# Wax

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Class of organic compounds which are malleable at room temperature

For other uses, see [Wax (disambiguation)](/source/Wax_(disambiguation)).

[Cetyl palmitate](/source/Cetyl_palmitate), a typical [wax ester](/source/Wax_ester)

Commercial [honeycomb](/source/Honeycomb) foundation, made by pressing beeswax between patterned metal rollers

**Waxes** are a diverse class of [organic compounds](/source/Organic_compound) that are [lipophilic](/source/Lipophilic) solids that are [malleable](/source/Malleability) near ambient temperatures. They include [higher alkanes](/source/Higher_alkanes) and [lipids](/source/Lipid), typically with [melting points](/source/Melting_point) above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to give low [viscosity](/source/Viscosity) liquids. Waxes are [insoluble](/source/Solubility) in water but soluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as [hexane](/source/Hexane), [benzene](/source/Benzene) and [chloroform](/source/Chloroform). Natural waxes of various types are produced by plants and animals and occur in [petroleum](/source/Petroleum).

## Chemistry

Ceroline brand wax for floors and furniture, first half of 20th century. From the [Museo del Objeto del Objeto](/source/Museo_del_Objeto_del_Objeto) collection.

Waxes are organic compounds that characteristically consist of long [aliphatic](/source/Aliphatic) [alkyl](/source/Alkyl) chains, although [aromatic compounds](/source/Aromatic_compound) may also be present. Natural waxes may contain unsaturated bonds and include various [functional groups](/source/Functional_group) such as [fatty acids](/source/Carboxylic_acid), [primary](/source/Primary_alcohol) and [secondary alcohols](/source/Secondary_alcohol), [ketones](/source/Ketones), [aldehydes](/source/Aldehyde) and fatty acid [esters](/source/Ester). Synthetic waxes often consist of [homologous series](/source/Homologous_series) of long-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons ([alkanes](/source/Alkane) or paraffins) that lack [functional groups](/source/Functional_group).[1]

### Plant and animal waxes

Waxes are [synthesized](/source/Biosynthesis) by both plants and animals. Those of animal origin typically consist of [wax esters](/source/Wax_ester) derived from a variety of fatty acids and carboxylic alcohols. In waxes of plant origin, characteristic mixtures of unesterified hydrocarbons may predominate over esters.[2] The composition depends not only on species, but also on geographic location of the organism.

#### Animal waxes

The best-known animal wax is [beeswax](/source/Beeswax), used in constructing the [honeycombs](/source/Honeycomb) of beehives, but other insects also secrete waxes. A major component of beeswax is myricyl palmitate which is an [ester](/source/Ester) of [triacontanol](/source/Triacontanol) and [palmitic acid](/source/Palmitic_acid). Its melting point is 62–65 °C (144–149 °F). [Spermaceti](/source/Spermaceti) occurs in large amounts in the head oil of the [sperm whale](/source/Sperm_whale). One of its main constituents is [cetyl palmitate](/source/Cetyl_palmitate), another ester of a [fatty acid](/source/Fatty_acid) and a [fatty alcohol](/source/Fatty_alcohol). [Lanolin](/source/Lanolin) is a wax obtained from wool, consisting of esters of [sterols](/source/Sterol).[1]

#### Plant waxes

Plants secrete waxes into and on the surface of their [cuticles](/source/Plant_cuticle) as a way to control evaporation, wettability and hydration.[3] The [epicuticular waxes](/source/Epicuticular_wax) of plants are mixtures of substituted long-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons, containing alkanes, alkyl esters, fatty acids, primary and secondary alcohols, [diols](/source/Diol), ketones and aldehydes.[2] From the commercial perspective, the most important plant wax is [carnauba wax](/source/Carnauba_wax), a hard wax obtained from the Brazilian palm *[Copernicia prunifera](/source/Copernicia_prunifera)*. Containing the ester myricyl cerotate, its many applications include confectionery and other food coatings, car and furniture polish, floss coating, and [surfboard wax](/source/Surfboard_wax). Other more specialized vegetable waxes include [jojoba oil](/source/Jojoba_oil), [candelilla wax](/source/Candelilla_wax) and [ouricury wax](/source/Ouricury_wax).

#### Modified plant and animal waxes

Plant and animal based waxes or oils can undergo selective chemical modifications to produce waxes with more desirable properties than are available in the unmodified starting material.[4] This approach has relied on green chemistry approaches including olefin metathesis and enzymatic reactions and can be used to produce waxes from inexpensive starting materials like vegetable oils.[5][6]

### Petroleum derived waxes

See also: [Paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax)

Although many natural waxes contain esters, paraffin waxes are hydrocarbons, mixtures of alkanes usually in a [homologous series](/source/Homologous_series) of chain lengths. These materials represent a significant fraction of petroleum. They are refined by [vacuum distillation](/source/Vacuum_distillation). Paraffin waxes are mixtures of saturated n- and iso- [alkanes](/source/Alkane), [naphthenes](/source/Naphthenes), and [alkyl](/source/Alkyl_group)- and naphthene-substituted aromatic compounds. A typical alkane paraffin wax chemical composition comprises hydrocarbons with the general formula C*n*H2*n*+2, such as [hentriacontane](/source/Hentriacontane), C31H64. The degree of branching has an important influence on the properties. [Microcrystalline wax](/source/Microcrystalline_wax) is a lesser produced petroleum based wax that contains higher percentage of isoparaffinic (branched) hydrocarbons and naphthenic hydrocarbons.

Millions of tons of paraffin waxes are produced annually. They are used in foods (such as chewing gum and cheese wrapping), in candles and cosmetics, as non-stick and waterproofing coatings and in polishes.

#### Montan wax

[Montan wax](/source/Montan_wax) is a fossilized wax extracted from coal and [lignite](/source/Lignite).[7] It is very hard, reflecting the high concentration of saturated [fatty acids](/source/Fatty_acid) and alcohols. Although dark brown and odorous, they can be purified and bleached to give commercially useful products.

#### Polyethylene and related derivatives

As of 1995[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wax&action=edit), about 200 million kilograms of polyethylene waxes were consumed annually.[3]

Polyethylene waxes are manufactured by one of three methods:

1. The direct polymerization of ethylene, potentially including co-monomers;

1. The thermal degradation of high molecular weight polyethylene resin;

1. The recovery of low molecular weight fractions from high molecular weight resin production.

Each production technique generates products with slightly different properties. Key properties of low molecular weight polyethylene waxes are viscosity, density and melt point.

Polyethylene waxes produced by means of degradation or recovery from polyethylene resin streams contain very low molecular weight materials that must be removed to prevent volatilization and potential fire hazards during use. Polyethylene waxes manufactured by this method are usually stripped of low molecular weight fractions to yield a flash point >500 °F (>260 °C). Many polyethylene resin plants produce a low molecular weight stream often referred to as low polymer wax (LPW). LPW is unrefined and contains volatile oligomers, corrosive catalyst and may contain other foreign material and water. Refining of LPW to produce a polyethylene wax involves removal of oligomers and hazardous catalyst. Proper refining of LPW to produce polyethylene wax is especially important when being used in applications requiring FDA or other regulatory certification.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## Uses

Waxes are mainly consumed industrially as components of complex formulations, often for coatings. The main use of polyethylene and polypropylene waxes is in the formulation of colourants for [plastics](/source/Plastic). Waxes confer matting effects (i.e., to confer non-glossy finishes) and wear resistance to paints. Polyethylene waxes are incorporated into inks in the form of dispersions to decrease friction. They are employed as [release agents](/source/Release_agent), find use as slip agents in furniture, and confer corrosion resistance.[3]

### Antiquity

Wax can be used to make [figurines](/source/Figurine), [dolls](/source/Dolls),[8] [puppet](/source/Puppet) heads,[9] [wax sculptures](/source/Wax_sculpture), etc. The [Department of Egyptian Antiquities of the Louvre](/source/Department_of_Egyptian_Antiquities_of_the_Louvre) displays many human or animal or god figurines, pseudo-mummies (E 21) as well as wax figurine molds (N 1557); a bewitchment figurine depicting a dog devouring a man (E 27079); and a [wax tablet](/source/Wax_tablet) (E 10498) known as the "cahier de Papnoution", covered in wax and used as a writing [slate](/source/Slate_(writing)) (MND 552), etc.

### Candles

Wax candle

Waxes such as [paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax) or [beeswax](/source/Beeswax), and hard fats such as [tallow](/source/Tallow) are used to make [candles](/source/Candle), used for lighting and decoration. Another fuel type used in candle manufacturing includes [soy](/source/Soy). [Soy wax](/source/Soy_wax) is made by the hydrogenation process using soybean oil.

### Wood products

Waxes are used as finishes and coatings for wood products.[10] Beeswax is frequently used as a lubricant on drawer slides where wood to wood contact occurs.

### Other uses

A wax coating makes this [Manila hemp](/source/Manila_hemp) waterproof.

A [lava lamp](/source/Lava_lamp) is a novelty item that contains wax melted from below by a bulb. The wax rises and falls in decorative, molten blobs.

[Sealing wax](/source/Sealing_wax) was used to close important documents in the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages). [Wax tablets](/source/Wax_tablet) were used as writing surfaces. There were different types of wax in the Middle Ages, namely four kinds of wax ([Ragusan](/source/Dubrovnik), [Montenegro](/source/Montenegro), [Byzantine](/source/Byzantine), and [Bulgarian](/source/Bulgaria)), "ordinary" waxes from [Spain](/source/Spain), [Poland](/source/Poland), and [Riga](/source/Riga), unrefined waxes and colored waxes (red, white, and green).[11][12] Waxes are used to make [waxed paper](/source/Waxed_paper), impregnating and [coating paper](/source/Coated_paper) and card to waterproof it or make it resistant to staining, or to modify its surface properties. Waxes are also used in [shoe polishes](/source/Shoe_polish), [wood polishes](/source/Wood_polish), and automotive polishes, as [mold release agents](/source/Mold_release_agent) in [mold making](/source/Mold_making), as a coating for many [cheeses](/source/Cheese), and to [waterproof](/source/Waterproof) leather and fabric. Wax has been used since antiquity as a temporary, removable model in [lost-wax casting](/source/Lost-wax_casting) of [gold](/source/Gold), [silver](/source/Silver) and other materials.

Colorfully pigmented wax has been used as a medium in [encaustic painting](/source/Encaustic_painting) and is used today in the manufacture of [crayons](/source/Crayon), [china markers](/source/Grease_pencil), and colored [pencils](/source/Pencil). [Carbon paper](/source/Carbon_paper), used for making duplicate [typewritten](/source/Typewriter) documents was coated with [carbon black](/source/Carbon_black) suspended in wax, typically [montan wax](/source/Montan_wax), but has largely been superseded by [photocopiers](/source/Photocopier) and [computer printers](/source/Computer_printer). In another context, [lipstick](/source/Lipstick) and [mascara](/source/Mascara) are blends of various fats and waxes colored with pigments, and both [beeswax](/source/Beeswax) and [lanolin](/source/Lanolin) are used in other [cosmetics](/source/Cosmetics). [Ski wax](/source/Ski_wax) is used in [skiing](/source/Skiing) and [snowboarding](/source/Snowboarding). Also, the sports of surfing and [skateboarding](/source/Skateboarding)[13] often use wax to enhance the performance.

Some waxes are considered food-safe and are used to coat wooden cutting boards and other items that come into contact with food. Beeswax or coloured synthetic wax is used to decorate [Easter eggs](/source/Easter_egg) in Romania, Ukraine, Poland, Lithuania and the Czech Republic. [Paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax) is used in making chocolate covered sweets.

Wax is also used in [wax bullets](/source/Wax_bullet), which are used as simulation aids, and for [wax sculpturing](/source/Wax_sculpture).

## Specific examples

### Animal waxes

- [Beeswax](/source/Beeswax) – produced by [honey bees](/source/Honey_bee)

- [Chinese wax](/source/Chinese_wax) – produced by the [scale insect](/source/Scale_insect) *[Ceroplastes ceriferus](/source/Ceroplastes_ceriferus)*

- [Lanolin](/source/Lanolin) (wool wax) – from the [sebaceous glands](/source/Sebaceous_gland) of [sheep](/source/Sheep)

- [Shellac](/source/Shellac) wax – from the [lac insect](/source/Lac_insect) *[Kerria lacca](/source/Kerria_lacca)*

- [Spermaceti](/source/Spermaceti) – from the head cavities and blubber of the [sperm whale](/source/Sperm_whale)

### Vegetable waxes

- [Bayberry wax](/source/Bayberry_wax) – from the [surface wax](/source/Epicuticular_wax) of the [fruits](/source/Drupe) of the bayberry shrub, *[Myrica faya](/source/Myrica_faya)* or sister species *[Myrica cerifera](/source/Myrica_cerifera)* or *[Myrica pensylvanica](/source/Myrica_pensylvanica)*

- [Candelilla wax](/source/Candelilla_wax) – from the Mexican shrubs *[Euphorbia cerifera](/source/Euphorbia_cerifera)* and *[Euphorbia antisyphilitica](/source/Euphorbia_antisyphilitica)*

- [Carnauba wax](/source/Carnauba_wax) – from the leaves of the carnauba palm, *[Copernicia cerifera](/source/Copernicia_cerifera)*

- [Castor wax](/source/Castor_wax) – catalytically hydrogenated [castor oil](/source/Castor_oil)

- Esparto wax – a byproduct of making paper from [esparto grass](/source/Esparto_grass) (*Macrochloa tenacissima*)

- [Japan wax](/source/Japan_wax) – a vegetable [triglyceride](/source/Triglyceride) (not a true wax), from the berries of *Rhus* and *Toxicodendron* species

- [Jojoba oil](/source/Jojoba_oil) – a liquid [wax ester](/source/Wax_ester), from the seed of *Simmondsia chinensis*.

- [Ouricury wax](/source/Ouricury_wax) – from the Brazilian feather palm, *[Syagrus coronata](/source/Syagrus_coronata)*.

- [Rice bran wax](/source/Rice_bran_wax) – obtained from [rice](/source/Rice) [bran](/source/Bran) (*Oryza sativa*)

- [Soy wax](/source/Soy_wax) – from soybean oil

- [Tallow tree](/source/Tallow_tree) wax – from the seeds of the tallow tree *Triadica sebifera*.

### Mineral waxes

- [Ceresin](/source/Ceresin) waxes

- [Montan wax](/source/Montan_wax) – extracted from [lignite](/source/Lignite) and [brown coal](/source/Brown_coal)

- [Ozocerite](/source/Ozocerite) – found in lignite beds

- [Peat waxes](/source/Peat_wax)

### Petroleum waxes

- [Paraffin wax](/source/Paraffin_wax) – made of long-chain [alkane](/source/Alkane) [hydrocarbons](/source/Hydrocarbon)

- [Microcrystalline wax](/source/Microcrystalline_wax) – with very fine crystalline structure

## See also

- [Slip melting point](/source/Slip_melting_point)

- [Wax acid](/source/Wax_acid)

- [Wax argument](/source/Wax_argument), or the "ball of wax example", is a thought experiment originally articulated by René Descartes.

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ull_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ull_1-1) Wilhelm Riemenschneider1 and Hermann M. Bolt (2005). "Esters, Organic". *Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry*. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/14356007.a09_565.pub2](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a09_565.pub2).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Baker_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Baker_2-1) EA Baker (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. In The Plant Cuticle. Ed. DF Cutler, KL Alvin, CE Price. Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-12-199920-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-199920-3)

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Ullmann_3-2) Uwe Wolfmeier, Mr. Hans Schmidt, Franz-Leo Heinrichs, Georg Michalczyk, Wolfgang Payer, Wolfram Dietsche, Klaus Boehlke, Gerd Hohner, Josef Wildgruber "Waxes" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/14356007.a28_103](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a28_103).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Floros, Michael C.; Raghunanan, Latchmi; Narine, Suresh S. (2016-11-01). "A toolbox for the characterization of biobased waxes". *European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology*. **119** (6) 1600360: n/a. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/ejlt.201600360](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fejlt.201600360). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1438-9312](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1438-9312).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Schrodi, Yann; Ung, Thay; Vargas, Angel; Mkrtumyan, Garik; Lee, Choon Woo; Champagne, Timothy M.; Pederson, Richard L.; Hong, Soon Hyeok (2008-08-01). "Ruthenium Olefin Metathesis Catalysts for the Ethenolysis of Renewable Feedstocks". *CLEAN – Soil, Air, Water*. **36** (8): 669–673. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2008CSAW...36..669S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008CSAW...36..669S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/clen.200800088](https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fclen.200800088). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1863-0669](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1863-0669).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Petersson, Anna E. V.; Gustafsson, Linda M.; Nordblad, Mathias; Börjesson, Pål; Mattiasson, Bo; Adlercreutz, Patrick (2005-11-17). ["Wax esters produced by solvent-free energy-efficient enzymatic synthesis and their applicability as wood coatings"](http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=b510815b). *Green Chemistry*. **7** (12): 837. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1039/b510815b](https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fb510815b). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1463-9270](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1463-9270). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191209163653/https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2005/GC/b510815b) from the original on 2019-12-09. Retrieved 2016-12-06.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Ivanovsky, Leo (1952). [*Wax chemistry and technology*](https://books.google.com/books?id=urFTAAAAMAAJ&q=Montan+wax+is+a+fossilized+wax+extracted+from+coal+and+lignite).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Dolls like the little wax dolls for the dolls' house made for Petronella Dunois (anonymous, c. 1676) in the Rijksmuseum, BK-14656: [\[1\]](https://id.rijksmuseum.nl/2002631)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Marseille : Mucem, Ph.1944.129.61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** ["Minwax® Paste Finishing Wax | Specialty Products"](http://www.minwax.com/wood-products/specialty-products/minwax-paste-finishing-wax). Minwax.com. 2012-01-31. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121105162357/http://www.minwax.com/wood-products/specialty-products/minwax-paste-finishing-wax) from the original on 2012-11-05. Retrieved 2012-12-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** The rational arts of living: Ruth and Clarence Kennedy Conference in the Renaissance, 1982, page 187, Studies in History, No 50, Alistair Cameron Crombie, Nancy G. Siraisi, Dept. of History of Smith College, 1987.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cosman_Jones_2008_p._12-0)** Cosman, Madeleine Pelner; Jones, Linda Gale (2008). *Handbook to Life in the Medieval World*. Vol. 2. Facts On File, Infobase Publishing. p. 202. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8160-4887-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4887-8). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2007000887](https://lccn.loc.gov/2007000887). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [77830539](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/77830539). [OL](/source/OL_(identifier)) [11359718M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL11359718M).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Russell (28 July 2021). ["How To Make Skateboard Wax: A Home DIY Guide"](https://blackspell.co.uk/how-to-make-skateboard-wax/). *www.blackspell.co.uk*. Retrieved 2021-09-22.

## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Wax](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Wax).

- [Waxes](http://www.cyberlipid.org/wax/wax0001.htm) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161202062014/http://www.cyberlipid.org/wax/wax0001.htm) 2016-12-02 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

v t e E numbers Colours (E100–199) Preservatives (E200–299) Antioxidants and Acidity regulators (E300–399) Thickeners, stabilisers and emulsifiers (E400–499) pH regulators and anticaking agents (E500–599) Flavour enhancers (E600–699) Miscellaneous (E900–999) Additional chemicals (E1000–1599) Waxes (E900–909) Synthetic glazes (E910–919) Improving agents (E920–929) Packaging gases (E930–949) Sweeteners (E950–969) Foaming agents (E990–999) Dimethyl polysiloxane (E900) Beeswax (E901) Candelilla wax (E902) Carnauba wax (E903) Shellac (E904) Paraffins (E905) Mineral oil (E905a) Vaseline (E905b) Microcrystalline wax (E905c) Gum benzoic (E906) Crystalline wax (E907) Rice bran wax (E908)

v t e Non-timber forest products Animal products Furs Honey pine Wild game Berries / tree fruit Banana Bilberry Binukaw Blackberry Blueberry Breadfruit Cocoa bean Coconut Durian Gambooge Huckleberry Jackfruit Juniper berry Lingonberry Raspberry Tamarind Woodland strawberry Edible plants / roots Betel Fiddlehead ferns Heart of palm Mahuwa flowers Sago palm queen Sassafras filé powder root beer Saw palmetto Wild ginseng Wild onions Bear garlic Canada onion Crow garlic Twincrest onion Pacific mountain onion Ramps Mushrooms Bare-toothed russula Bay bolete Birch bolete Cep Chanterelle Honey mushroom Lingzhi (reishi) Matsutake Morel Oyster mushroom Parasol mushroom Red cap Saffron milk cap Slippery jack Truffle Yellow knight Nuts spices Allspice Areca nut Bay leaf Black pepper Brazil nut Cinnamon Clove Hazelnut Malva nut Nutmeg Pine nut Vanilla Oil waxes Allanblackia Babassu Bacuri Candlenut Capuacu Carnauba Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana) Cocoa butter Eucalyptol Eucalyptus Illipe Japan wax Kokum Kombo Kpangnan Kusum Mafura Mahua Mango butter Murumuru Nagkesar Palm (kernel) Phulwara Pilu Pongamia Sal-seed (Shorea robusta) Sandalwood Shea butter Tamanu Tea-seed Tea-tree Tucuma Ucuuba Vateria indica Resins Benzoin Birch tar Camphor Creosote Frankincense Gamboge Kauri Lacquer Mastic Myrrh Pine tar Pitch Rosin Turpentine Varnish Sap / gum / etc. Birch syrup Chicle chewing gum Coconut sugar Date sugar Fruit syrup Gum arabic Gutta-percha Kino Latex Maple sugar Maple syrup Palm sugar Palm wine akpeteshie ogogoro Rubber Spruce gum Other Amadou Bamboo edible musical instruments textiles Birch bark Birch beer Cork Ferns Forage Gambier Moss Natural dyes henna Peat Quinine Rattan Shellac Tanbark tannin Tendu leaves Thatching Vegetable ivory Willow bark Related Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry) Forest farming / gardening Honey hunting Indian forest produce Mushroom hunting Naval stores Resin extraction Rubber tapping Wildcrafting Category Commons

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