmenor). In practice in the novel, Westron is nearly always represented by modern English, in a process of [pseudo-translation](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings) which also sees [Rohirric](/source/Rohirric) represented by [Old English](/source/Old_English). That process allowed Tolkien not to develop Westron or Rohirric in any detail. In the Appendices of the novel, Tolkien gives some examples of Westron words.

## Context

Further information: [Languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/Languages_constructed_by_J._R._R._Tolkien)

From his schooldays, [J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) was, in the words of his biographer [John Garth](/source/John_Garth_(author)), "effusive about philology"; his schoolfriend Rob Gilson called him "quite a great authority on [etymology](/source/Etymology)".[2] Tolkien was a professional [philologist](/source/Philology), a scholar of comparative and historical [linguistics](/source/Linguistics). He was especially familiar with [Old English](/source/Old_English) and related languages. He remarked to the poet and *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)* book reviewer [Harvey Breit](/source/Harvey_Breit) that "I am a philologist and all my work is philological"; he explained to his American publisher [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin) that this was meant to imply that his work was "all of a piece, and *fundamentally linguistic* in inspiration. ... The [invention of languages](/source/Languages_constructed_by_J._R._R._Tolkien) is the foundation. The 'stories' were made rather to provide a world for the languages than the reverse. To me a name comes first and the story follows."[T 1]

Tolkien created a large family of [Elvish languages](/source/Elvish_languages_(Middle-earth)), the best-known and most developed being [Quenya](/source/Quenya) and [Sindarin](/source/Sindarin).[3] In addition, he sketched in the [Mannish](/source/Men_in_Middle-earth) languages of Westron's precursor, [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic), and Rohirric;[4] the Dwarvish language of [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul);[T 2] the [Entish](/source/Ent) language;[T 3] and the [Black Speech](/source/Black_Speech) of the [Orcs](/source/Orc).[T 4]

## Linguistic mapping

Further information: [Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings](/source/Pseudotranslation_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings)

When writing *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)* (1954–55), a sequel to *[The Hobbit](/source/The_Hobbit)* (1937), Tolkien came up with the literary device of using real languages to "translate" fictional languages. He pretended that he had not composed the book himself but had translated it from Westron (named *Adûni* in Westron) or Common Speech (*Sôval Phârë*, in Westron) into English. The purpose of this was to provide an explanation for why the Common Speech is almost entirely rendered as English in the novel. This device of rendering an *imaginary* language with a *real* one was carried further by rendering:[1]

- [Rohirric](/source/Rohirric), the language of [Rohan](/source/Rohan_(Middle-earth)) (related to Westron) by the [Mercian dialect](/source/Mercian_dialect) of [Old English](/source/Old_English);[1]

- names in the tongue of [Dale](/source/Dale_(Middle-earth)) by [Old Norse](/source/Old_Norse_language) forms;[1]

- names of the [Kingdom of Rhovanion](/source/Kingdom_of_Rhovanion) by [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) forms, thus mapping the genetic relation of his fictional languages on to the existing historical relations of the [Germanic languages](/source/Germanic_languages).[1]

The whole device of linguistic mapping was essentially a fix for the problems Tolkien had created for himself by using real Norse names for the Dwarves in *[The Hobbit](/source/The_Hobbit)*, rather than inventing new names in [Khuzdul](/source/Khuzdul), the language of the Dwarves. This seemed a clever solution, as it allowed him to explain the book's use of Modern English as representing Westron.[5] Because of this, Tolkien did not need to develop Westron grammar or vocabulary in any detail.[6]

The mapping of [Old English](/source/Old_English) to Modern English is like the mapping of [Rohirric](/source/Rohirric) to Westron, and Tolkien uses the two Germanic languages to represent the two Middle-earth languages.[T 5] Further, Tolkien uses [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) names for the early leaders of the Northmen of Rhovanion, ancestors of Rohan.[T 6][7]

Tolkien went further, using [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language) names for the early leaders of the Northmen of [Rhovanion](/source/Rhovanion), ancestors of Rohan, and for the first Kings of Rohan.[T 6][7] Gothic was an [East Germanic language](/source/East_Germanic_languages), and as such is a forerunner of Old English, not a direct ancestor.[8] [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) suggests that his father intended the correspondence between the language families to extend back to the ancestral language of the Northmen.[T 6]

Mapping of names of leaders[7][T 6][T 7] Realm Leader's name Etymology Meaning "Translated from" Northmen of Rhovanion Vidugavia Latinised from Gothic widu, gauja wood-dweller (Pre-Rohirric) Northmen of Rhovanion Marhwini Gothic marh, wini horse-friend (Pre-Rohirric) Rohan Folcwine Old English folc, winë folk-friend Rohirric Rohan Éowyn Old English eo[h], wyn horse-joy Rohirric

## Language

Westron (also called Adûni) supposedly developed from [Adûnaic](/source/Ad%C3%BBnaic), the ancient language of [Númenor](/source/N%C3%BAmenor).[T 8] It became the [lingua franca](/source/Lingua_franca) for all the peoples of [Middle-earth](/source/Middle-earth):[9] Tolkien gives some examples of Westron words in Appendix F to *The Lord of the Rings*, where he summarizes Westron's origin and role as *[lingua franca](/source/Lingua_franca)* in Middle-earth:[T 3]

The language represented in this history by English was the Westron or 'Common Speech' of the West-lands of Middle-earth in the Third Age. In the course of that age it had become the native language of nearly all the speaking-peoples (save the Elves) who dwelt within the bounds of the old kingdoms of Arnor and Gondor ... At the time of the War of the Ring at the end of the age these were still its bounds as a native tongue.[T 3]

He explains further that:

the Númenóreans had maintained ... havens upon the western coasts of Middle-earth for the help of their ships; and one of the chief of these was at Pelargir near the Mouths of Anduin. There Adûnaic was spoken, and mingled with many words of the languages of lesser men it became a Common Speech that spread thence along the coasts among all that had dealings with Westernesse.[T 3]

Tolkien gives a few names in Westron, saying that *Karningul* was the translation of Elvish *Imladris*, [Rivendell](/source/Rivendell), while *Sûza* was Westron for [the Shire](/source/The_Shire). Hobbit surnames Took and Boffin were "anglicize[d]" from Westron *Tûk* and *Bophîn*. The original form of Brandybuck was *Zaragamba*, "Oldbuck", from Westron *zara*, "old", and *gamba*, "buck".[T 3] He explains, too, that [Sam\[wise\]](/source/Samwise_Gamgee) and Ham[fast] "were really called *Ban* and *Ran*", shortened from Westron *Banazîr* and *Ranugad*.[T 3] Tolkien states that these had been nicknames, meaning "halfwise, simple" and "stay-at-home", which he had chosen to render by English names, from Old English *samwís* and *hámfoest* with equivalent meanings.[T 3] [Nick Groom](/source/Nick_Groom) states that *Sûza*, *Banazîr*, and the Westron for Sam's surname "Gamgee", *Galbasi*, are all derived from [Gothic](/source/Gothic_language), a precursor of [Old English](/source/Old_English), adding a further layer of linguistic complexity to the pseudotranslation.[10]

The word *[Hobbit](/source/Hobbit)*, which [Tolkien's fictional persona](/source/Editorial_framing_of_The_Lord_of_the_Rings), the narrator of the appendices, admits "is an invention", could, he explains, easily be a much-worn form of the Old English *holbytla*, "hole-dweller". This corresponds to the Westron dialect form *kuduk*, used in [Bree](/source/Bree_(Middle-earth)) and the Shire, which the narrator supposes was probably a worn form of the word *kûd-dûkan*, of the same meaning, stating that Merry had heard King [Théoden](/source/Th%C3%A9oden) of Rohan use this name for *Hobbit*.[T 3]

## References

### Primary

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Letter_165_3-0)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #165 to [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin), 30 June 1955

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** [Carpenter 2023](#CITEREFCarpenter2023), #176 to [Naomi Mitchison](/source/Naomi_Mitchison), 8 December 1955

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Appendix_F_7-7) [Tolkien 1955](#CITEREFTolkien1955), Appendix F

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Words,_Phrases_and_Passages_8-0)** [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (2007). "Words, Phrases and Passages in Various Tongues in 'The Lord of the Rings'". *[Parma Eldalamberon](/source/Parma_Eldalamberon)* (17): 11–12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Rohanese_11-0)** [Tolkien 2001](#CITEREFTolkien2001), p. 8

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Gothic_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Gothic_12-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Gothic_12-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Tolkien_Gothic_12-3) [Tolkien 1980](#CITEREFTolkien1980), p. 311

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** [Tolkien 1955](#CITEREFTolkien1955), Appendix A: Annals of the Kings and Rulers, II: The House of Eorl

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sauron_Defeated_16-0)** [Tolkien 1992](#CITEREFTolkien1992), pp. 241, 247–250, 413–440

### Secondary

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShippey2005131–133_1-4) [Shippey 2005](#CITEREFShippey2005), pp. 131–133.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGarth200316_2-0)** [Garth 2003](#CITEREFGarth2003), p. 16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHostetter2013_4-0)** [Hostetter 2013](#CITEREFHostetter2013).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFauskanger2012_5-0)** [Fauskanger 2012](#CITEREFFauskanger2012).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFimi2010189–191_9-0)** [Fimi 2010](#CITEREFFimi2010), pp. 189–191.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHemmi2010147–174_10-0)** [Hemmi 2010](#CITEREFHemmi2010), pp. 147–174.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2020202–214_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2020202–214_13-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith2020202–214_13-2) [Smith 2020](#CITEREFSmith2020), pp. 202–214.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMadoff1979_14-0)** [Madoff 1979](#CITEREFMadoff1979).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESolopova200970,_84_17-0)** [Solopova 2009](#CITEREFSolopova2009), pp. 70, 84.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroom2022101_18-0)** [Groom 2022](#CITEREFGroom2022), p. 101.

## Sources

- [Carpenter, Humphrey](/source/Humphrey_Carpenter), ed. (2023) [1981]. *[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/The_Letters_of_J._R._R._Tolkien): Revised and Expanded Edition*. New York: [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-35-865298-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-35-865298-4).

- [Fauskanger, Helge K.](/source/Helge_Fauskanger) (2012). ["Various Mannish Tongues - the sadness of Mortal Men?"](https://ardalambion.net/mannish.htm). *Ardalambion*. [University of Bergen](/source/University_of_Bergen). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140219073510/http://folk.uib.no/hnohf/mannish.htm) from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 24 October 2012.

- [Fimi, Dimitra](/source/Dimitra_Fimi) (2010) [2008]. *Tolkien, Race, and Cultural History: From Fairies to Hobbits*. [Palgrave Macmillan](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-21951-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-21951-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [222251097](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/222251097).

- [Garth, John](/source/John_Garth_(author)) (2003). [*Tolkien and the Great War: The Threshold of Middle-earth*](/source/Tolkien_and_the_Great_War). [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-00711-953-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-00711-953-0).

- [Groom, Nick](/source/Nick_Groom) (2022). *Twenty-First Century Tolkien: What Middle-earth Means to Us Today*. [Atlantic Books](/source/Atlantic_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1838-95700-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1838-95700-1).

- Hemmi, Yoko (2010). ["Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings and His Concept of Native Language: Sindarin and British-Welsh"](https://doi.org/10.1353/tks.0.0063). *[Tolkien Studies](/source/Tolkien_Studies)*. **7**: 147–174. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/tks.0.0063](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftks.0.0063). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [170366632](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170366632) – via [Project Muse](/source/Project_Muse).

- [Hostetter, Carl F.](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter) (2013) [2007]. "Languages Invented by Tolkien". In [Drout, Michael D. C.](/source/Michael_D._C._Drout) (ed.). *[J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien_Encyclopedia)*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). pp. 332–344. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-86511-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-86511-1).

- Madoff, Mark (1979). "The Useful Myth of Gothic Ancestry". *Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture*. **8** (1): 337–350. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1353/sec.1979.0019](https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fsec.1979.0019). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1938-6133](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1938-6133).

- [Shippey, Tom](/source/Tom_Shippey) (2005) [1982]. [*The Road to Middle-Earth: How J. R. R. Tolkien Created a New Mythology*](/source/The_Road_to_Middle-Earth) (Third ed.). [HarperCollins](/source/HarperCollins). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-261-10275-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-261-10275-0).

- [Smith, Arden R.](/source/Arden_R._Smith) (2020) [2014]. "Invented Languages and Writing Systems". In [Lee, Stuart D.](/source/Stuart_D._Lee) (ed.). *[A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien](/source/A_Companion_to_J._R._R._Tolkien)*. [Wiley Blackwell](/source/Wiley_Blackwell). pp. 202–214. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1119656029](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1119656029). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1183854105](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1183854105).

- [Solopova, Elizabeth](/source/Elizabeth_Solopova) (2009). *Languages, Myths and History: An Introduction to the Linguistic and Literary Background of J. R. R. Tolkien's Fiction*. New York City: [North Landing Books](/source/North_Landing_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9816607-1-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9816607-1-4).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1955). *[The Return of the King](/source/The_Return_of_the_King)*. *[The Lord of the Rings](/source/The_Lord_of_the_Rings)*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [519647821](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/519647821).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1980). [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) (ed.). *[Unfinished Tales](/source/Unfinished_Tales)*. Boston: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-395-29917-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-29917-3).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (1992). [Christopher Tolkien](/source/Christopher_Tolkien) (ed.). *[Sauron Defeated](/source/Sauron_Defeated)*. Boston, New York, & London: [Houghton Mifflin](/source/Houghton_Mifflin). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-395-60649-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-395-60649-7).

- [Tolkien, J. R. R.](/source/J._R._R._Tolkien) (July 2001). [Hostetter, Carl F.](/source/Carl_F._Hostetter) (ed.). "The Rivers and Beacon-hills of Gondor". *[Vinyar Tengwar](/source/Vinyar_Tengwar)* (42).

v t e Languages of Middle-earth Elvish languages Quenya Namárië Quenya grammar Respective case Sindarin A Elbereth Gilthoniel Other languages Adûnaic Black Speech Khuzdul Valarin Westron Scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Linguists Elvish Linguistic Fellowship (Vinyar Tengwar, Parma Eldalamberon) Anthony Appleyard Helge Fauskanger Carl F. Hostetter Tom Loback David Salo Arden R. Smith Allan Turner Related "A Secret Vice" The Etymologies Lhammas Middle-earth Pseudotranslation in The Lord of the Rings Sound and language in Middle-earth Sundering of the Elves

v t e Middle-earth J. R. R. Tolkien Bibliography Canon Legendarium Outline Works In Tolkien's lifetime The Hobbit (1937) The Lord of the Rings (1954–55) The Fellowship of the Ring "The Shadow of the Past" "The Council of Elrond" The Two Towers The Return of the King "The Scouring of the Shire" "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen" The Adventures of Tom Bombadil (1962) Posthumous The Silmarillion (1977) "Ainulindalë" Unfinished Tales (1980) The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien (1981) Bilbo's Last Song (1990) The three "Great Tales" The Children of Húrin (2007) Beren and Lúthien (2017) The Fall of Gondolin (2018) The Fall of Númenor (2022) History of composition History of Middle-earth [1–2] The Book of Lost Tales (1983–84) Ælfwine [3] The Lays of Beleriand (1985) [4] The Shaping of Middle-earth (1986) [5] The Lost Road and Other Writings (1987) The Etymologies Lhammas [6–9] The History of The Lord of the Rings (1988–1992) The Notion Club Papers [10] Morgoth's Ring (1993) [11] The War of the Jewels (1994) [12] The Peoples of Middle-earth (1996) Others John D. Rateliff The History of The Hobbit (2007) Carl F. Hostetter The Nature of Middle-earth (2021) Fictional universe Peoples, monsters Ainur Maiar Balrogs Wizards Valar Dragons Ancalagon Smaug Dwarves Eagles Elves Half-elven Noldor Sundering Ents Hobbits Men Beornings Drúedain Dúnedain Orcs Trolls Characters First and Second Ages Celebrimbor Eärendil and Elwing Elendil Fëanor Fingolfin Finwë and Míriel Gil-galad Húrin Isildur Lúthien and Beren Melian Morgoth Thingol Tuor and Idril Túrin Turambar Ungoliant Third Age Elrond Galadriel Gandalf Glorfindel Goldberry Gollum Saruman Sauron Tom Bombadil Places First and Second Ages Beleriand Númenor Valinor Third Age Bree Esgaroth Gondor Harad Isengard Lonely Mountain Lothlórien Mirkwood Mordor Moria Rivendell Rohan The Shire Bag End Objects Mithril Palantír Red Book of Westmarch Rings of Power One Ring Silmarils Two Trees of Valinor List of weapons and armour Analysis Elements Artwork Family trees Heraldry Languages Adûnaic Black Speech Elvish Quenya Sindarin Khuzdul Valarin Westron Maps Tolkien's poetry Scripts Cirth Sarati Tengwar Themes Anachronism Ancestry as guide to character Architecture Christianity Cosmology Round World dilemma Death and immortality Decline and fall Dreams and visions Economy England Environmentalism Evil First World War Forests Frame stories Hell Heroism Light Luck and fate Magic Mental illness Modernism Moral dilemma Music Naming of weapons Northern courage Old Straight Road Paganism Plants Psychological journeys Quests Sound and language Time Trees Literary Tolkien's impact on fantasy Influences Beowulf Celtic Classical world Finnish language and literature Medieval Modern William Morris Norse Philology Shakespeare Prose style Ambiguity A mythology for England Geographic Geology The Atlas of Middle-earth Journeys of Frodo A Map of Middle-earth Adaptations, legacy Illustrators Pauline Baynes Cor Blok Anke Eißmann Brothers Hildebrandt Jenny Dolfen Mary Fairburn Donato Giancola John Howe Tove Jansson Alexander Korotich Alan Lee Tom Loback Margrethe II of Denmark Ted Nasmith Composers Bo Hansson Music Inspired by Lord of the Rings Leonard Rosenman Music of The Lord of the Rings, 1978 Johan de Meij Symphony No. 1 The Lord of the Rings Howard Shore Music of The Lord of the Rings film series Music of The Hobbit film series Music of The Rings of Power TV series Bear McCreary Music of The Rings of Power TV series Stephen Gallagher Music of The Lord of the Rings: The War of the Rohirrim Blind Guardian Nightfall in Middle-Earth Settings Donald Swann The Road Goes Ever On Poems and Songs of Middle Earth The Tolkien Ensemble An Evening in Rivendell A Night in Rivendell At Dawn in Rivendell Leaving Rivendell Other media Impact Middle-earth Enterprises Works inspired by Tolkien Fan fiction Film Calendars Video games Things named after Tolkien and his works Literary criticism The Complete Guide to Middle-earth A Companion to J. R. R. Tolkien Interrupted Music Master of Middle-Earth Picturing Tolkien A Question of Time J. R. R. Tolkien: Author of the Century The J. R. R. Tolkien Companion and Guide J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia The Lord of the Rings: A Reader's Companion Perilous Realms The Road to Middle-Earth Splintered Light Tolkien and the Invention of Myth Tolkien's Art: 'A Mythology for England' Tolkien: A Look Behind The Lord of the Rings A Tolkien Compass Tolkien: Maker of Middle-earth Tolkien, Race and Cultural History Tolkien's Legendarium Tolkien and the Great War The Worlds of J. R. R. Tolkien The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Westron](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westron) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westron?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.