# Viet people

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Southeast Asian ethnic group

"Viet" redirects here. For other uses, see [Viet (disambiguation)](/source/Viet_(disambiguation)), [Viets (disambiguation)](/source/Viets_(disambiguation)), and [Vietnamese (disambiguation)](/source/Vietnamese_(disambiguation)).

"Người Việt" redirects here. For the California newspaper, see [Nguoi Viet Daily News](/source/Nguoi_Viet_Daily_News).

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Ethnic group

Viet people / Kinh people người Việt / người Kinh Vietnamese women wearing áo nhật bình along with khăn vành dây. Total population c. 90 million (2025) Regions with significant populations Vietnam 82,085,826 (2019)[1] Overseas communities Majority of the Vietnamese diaspora Languages Vietnamese, Vietnamese sign languages Religion Mainly folk religion syncretized with Buddhism; irreligious; significant Christian minority; others[2] Related ethnic groups Other Vietic ethnic groups (Gin, Muong, Chứt, Thổ peoples)

**This article contains [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language) text.** Without proper [rendering support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support_(East_Asian)), you may see [question marks, boxes, or other symbols](/source/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character) instead of [Vietnamese scripts](/source/Vietnamese_writing_systems).

The **Viet people** ([Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *người Việt*),[3] also known in [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam) as the **Kinh people** ([Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *người Kinh*, to distinguish from [other ethnicities](/source/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam)) are a Southeast Asian [ethnicity](/source/Ethnicity) native to modern-day northern [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), who [expanded southwards](/source/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn) in the last millennium. They speak [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language), the most widely used [Austroasiatic](/source/Austroasiatic_languages) language, and are one of the four main [Vietic](/source/Vietic_languages)-speaking groups in Vietnam, the others being the [Mường](/source/Muong_people), [Thổ](/source/Th%E1%BB%95_people), and [Chứt](/source/Ch%E1%BB%A9t_people).

The Viet accounted for 85.32% of Vietnam's population in the 2019 census and are officially designated as the *Kinh* people to distinguish them from minority groups in the country, such as the [Mường](/source/Muong_people), [Tày](/source/T%C3%A0y_people), [Hmong](/source/Hmong_people), and [Cham](/source/Chams). Diasporic descendants of the Kinh in [Guangxi](/source/Guangxi), China, known as the [Gin people](/source/Gin_people), are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by China. The Viet also constitute the majority of the [Vietnamese diaspora](/source/Vietnamese_diaspora) worldwide.

## Terminology

According to Churchman (2010), all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese such as *Việt* (related to ancient Chinese geographical imagination), *Kinh* (related to medieval administrative designation), or *Keeu* and *Kæw* (derived from Jiāo 交, ancient Chinese toponym for Northern Vietnam, [Old Chinese](/source/Old_Chinese) **kraw*) by [Kra–Dai](/source/Kra%E2%80%93Dai) speaking peoples, are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of the time, the Austroasiatic-speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical social self-designation inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun *ta* (us, we, I) to differentiate themselves with other groups. In the older colloquial usage, *ta* corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial time they were "*nước ta*" (our country) and "*tiếng ta*" (our language) in contrast to "*nước tây*" (western countries) and "*tiếng tây*" (western languages).[4]

### Việt

The term "[Việt](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t)" ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): [越](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E8%B6%8A); [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Yuè*; [Cantonese Yale](/source/Cantonese_Yale): *Yuht*; [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *[Việt](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t)*) in [Early Middle Chinese](/source/Early_Middle_Chinese) was first written using the [logograph](/source/Logogram) "戉" for an axe (a homophone), in [oracle bone](/source/Oracle_bone) and bronze inscriptions of the late [Shang dynasty](/source/Shang_dynasty) (c. 1200 BC), and later as "越".[5] At that time it referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang.[6][7] In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle [Yangtze](/source/Yangtze) were called the [Yangyue](/source/Yangyue), which was later used to describe peoples living further south.[6] Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Việt ([Hanyu Pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Yuè*) referred to the [State of Yue](/source/Yue_(state)) in the lower Yangtze basin and its people.[5][6] From the 3rd century BC, the term was used for the non-Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called [Minyue](/source/Minyue), [Âu Việt](/source/%C3%82u_Vi%E1%BB%87t) (Ouyue), [Lạc Việt](/source/L%E1%BA%A1c_Vi%E1%BB%87t) (Luoyue), etc., collectively called the [Baiyue](/source/Baiyue) (Bách Việt, [Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): [百越](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E7%99%BE%E8%B6%8A); [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Bǎiyuè*; [Cantonese Yale](/source/Cantonese_Yale): *Baak Yuet*; [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *Bách Việt*; [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) 'Hundred Yue/Viet'; ).[5][6] The term Bách Việt ([Hanyu Pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Bǎiyuè*) first appeared in the book *[Lüshi Chunqiu](/source/L%C3%BCshi_Chunqiu)* compiled around 239 BC.[8][9] By the 17th and 18th centuries AD, educated Vietnamese referred to themselves as *người Việt* (𠊛越; Viet people) or *người Nam* (𠊛南; southern people).[10]

Người Việt 𠊛越 (Vietnamese people) written here in the book, 大南國史演歌 Đại Nam quốc sử diễn ca

### Kinh

Beginning in the 10th and 11th centuries, a strand of Viet–Muong (northern Vietic language), with influence from a hypothetical Chinese dialect in northern Vietnam, dubbed as Annamese Middle Chinese, evolved into what is now the [Vietnamese language](/source/Vietnamese_language).[11][12][13] Its speakers called themselves the *người Kinh* ([chữ Nôm](/source/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m): 𠊛京; lit. 'Kinh people'), meaning people of the "metropolitan" centered around the [Red River Delta](/source/Red_River_Delta) with [Hanoi](/source/Hanoi) as its capital. Historic and modern chữ Nôm scripture classically uses the Han character '京' ([Hanyu Pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Jīng*; [Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_language): *Kinh*). Other variants of Proto-Viet–Muong were driven from the lowlands by the Kinh and were called *Trại* (寨), or "outpost" people", by the 13th century. These became the modern [Mường people](/source/Muong_people).[14] According to Victor Lieberman, Kinh people may be a colonial-era term for Vietnamese speakers inserted anachronistically into translations of pre-colonial documents, but literature on 18th century ethnic formation is lacking.[10]

## History

### Origins and prehistoric period

According to the Vietnamese legend *The Tale of the Hồng Bàng Clan* (*Hồng Bàng* thị truyện), written in the 15th century, the first Vietnamese were descended from the [dragon](/source/Vietnamese_dragon) lord [Lạc Long Quân](/source/L%E1%BA%A1c_Long_Qu%C3%A2n) and the [fairy](/source/Xian_(Taoism)) [Âu Cơ](/source/%C3%82u_C%C6%A1). They married and had one hundred eggs, from which hatched one hundred children. Their eldest son ruled as the [Hùng king](/source/H%C3%B9ng_king).[15] The Hùng kings were claimed to be descended from the mythical figure [Shennong/Thần Nông](/source/Shennong).[16]

The earliest reference of the proto-Vietnamese in Chinese annals was the *Lạc*, *[Lạc Việt](/source/L%E1%BA%A1c_Vi%E1%BB%87t)*, or the [Dongsonian](/source/Dongsonian),[17] an ancient tribal confederacy of perhaps polyglot [Austroasiatic](/source/Austroasiatic_language) and [Kra–Dai](/source/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_language) speakers who occupied the [Red River Delta](/source/Red_River_Delta) in northern Vietnam.[18][19]

One hypothesis suggests that the forerunners of the ethnic Kinh descend from a [subset](/source/Vietic_languages) of [proto-Austroasiatic](/source/Proto-Austroasiatic) people in southern China, either around [Yunnan](/source/Yunnan), [Lingnan](/source/Lingnan), or the [Yangtze River](/source/Yangtze_River), as well as mainland [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia). These proto-Austroasiatics also diverged into [Monic](/source/Mon_people) speakers, who settled further to the west, and the [Khmeric](/source/Khmer_people) speakers, who migrated further south. The [Munda](/source/Munda_people) of northeastern India were another subset of proto-Austroasiatics who likely diverged earlier than the aforementioned groups, given the linguistic distance in basic vocabulary of the languages. Most archaeologists, linguists, and other specialists, such as Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BC, bringing with them the practice of riverine agriculture and in particular, the cultivation of wet rice.[20][21][22][23]

Some linguists, such as James Chamberlain and Joachim Schliesinger, have suggested that Vietic-speaking people migrated northwards from the [North Central Region](/source/North_Central_Coast) of Vietnam to the [Red River Delta](/source/Red_River_Delta), which had originally been inhabited by [Tai](/source/Tai_languages) [speakers](/source/Tai_peoples).[24][25][26][27] However, Michael Churchman found no records of population shifts in [Jiaozhi](/source/Jiaozhi) (centered around the Red River Delta) in Chinese sources, indicating that a fairly stable population of Austroasiatic speakers, ancestral to modern Vietnamese, inhabited the delta during the [Han](/source/Han_dynasty)-[Tang](/source/Tang_dynasty) periods.[28]

Another theory, based upon linguistic diversity, locates the most probable homeland of the Vietic languages in modern-day [Bolikhamsai Province](/source/Bolikhamsai_Province) and [Khammouane Province](/source/Khammouane_Province) in Laos as well as in parts of [Nghệ An Province](/source/Ngh%E1%BB%87_An_Province) and [Quảng Bình Province](/source/Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_B%C3%ACnh_Province) in Vietnam. In the 1930s, clusters of Vietic-speaking communities discovered in the hills of eastern Laos were believed to be the earliest inhabitants of that region.[29]

But so far, many scholars link the origin of the [Vietic languages](/source/Vietic_languages) to [northern Vietnam](/source/Northern_Vietnam), around the Red River Delta.[30][31][32]

Michael Churchman, Tuong Vu, and Frederic Pain argue that a distinct Vietnamese identity or language did not exist in full prior to and during the Han-Tang period. Churchman states that during this period, the tribes in northern Vietnam and southern China did not have any kind of defined ethnic boundary and could not be described as "Vietnamese" (Kinh) in any satisfactory sense.[33] Vu believes that a Han-Viet group existed that spoke both a Chinese dialect called "Annamese Middle Chinese" and Proto-Viet–Muong, but the inhabitants of the Red River Valley did not have a single identity or language.[34] Pain also argues that Vietnamese cultural identity was the result of Chinese influence on native elements that fully emerged in the post-Chinese rule period during the [Song dynasty](/source/Song_dynasty).[35] Thus, attempts to identify ethnic groups in ancient Vietnam are problematic and often inaccurate.[36]

### Ancient to early medieval period

The Đông Sơn culture was pioneered by the Lạc Việt peoples, who also founded the [Văn Lang](/source/V%C4%83n_Lang) [chiefdom](/source/Chiefdom), ruled by the semi-mythical [Hùng kings](/source/H%C3%B9ng_king).[37] To the south of the Dongsonians/Lạc Việt was the [Sa Huỳnh culture](/source/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture) of the [Austronesian](/source/Austronesian_people) [Chamic people](/source/Chamic_language).[38] Around 400–200 BC, the Lạc Việt interacted with the [Âu Việt](/source/%C3%82u_Vi%E1%BB%87t), a splinter group of [Tai people](/source/Tai_people) from southern China,[39] and [Sinitic](/source/Sinitic) peoples from further north.[40] According to a late-third- or early-fourth-century AD Chinese chronicle, [Thục Phán](/source/Th%E1%BB%A5c_Ph%C3%A1n), the leader of the Âu Việt, conquered Văn Lang and deposed the last [Hùng king](/source/H%C3%B9ng_Du%E1%BB%87_V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng).[41] Having submissions of Lạc lords, Thục Phán proclaimed himself King An Dương of [Âu Lạc](/source/%C3%82u_L%E1%BA%A1c) kingdom, uniting the Lạc Việt and Âu Việt tribes.[37]

In 179 BC, [Zhao Tuo](/source/Zhao_Tuo), a Chinese general who established the [Nanyue](/source/Nanyue) state in modern-day southern China, annexed Âu Lạc, which initiated Sino-Vietic interaction that lasted for a millennium.[42] In 111 BC, the [Han Empire](/source/Han_dynasty) conquered Nanyue, which also brought northern Vietnam under Han rule.[43]

By the 7th century to 9th century AD, as the [Tang Empire](/source/Tang_Empire) ruled over the region, historians such as [Henri Maspero](/source/Henri_Maspero) proposed that Vietnamese-speaking people became separated from other Vietic groups such as the Mường and [Chứt](/source/Chut_people) due to heavier Chinese influences on the Vietnamese.[44] In the mid-9th century, local rebels aided by [Nanzhao](/source/Nanzhao) almost ended Tang rule.[45] The Tang reconquered the region in 866, causing half of the local rebels to flee into the mountains, marking the separation between the [Mường](/source/Muong_people) and the Vietnamese.[44][46]

According to Jennifer Holmgren, the first six centuries of Chinese rule saw more Vietnamization of local Chinese than Sinicization of local Vietnamese.[47] Compared to the first six centuries of Chinese rule when demographics were relatively stable, Chinese migration during the Tang period was of sufficient magnitude to cause basic changes to certain portions of Vietnamese society in northern Vietnam. Most of these Chinese migrants came as soldiers or merchants, took a wife from the indigenous population, and settled down. They were individuals that settled down in a nuclear family, causing the average household size to decrease. Despite the increase of Chinese migrants to Vietnam, it was still much more constrained compared to Chinese migration to Guangdong and Guangxi due to the structure of Vietnamese society, which limited the ability of Chinese rulers to register and tax the local population. Vietnamese society retained their language and heritage. Other peoples like the Muong, Tay, and Nung people fled Chinese control into the uplands, where Chinese registers could not reach them. Non-Chinese foreign migration was also significant in the south due to pressures elsewhere such as the expanding Cham kingdom.[48]

In 938, the Vietnamese leader [Ngô Quyền](/source/Ng%C3%B4_Quy%E1%BB%81n) who was a native of [Thanh Hóa](/source/Thanh_Hoa), led Vietnamese forces to defeat the Chinese armada at [Bạch Đằng River](/source/Battle_of_B%E1%BA%A1ch_%C4%90%E1%BA%B1ng_(938)). He proclaimed himself king over a polity that could be perceived as "Vietnamese".[49]

### Medieval and early modern period

One of the traditional costumes of Vietnamese people

[Ngô Quyền](/source/Ng%C3%B4_Quy%E1%BB%81n) died in 944 and his kingdom collapsed into chaos and disturbances between twelve warlords and chiefs.[50] In 968, a leader named [Đinh Bộ Lĩnh](/source/%C4%90inh_B%E1%BB%99_L%C4%A9nh) united them and established the Đại Việt (Great Việt) kingdom.[51] With assistance of powerful Buddhist monks, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh chose [Hoa Lư](/source/Hoa_L%C6%B0_Ancient_Capital) in the southern edge of the [Red River Delta](/source/Red_River_Delta) as the capital instead of Tang-era [Đại La](/source/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_La), adopted Chinese-style imperial titles, coinage, and ceremonies and tried to preserve the Chinese administrative framework.[52] The independence of Đại Việt, according to Andrew Chittick, allows it "to develop its own distinctive political culture and ethnic consciousness".[53] In 979, Emperor [Đinh Tiên Hoàng](/source/%C4%90inh_Ti%C3%AAn_Ho%C3%A0ng) was assassinated, and Queen [Dương Vân Nga](/source/D%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_V%C3%A2n_Nga) married Dinh's general [Lê Hoàn](/source/L%C3%AA_Ho%C3%A0n) and appointed him as Emperor. Disturbances in Đại Việt attracted attention from the neighbouring Chinese [Song dynasty](/source/Song_dynasty) and [Champa](/source/Champa) Kingdom, but they were defeated by Lê Hoàn.[54] A [Khmer inscription](/source/Khmer_inscriptions) dated 987 records the arrival of Vietnamese merchants (Yuon) in [Angkor](/source/Angkor).[55] Chinese writers Song Hao, [Fan Chengda](/source/Fan_Chengda) and [Zhou Qufei](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhou_Qufei&action=edit&redlink=1) all reported that the inhabitants of Đại Việt "tattooed their foreheads, crossed feet, black teeth, bare feet and blacken clothing".[56] The early 11th-century [Cham](/source/Cham_language) inscription of Chiên Đàn, [My Son](/source/My_Son), erected by king of Champa [Harivarman IV](/source/Harivarman_IV) (r. 1074–1080), mentions that he had offered Khmer (Kmīra/Kmir) and Viet (Yvan) prisoners as slaves to various local gods and temples of the citadel of Tralauṅ Svon.[57] Many Kinh Vietnamese also lived in Champa and were well-assimilated, like other Austroasiatic groups living in the state.[58]

Successive Vietnamese royal families from the Đinh, Early Lê, Lý, Trần and Hồ dynasties, who had [Hoa](/source/Hoa_people)/Chinese ancestry, ruled the kingdom peacefully from 968 to 1407. Emperor [Lý Thái Tổ](/source/L%C3%BD_Th%C3%A1i_T%E1%BB%95) (r. 1009–1028) relocated the Vietnamese capital from [Hoa Lư](/source/Hoa_L%C6%B0_Ancient_Capital) to [Đại La](/source/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_La), the center of the [Red River Delta](/source/Red_River_Delta) in 1010.[59] They practiced elitist marriage alliances between clans and nobles in the country. Mahayana Buddhism became state religion, with Cham, Indian and Chinese cultures influencing Vietnamese music instruments, dance and religious worship.[60] Confucianism also slowly gained attention and influence.[61] The earliest surviving corpus and text in the [Vietnamese language](/source/Vietnamese_language) were dated to the early 12th century whilst surviving [chữ Nôm](/source/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m) script inscriptions were dated to the early 13th century, showcasing enormous influences of Chinese culture among the early Vietnamese elites.[62]

The Mongol [Yuan dynasty](/source/Yuan_dynasty) unsuccessfully invaded Đại Việt in the 1250s and 1280s, though they sacked Hanoi.[63] The [Ming dynasty](/source/Ming_dynasty) of China conquered Đại Việt in 1406, brought the Vietnamese under Chinese rule for 20 years, before they were driven out by Vietnamese leader [Lê Lợi](/source/L%C3%AA_L%E1%BB%A3i).[64] The fourth grandson of Lê Lợi, Emperor [Lê Thánh Tông](/source/L%C3%AA_Th%C3%A1nh_T%C3%B4ng) (r. 1460–1497), is considered one of the greatest monarchs in Vietnamese history. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, education, and fiscal reforms he instituted, and a cultural revolution that replaced the old traditional aristocracy with a generation of literati scholars. He also adopted Confucianism and transformed Đại Việt from a Southeast Asian style polity to a bureaucratic state that flourished. Thánh Tông's forces, armed with [gunpowder](/source/Gunpowder) weapons, overwhelmed the long-term rival [Champa](/source/Champa) in 1471 and launched an unsuccessful invasion against the Laotian and [Lan Na](/source/Lan_Na) kingdoms in the 1480s.[65]

### 16th century – Modern period

Vietnamese soldiers in 1828

Vietnamese [bureaucrat officials](/source/Mandarin_(bureaucrat)), 1883–1886

Vietnamese mandarins in front of the [imperial palace](/source/Imperial_City_of_Hu%E1%BA%BF) in 1939.

With the death of Thánh Tông in 1497, the Đại Việt kingdom swiftly declined. Extreme climate, failing crops, regionalism and factionism tore the Vietnamese apart.[66] From 1533 to 1790s, four powerful Vietnamese families – Mạc, Lê, Trịnh and Nguyễn – each ruled their own domains. In the northern Vietnamese polity of Đàng Ngoài (outer realm), the Lê emperors barely sat on the throne while the Trịnh lords held power of the court. The Mạc controlled northeast Vietnam. The Nguyễn lords ruled the southern polity of Đàng Trong (inner realm).[67] Thousands of ethnic Vietnamese migrated south and settled on the old Cham lands, with Cham inhabitants assimilating into the new Vietnamese state.[68][69] Vietnamese also settled in the [highlands of Vietnam](/source/Central_Highlands_(Vietnam)) and intermixed with the natives over centuries.[69] European missionaries and traders from the sixteenth century brought new religion, ideas and crops to the Vietnamese (Annamese). By 1639, there were 82,500 Catholic converts throughout Vietnam. In 1651, [Alexandre de Rhodes](/source/Alexandre_de_Rhodes) published a 300-pages [catechism](/source/Catechism) in [Latin](/source/Latin) and romanized-Vietnamese (*chữ Quốc Ngữ*) or the [Vietnamese alphabet](/source/Vietnamese_alphabet).[70]

Conflict among Vietnamese ended in 1802 as Emperor [Gia Long](/source/Gia_Long), who was aided by French mercenaries, defeated the [Tay Son](/source/Tay_Son_dynasty) kingdoms and reunited Vietnam. By 1847, the Vietnamese state under Emperor [Thiệu Trị](/source/Thieu_Tri), a people that were identified as "người Việt Nam" accounted for nearly 80 percent of the country's population.[71] This demographic model continues to persist through the [French Indochina](/source/French_Indochina), [Japanese occupation](/source/French_Indochina_in_World_War_II) and modern day.

Between 1862 and 1867, the southern third of the country became the [French colony of Cochinchina](/source/French_Cochinchina).[72] By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated into the two protectorates of [Annam](/source/Annam_(French_protectorate)) and [Tonkin](/source/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)). The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of [French Indochina](/source/French_Indochina) in 1887.[73][74] The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society.[75] A Western-style system of modern education introduced new [humanist](/source/Humanism) values into Vietnam.[76]

Vietnamese soldiers in 1972

Despite having a long recorded ethnic history, the formation of the ethnic Vietnamese or Kinh identity, only begun by the late 19th and early 20th century, with the help of the colonial administration. Following the colonial government's efforts of ethnic classification, nationalism, especially [ethnonationalism](/source/Ethnic_nationalism) and eugenic [social Darwinism](/source/Social_Darwinism), were encouraged among the new Vietnamese intelligentsia's discourse. Ethnic tensions sparked by Vietnamese ethnonationalism peaked during the late 1940s at the beginning phase of the [First Indochina War](/source/First_Indochina_War) (1946–1954), which resulted in violence between Khmer and Vietnamese in the [Mekong Delta](/source/Mekong_Delta).

The mid-20th century marked a pivotal turning point with the [Vietnam War](/source/Vietnam_War), a conflict that not only left an indelible impact on the nation but also had far-reaching consequences for the Vietnamese people. The war, which lasted from 1955 to 1975, resulted in significant social, economic, and political upheavals, shaping the modern history of Vietnam and its people. Following the [end of the Vietnam War](/source/Reunification_of_Vietnam) in 1975, the post-war era brought economic hardships and strained social dynamics, prompting resilient efforts at reconstruction, reconciliation, and the implementation of economic reforms such as the [Đổi Mới](/source/%C4%90%E1%BB%95i_M%E1%BB%9Bi) policies in the late 20th century.

## Genetics

Several studies show close genetic affinities between the Kinh Vietnamese and Thais[77][78][79][80][81] or [Kra–Dai peoples](/source/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_peoples),[82][83][84][85][81][86] especially [Dai people](/source/Dai_people).[87][88][89][90] Like Kra–Dai groups from mainland China, the Kinh possess "genetic characteristics of the [Baiyue](/source/Baiyue) lineage." There's also evidence that the Kinh diverged from the [Hlai](/source/Hlai_people), who have the most enriched Baiyue ancestry among Kra–Dai groups, much earlier than the [Dai](/source/Dai_people) diverged from Hlai.[91]

According to some studies, the Kinh can be modeled as having genetic input from a sister lineage related to the ancestors of Southern Chinese groups, and to a lesser extent from a sister lineage related to [Laotians](/source/Laotians), [Malays](/source/Malays_(ethnic_group)) (i.e. [Proto-Malay](/source/Proto-Malay), [Negrito](/source/Semang), and [Bidayut](/source/Bidayuh)) and Thais (i.e. [Mlabri](/source/Mlabri_people) and [H'tin](/source/H'tin_people)). Gene flow between Khmers and Kinh is unidirectional with more evidence of Kinh contributing to the Khmer genome than vice versa.[92][93][94] Likewise, there is no evidence of [Chams](/source/Chams) contributing to the Kinh genome from the [Nam Tiến conquests](/source/Nam_ti%E1%BA%BFn).[92] Among ancient populations, Kinh Vietnamese are the closest to [Núi Nấp](/source/%C4%90%C3%B4ng_S%C6%A1n_culture#Identity) and [Vat Komnou](/source/Khmer_people#Genetics) populations although the latter most likely reflects shared East Asian-related ancestry.[95][96] They are cladal with Iron Age and Historical Mainland Southeast Asian populations compared to other Austroasiatic-related populations.[86]

The majority of the Kinh belong to maternal haplogroups M (39%) and N (61%). In particular, M's subhaplogroup of [Haplogroup D](/source/Haplogroup_D_(mtDNA)) (22%) and M7 (20%) and N's subhaplogroups of R9'F (27%) and [Haplogroup B](/source/Haplogroup_B_(mtDNA)) (25%) are common. In northern Vietnam, haplogroups, A, B4, F1a and G are common.[97] Haplogroups A and C are particularly common in northwest Vietnam, with haplogroups M and M7 peaking in northeast Vietnam and settlements near the [Gulf of Tonkin](/source/Gulf_of_Tonkin). Haplogroup M71 also peaks in central Vietnam. In contrast, haplogroups M and M7 are quite rare for northwest Vietnam and far south Vietnam, near the Mekong Delta.[92][97] In southern Vietnam, haplogroups D (9%) and N peak (67%) and to an extent, R9'F (29%). R9'F is instead more common in the Red River Delta (32-36%), followed by central (21%) and northwest Vietnam (16%).[92]

Meanwhile, common paternal haplogroups for Vietnamese are O1a1a2,[98] O1b1a1a[91] and N4-F2930.[99]

## Religions

Main article: [Religion in Vietnam](/source/Religion_in_Vietnam)

Religion in Vietnam (2019)[1]

1. [Vietnamese folk religion](/source/Vietnamese_folk_religion) or non religious (86.3%)

1. [Catholicism](/source/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam) (6.10%)

1. [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) (4.79%)

1. [Hoahaoism](/source/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o) (1.02%)

1. [Protestantism](/source/Protestantism) (1.00%)

1. Others (0.77%)

According to the 2019 census, the religious demographics of Vietnam are as follows:[1]

- 86.32% [Vietnamese folk religion](/source/Vietnamese_folk_religion) or unaffiliated

- 6.1% [Catholicism](/source/Catholic_Church_in_Vietnam)

- 4.79% [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) (mainly [Mahayana](/source/Mahayana))

- 1.02% [Hoahaoism](/source/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o)

- 1% [Protestantism](/source/Protestantism)

- <1% [Caodaism](/source/Caodaism)

- 0.77 Others

It is worth noting here that the data is highly skewed, as a large majority of Vietnamese nationals may be unaffiliated with any religion, yet practice forms of traditional folk religion or Mahayana Buddhism.[100] Vietnamese folk religion is not an organized religious system, but a set of local worship traditions devoted to the "thần", a term which can be translated as "spirits", "Gods" or with the more exhaustive locution "generative powers". These Gods can be [nature deities](/source/List_of_nature_deities) or [national](/source/National_god), community or kinship [tutelary deities](/source/Tutelary_deity) or ancestral Gods and the [ancestral Gods](/source/Veneration_of_the_dead) of a specific family. Ancestral Gods are often deified heroic persons. [Vietnamese mythology](/source/Vietnamese_mythology) preserves narratives telling of the actions of many of the cosmic Gods and cultural heroes.[101]

Estimates for the year 2010 published by the Pew–Templeton Global Religious Futures Project:[102][*[unreliable source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources)*]

- Vietnamese folk religion, 45.3%

- Unaffiliated, 29.6%

- Buddhism, 16.4%

- Christianity, 8.2%

- Other, 0.5%

## Diaspora

Main article: [Vietnamese diaspora](/source/Vietnamese_diaspora)

Map of the countries with a significant Vietnamese population

[Tết](/source/T%E1%BA%BFt) parade in [San Jose](/source/San_Jose%2C_California), 2009

Ethnolinguistic groups of Mainland Southeast Asia

Originally from northern Vietnam and southern China, the Viet have expanded south and conquered much of the land belonging to the former [Champa](/source/Champa) Kingdom and [post-Angkor Cambodia](/source/Post-Angkor_period) over the centuries. They are the dominant ethnic group in most provinces of Vietnam. Kinh Vietnamese mostly reside in the lowlands of Vietnam.[82]

Beginning around the sixteenth century, groups of Viet migrated to Cambodia and China for commerce and political purposes. Descendants of Viet migrants in China form the [Gin](/source/Gin_people) ethnic group in the country and primarily reside in and around [Guangxi Province](/source/Guangxi_Province). Vietnamese form the largest ethnic minority group in [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), at 5% of the population.[103] Under the [Khmer Rouge](/source/Khmer_Rouge), they were heavily persecuted and survivors of the regime largely fled to Vietnam.

During [French Indochina](/source/French_Indochina), Vietnam (then divided into three regions) was regarded as the most important colony in Asia, and the Viet held a higher social standing than other ethnic groups in the colony.[104] As a result, educated Vietnamese were often trained to be placed in colonial government positions in the other Asian French colonies of Laos and Cambodia rather than locals of the respective colonies. There was also a significant representation of Vietnamese students in France during this period, primarily consisting of members of the elite class. A large number of Vietnamese also migrated to France as workers, especially during [World War I](/source/World_War_I) and [World War II](/source/World_War_II), when France recruited soldiers and locals of its colonies to help with war efforts in metropolitan France. The wave of migrants to France during World War I formed the first major presence of the Vietnamese in France and the Western world.[105]

After the [First Indochina War](/source/First_Indochina_War), a number of Vietnamese migrated to France. During the partition of [North Vietnam](/source/North_Vietnam) and [South Vietnam](/source/South_Vietnam), additional Vietnamese students arrived to study in France, along with individuals engaged in commerce to trade with France.[105] Forced repatriation in 1970 and deaths during the [Khmer Rouge](/source/Khmer_Rouge) era reduced the [Vietnamese Cambodian](/source/Vietnamese_Cambodian) population in [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia) from between 250,000 and 300,000 in 1969 to a reported 56,000 in 1984.[106]

The [fall of Saigon](/source/Fall_of_Saigon) and end of the [Vietnam War](/source/Vietnam_War) prompted the start of the Vietnamese diaspora, which saw [millions of Vietnamese](/source/Vietnamese_boat_people) fleeing the country from the new communist regime. Recognizing an international [humanitarian crisis](/source/Indochina_refugee_crisis), many countries accepted Vietnamese [refugees](/source/Refugee), primarily the United States, Australia, France, and Canada.[107] Meanwhile, under the communist regime, tens of thousands of Vietnamese were sent to work or study in [Eastern Bloc](/source/Eastern_Bloc) countries of [Central](/source/Central_Europe) and [Eastern Europe](/source/Eastern_Europe) as development aid to the Vietnamese government and for migrants to acquire skills that were to be brought home to help with development.[108]

## See also

- [Ethnic groups of Southeast Asia](/source/Ethnic_groups_of_Southeast_Asia)

- [List of ethnic groups in Vietnam](/source/List_of_ethnic_groups_in_Vietnam)

- [Baiyue](/source/Baiyue)

- [Lạc Việt](/source/L%E1%BA%A1c_Vi%E1%BB%87t)

- [Nam Việt](/source/Nam_Vi%E1%BB%87t)

- [List of Vietnamese people](/source/List_of_Vietnamese_people)

- [Vietnamese clothing](/source/Vietnamese_clothing)

- [Vietnamese cuisine](/source/Vietnamese_cuisine)

- [Vietnamese music](/source/Vietnamese_music)

- [Vietnamese name](/source/Vietnamese_name)

- [History of Vietnam](/source/History_of_Vietnam)

- [Culture of Vietnam](/source/Culture_of_Vietnam)

## Notes

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Census2019_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Census2019_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Census2019_1-2) [General Statistics Office of Vietnam](/source/General_Statistics_Office_of_Vietnam) (2019). [*Kết quả Toàn bộ Tổng điều tra dân số và nhà ở năm 2019 (Completed Results of the 2019 Viet Nam Population and Housing Census)*](https://www.gso.gov.vn/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/Ket-qua-toan-bo-Tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-2019.pdf) (PDF). Statistical Publishing House (Vietnam). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-604-75-1532-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-604-75-1532-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210110045640/https://www.gso.gov.vn/du-lieu-va-so-lieu-thong-ke/2020/11/ket-qua-toan-bo-tong-dieu-tra-dan-so-va-nha-o-nam-2019/) from the original on 10 January 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [Pew Research Center](/source/Pew_Research_Center): *[The Global Religious Landscape 2010](https://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130719060225/http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape.aspx) 19 July 2013 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Viet people – the majority ethnic group of Vietnam"](https://vovworld.vn/en-US/content/ODc0Mjk=.vov). *[VOV](/source/Voice_of_Vietnam)World*. [Voice of Vietnam](/source/Voice_of_Vietnam). 1 April 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurchman201033_4-0)** [Churchman 2010](#CITEREFChurchman2010), p. 33.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Norman&Mei_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Norman&Mei_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Norman&Mei_5-2) [Norman, Jerry](/source/Jerry_Norman_(sinologist)); [Mei, Tsu-lin](/source/Mei_Tsu-lin) (1976). "The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence". *Monumenta Serica*. **32**: 274–301. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02549948.1976.11731121).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Meacham_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Meacham_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Meacham_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Meacham_6-3) Meacham, William (1996). ["Defining the Hundred Yue"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140228202613/http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394). *Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association*. **15**: 93–100. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.7152/bippa.v15i0.11537](https://doi.org/10.7152%2Fbippa.v15i0.11537) (inactive 12 July 2025). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10722/208513](https://hdl.handle.net/10722%2F208513). Archived from [the original](http://ejournal.anu.edu.au/index.php/bippa/article/view/405/394) on 28 February 2014.{{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_July_2025))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Theobald_7-0)** Theobald, Ulrich (2018). ["Shang Dynasty – Political History"](http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Myth/shang-event.html). *ChinaKnowledge.de – An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art*. Enemies of the Shang state were called fang 方 "regions", like the Tufang 土方, which roamed the northern region of Shanxi, the [Guifang 鬼方](/source/Guifang) and Gongfang 𢀛方 in the northwest, the [Qiangfang 羌方](/source/Qiang_(historical_people)), Suifang 繐方, **Yuefang 戉方**, Xuanfang 亘方 and [Zhoufang 周方](/source/Zhou_dynasty) in the west, as well as the [Yifang 夷方](/source/Dongyi) and Renfang 人方 in the southeast.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** *The Annals of Lü Buwei*. Translated by Knoblock, John; Riegel, Jeffrey. Stanford University Press. 2000. p. 510. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8047-3354-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-3354-0). For the most part, there are no rulers to the south of the Yang and Han Rivers, in the confederation of the Hundred Yue tribes.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** *Lüshi Chunqiu* "Examination on Relying on Rulers" ["Relying on Rulers"](https://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/shi-jun) text: "揚、漢之南，**百越**之際，敝凱諸、夫風、餘靡之地，縛婁、陽禺、驩兜之國，多無君" translation: South of the [Yang](/source/Yangtze) and [Han](/source/Han_River_(Hubei)) rivers, among the **Hundred Yuè**, the lands of Bikaizhu, Fufeng, Yumi, the nations of Fulou, Yang'ou, Huandou, most had no rulers"

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003405_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003405_10-1) [Lieberman 2003](#CITEREFLieberman2003), p. 405.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Phan, John (2010). ["Re-Imagining "Annam": A New Analysis of Sino–Viet–Muong Linguistic Contact"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160307035705/http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf) (PDF). *Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies*. **4**. Archived from [the original](http://chl-old.anu.edu.au/publications/csds/csds2010/03-1_Phan_2010.pdf) (PDF) on 7 March 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor20135_12-0)** [Taylor 2013](#CITEREFTaylor2013), p. 5.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** [*Viet Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hNoWDgAAQBAJ&dq=annamese+middle+chinese&pg=PT174). Oxford University Press. 10 February 2017. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-062730-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-062730-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor20134–6_14-0)** [Taylor 2013](#CITEREFTaylor2013), pp. 4–6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelley2016165–167_15-0)** [Kelley 2016](#CITEREFKelley2016), pp. 165–167.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelley2016175_16-0)** [Kelley 2016](#CITEREFKelley2016), p. 175.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201941–42_17-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), pp. 41–42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201942_18-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 42.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Kelley, Liam C.; Hong, Hai Dinh (2021), "Competing Imagined Ancestries: The Lạc Việt, the Vietnamese, and the Zhuang", in Gillen, Jamie; Kelley, Liam C.; Le, Ha Pahn (eds.), *Vietnam at the Vanguard: New Perspectives Across Time, Space, and Community*, Springer Singapore, pp. 88–107, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-81165-055-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-81165-055-0)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Blench2018_20-0)** Blench, Roger. 2018. [Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic](https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/52438/3/JSEALS_Special_Publication_3.pdf). In *Papers from the Seventh International Conference on Austroasiatic Linguistics*, 174–193. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society Special Publication No. 3. University of Hawaiʻi Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Blench2017_21-0)** Blench, Roger. 2017. *[Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic](http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austroasiatic/Waterworld.pdf)*. Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sidwell2015b_22-0)** Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. *Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic*. Paper presented at the workshop *Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia*, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Peiros, Ilia (2011). ["Some thoughts on the problem of the Austro-Asiatic homeland"](https://www.jolr.ru/files/(68)jlr2011-6(101-114).pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Language Relationship*. Retrieved 4 August 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChamberlain200040_24-0)** [Chamberlain 2000](#CITEREFChamberlain2000), p. 40.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchliesinger2018a21,_97_25-0)** [Schliesinger (2018a)](#CITEREFSchliesinger2018a), pp. 21, 97.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchliesinger2018b3–4,_22,_50,_54_26-0)** [Schliesinger (2018b)](#CITEREFSchliesinger2018b), pp. 3–4, 22, 50, 54.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201946–47_27-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), pp. 46–47.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurchman201036_28-0)** [Churchman (2010)](#CITEREFChurchman2010), p. 36.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201952_29-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 52.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sagart_2008_30-0)** Sagart, Laurent (2008). "The expansion of setaria farmers in East Asia: a linguistic and archaeological model". In Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.). *Past Human Migrations in East Asia*. pp. 133–157. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4324/9780203926789](https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780203926789). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-14963-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-14963-6). [HAL](/source/HAL_(open_archive)) [hal-04864187](https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-04864187). The cradle of the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic is very likely in north Vietnam, at least 1000km to the south‑west of coastal Fújiàn

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ferlus_2009_31-0)** Ferlus, Michael (2009). "A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese". *Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society*. **1**: 95–108. [HAL](/source/HAL_(open_archive)) [halshs-00932218v3](https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00932218v3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Alves, Mark (10 May 2019). ["Data from Multiple Disciplines Connecting Vietic with the Dong Son Culture"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333720204).[*[self-published source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurchman201027–29,_31,_32,_33_33-0)** [Churchman (2010)](#CITEREFChurchman2010), pp. 27–29, 31, 32, 33.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVu201643–46_34-0)** [Vu 2016](#CITEREFVu2016), pp. 43–46.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Pain2020_35-0)** Pain, Frederic (2020). [""Giao Chỉ" ("Jiāozhǐ") as a diffusion center of Chinese diachronic changes: syllabic weight contrast and phonologisation of its phonetic correlates"](https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02956831/document). *Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies*. **40** (3): 1–57. p. 11

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChurchman201025_36-0)** [Churchman (2010)](#CITEREFChurchman2010), p. 25.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201953_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201953_37-1) [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201956_38-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 56.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Chapuis, Oscar (1 January 1995). [*A History of Vietnam: From Hong Bang to Tu Duc*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Jskyi00bspcC&pg=PA13). Bloomsbury Academic. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-29622-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29622-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer196714_40-0)** [Schafer 1967](#CITEREFSchafer1967), p. 14.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKelley2016167–168_41-0)** [Kelley 2016](#CITEREFKelley2016), pp. 167–168.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201969_42-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 69.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan201975_43-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 75.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaspero191210_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaspero191210_44-1) [Maspero 1912](#CITEREFMaspero1912), p. 10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchafer196763_45-0)** [Schafer 1967](#CITEREFSchafer1967), p. 63.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1983248_46-0)** [Taylor 1983](#CITEREFTaylor1983), p. 248.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019100_47-0)** [Kiernan (2019)](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 100.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETaylor1983140–143_48-0)** [Taylor 1983](#CITEREFTaylor1983), pp. 140–143.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019127,_131_[Quote_(p.131):_From_the_tenth_century,_Vietnamese_history_comes_into_its_own._After_millennia_of_undocumented_prehistory_and_a_thousand_years_of_imperial_rule_documented_only_in_Chinese,_new_indigenous_historical_sources_throw_increasing_light_on_political,_economic,_and_cultural_developments_in_the_territory_that_had_comprised_the_Protectorate_of_Annam._How_new_were_these_developments?_A_tenth-century_ruler_revived_for_a_second_time_the_ancient_name_of_the_kingdom_of_Nán_Yuè_in_its_Vietnamese_form,_Nam_Việt._But_this_new_kingdom_would_then_adopt_a_new_name,_Đại_Việt_(Great_Việt),_and_unlike_its_classical_Yuè_predecessors_and_short-lived_tenth-century_counterparts_in_south_China,_it_successfully_resisted_reintegration_into_the_empire._The_new_autonomous_Việt_realm_inherited_both_the_Sino-Vietnamese_hereditary_aristocracy_and_the_provincial_geography_of_Tang_Annam._From_north_to_south,_it_was_a_diverse_region_of_five_provinces_and_border_marches._Restive_ethnic_Tai_and_oth)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), pp. 127, 131 [Quote (p.131): From the tenth century, Vietnamese history comes into its own. After millennia of undocumented prehistory and a thousand years of imperial rule documented only in Chinese, new indigenous historical sources throw increasing light on political, economic, and cultural developments in the territory that had comprised the Protectorate of Annam. How new were these developments? A tenth-century ruler revived for a second time the ancient name of the kingdom of Nán Yuè in its Vietnamese form, Nam Việt. But this new kingdom would then adopt a new name, Đại Việt (Great Việt), and unlike its classical Yuè predecessors and short-lived tenth-century counterparts in south China, it successfully resisted reintegration into the empire. The new autonomous Việt realm inherited both the Sino-Vietnamese hereditary aristocracy and the provincial geography of Tang Annam. From north to south, it was a diverse region of five provinces and border marches. Restive ethnic Tai and other upland groups, formerly allied to the defunct Nanzhao kingdom, straddled the mountainous northern frontier. Lowland Jiao province in the central plain of the Red and Bạch Đằng rivers was the most Sinicized region, home to most of the northern settlers and traders and an influential Sino-Vietnamese Buddhist community, as well as Vietic-speaking rice farmers. Here the Vietnamese language was emerging as settlers adopted the Proto-Việt-Mường tongue of their indigenous neighbors, infusing it with much of their Annamese Middle Chinese vocabulary].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019139_50-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 139.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019141_51-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELieberman2003352_52-0)** [Lieberman 2003](#CITEREFLieberman2003), p. 352.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Andrew Chittick (2020). *The Jiankang Empire in Chinese and World History*. Oxford University Press. p. 340. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19093-754-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19093-754-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019144–145_54-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), pp. 144–145.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKiernan2019157_55-0)** [Kiernan 2019](#CITEREFKiernan2019), p. 157.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarsh201684–85_56-0)** [Marsh 2016](#CITEREFMarsh2016), pp. 84–85.

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- Akazawa, Takeru; Aoki, Kenichi; Kimura, Tasuku (1992). *The evolution and dispersal of modern humans in Asia*. [Hokusen-sha](/source/Hakusensha). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-4-938424-41-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-938424-41-1).

- Anderson, David (2005). *The Vietnam War (Twentieth Century Wars)*. Palgrave. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-333-96337-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-96337-1).

- Alterman, Eric (2005). *When Presidents Lie: A History of Official Deception and Its Consequences*. [Penguin](/source/Penguin_Group). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-303604-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-303604-3).

- Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (2014). *China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia*. [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-28248-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28248-3).

- Bellwood, Peter; Glover, Ian, eds. (2004). *Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-29777-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-29777-6).

- Brigham, Robert Kendall (1998). [*Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLF's Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War*](https://archive.org/details/guerrilladiploma00brig). [Cornell University Press](/source/Cornell_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8014-3317-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3317-7).

- Brindley, Erica (2015). *Ancient China and the Yue: Perceptions and Identities on the Southern Frontier, c.400 BCE–50 CE*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-08478-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-08478-0).

- Buttinger, Joseph (1958). *The Smaller Dragon: A Political History of Vietnam*. Praeger Publishers.

- Buttinger, Joseph (1968). *Vietnam: A Political History*. Praeger.

- [Chua](/source/Amy_Chua), Amy (2003). [*World On Fire*](/source/World_on_Fire%3A_How_Exporting_Free_Market_Democracy_Breeds_Ethnic_Hatred_and_Global_Instability). Knopf Doubleday Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-385-72186-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-72186-8).

- [Chua](/source/Amy_Chua), Amy (2018). *[Political Tribes: Group Instinct and the Fate of Nations](/source/Political_Tribes%3A_Group_Instinct_and_the_Fate_of_Nations)*. Penguin Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-399-56285-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-399-56285-3).

- Cima, Ronald J. (1987). *Vietnam: A Country Study*. United States Library of Congress. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-16-018143-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-16-018143-6).

- Cook, Bernard A. (2001). *Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8153-4057-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-4057-7).

- Cortada, James W. (1994). *Spain in the Nineteenth-century World: Essays on Spanish Diplomacy, 1789–1898*. [Greenwood Press](/source/Greenwood_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-27655-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-27655-2).

- Cottrell, Robert C. (2009). *Vietnam*. [Infobase Publishing](/source/Infobase_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4381-2147-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-2147-5).

- [Đào Duy Anh](/source/%C4%90%C3%A0o_Duy_Anh) (2016) [1964]. *Đất nước Việt Nam qua các đời: nghiên cứu địa lý học lịch sử Việt Nam* (in Vietnamese). Nha Nam. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-604-94-8700-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-604-94-8700-2).

- Dennell, Robin; Porr, Martin (2014). *Southern Asia, Australia, and the Search for Human Origins*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-72913-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-72913-1).

- van Dijk, Ruud; Gray, William Glenn; Savranskaya, Svetlana; Suri, Jeremi; et al. (2013). *Encyclopedia of the Cold War*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-92311-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-92311-2).

- DK (2017). *The Vietnam War: The Definitive Illustrated History*. [Dorling Kindersley Limited](/source/Dorling_Kindersley_Limited). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-241-30868-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-30868-4).

- Dohrenwend, Bruce P.; Turse, Nick; [Wall, Melanie M.](/source/Melanie_Wall); Yager, Thomas J. (2018). *Surviving Vietnam: Psychological Consequences of the War for US Veterans*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-090444-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-090444-9).

- Duy Hinh, Nguyen; Dinh Tho, Tran (2015). *The South Vietnamese Society*. Normanby Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78625-513-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78625-513-6).

- Eggleston, Michael A. (2014). *Exiting Vietnam: The Era of Vietnamization and American Withdrawal Revealed in First-Person Accounts*. [McFarland Publishing](/source/McFarland_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7864-7772-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-7772-2).

- Elliott, Mai (2010). *RAND in Southeast Asia: A History of the Vietnam War Era*. [RAND Corporation](/source/RAND_Corporation). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8330-4915-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8330-4915-5).

- Fitzgerald, C. P (1972). *The Southern Expansion of the Chinese People*. Barrie & Jenkins.

- Frankum, Ronald B. Jr. (2011). *Historical Dictionary of the War in Vietnam*. [Scarecrow Press](/source/Scarecrow_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-7956-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-7956-0).

- Gettleman, Marvin E.; Franklin, Jane; Young, Marilyn B.; Franklin, H. Bruce (1995). *Vietnam and America: A Documented History*. [Grove Press](/source/Grove_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8021-3362-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8021-3362-5).

- Gibbons, William Conrad (2014). *The U.S. Government and the Vietnam War: Executive and Legislative Roles and Relationships, Part III: 1965–1966*. [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-6153-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6153-8).

- Gilbert, Adrian (2013). *Encyclopedia of Warfare: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-95697-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-95697-4).

- Gravel, Mike (1971). [*The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decision-making on Vietnam*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7yMQtQEACAAJ&q=the+pentagon+papers+beacon+press+volume+3). [Beacon Press](/source/Beacon_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8070-0526-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-0526-2).

- Gunn, Geoffrey C. (2014). *Rice Wars in Colonial Vietnam: The Great Famine and the Viet Minh Road to Power*. [Rowman & Littlefield Publishers](/source/Rowman_%26_Littlefield_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4422-2303-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-2303-5).

- Hampson, Fen Osler (1996). [*Nurturing Peace: Why Peace Settlements Succeed Or Fail*](https://archive.org/details/nurturingpeacewh0000hamp). [US Institute of Peace Press](/source/US_Institute_of_Peace_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-878379-55-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-878379-55-9).

- Heneghan, George Martin (1969). [*Nationalism, Communism and the National Liberation Front of Vietnam: Dilemma for American Foreign Policy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tuVCAAAAIAAJ&q=diem+detain+communist+reeducation). Department of Political Science, Stanford University.

- Hiẻ̂n Lê, Năng (2003). [*Three victories on the Bach Dang river*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bXduAAAAMAAJ&q=kh%C3%BAc+autonomy). Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa-thông tin.

- Hoàng, Anh Tuấn (2007). *Silk for Silver: Dutch-Vietnamese Relations, 1637–1700*. [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-15601-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15601-2).

- Holmgren, Jennifer (1980). *Chinese Colonization of Northern Vietnam: Administrative Geography and Political Development in the Tonking Delta, First To Sixth Centuries A.D*. Australian National University Press.

- Hong Lien, Vu; Sharrock, Peter (2014). *Descending Dragon, Rising Tiger: A History of Vietnam*. [Reaktion Books](/source/Reaktion_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78023-388-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-388-8).

- Howe, Brendan M. (2016). *Post-Conflict Development in East Asia*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-07740-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-07740-4).

- Hyunh, Kim Khanh (1986). *Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945*. Cornell University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8014-9397-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9397-3).

- Isserman, Maurice; Bowman, John Stewart (2009). *Vietnam War*. [Infobase Publishing](/source/Infobase_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4381-0015-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0015-9).

- Jamieson, Neil L (1995). *Understanding Vietnam*. University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-20157-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20157-6).

- Joes, Anthony James (1992). *Modern Guerrilla Insurgency*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-275-94263-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94263-2).

- Jukes, Geoffrey (1973). [*The Soviet Union in Asia*](https://archive.org/details/sovietunioninasi00geof). [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-02393-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-02393-2).

- von Dewall, Magdalene (2003). "Towards an archaeological discourse on bronze and the social life of things in Southeast Asian late Bronze Age mortuary practice". In Karlström, Anna; [Källén, Anna](/source/Anna_K%C3%A4ll%C3%A9n) (eds.). [*Fishbones and Glittering Emblems: Southeast Asian Archaeology 2002*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0nFuAAAAMAAJ&q=lang+gao+tooth+vietnam). Östasiatiska Samlingarna (Stockholm, Sweden), European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists. 9th International Conference. [Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, Stockholm](/source/Museum_of_Far_Eastern_Antiquities%2C_Stockholm). pp. 80–96. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-91-970616-0-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-970616-0-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [56213568](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56213568).

- Keith, Charles (2012). *Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation*. [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-95382-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-95382-6).

- Kelley, Liam C. (2014). "Constructing Local Narratives: Spirits, Dreams, and Prophecies in the Medieval Red River Delta". In Anderson, James A.; Whitmore, John K. (eds.). *China's Encounters on the South and Southwest: Reforging the Fiery Frontier Over Two Millennia*. United States: Brills. pp. 78–106. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-004-28248-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-004-28248-3).

- Kelley, Liam C. (2016), "Inventing Traditions in Fifteenth-century Vietnam", in Mair, Victor H.; Kelley, Liam C. (eds.), *Imperial China and its southern neighbours*, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 161–193, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-81462-055-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-81462-055-0)

- Keyes, Charles F. (1995). *The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia*. [University of Hawaii Press](/source/University_of_Hawaii_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8248-1696-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-1696-4).

- Khánh Huỳnh, Kim (1986). *Vietnamese Communism, 1925–1945*. [Cornell University Press](/source/Cornell_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8014-9397-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-9397-3).

- Khoo, Nicholas (2011). *Collateral Damage: Sino-Soviet Rivalry and the Termination of the Sino-Vietnamese Alliance*. [Columbia University Press](/source/Columbia_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-15078-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-15078-1).

- Kiernan, Ben (2017). *Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-516076-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-516076-5).

- Kiernan, Ben (2019). *Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-005379-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-005379-6).

- Kissi, Edward (2006). *Revolution and Genocide in Ethiopia and Cambodia*. [Lexington Books](/source/Lexington_Books). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7391-1263-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1263-2).

- Kleeman, Terry F. (1998). *Ta Ch'eng, Great Perfection – Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom*. University of Hawaii Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8248-1800-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1800-8).

- Kort, Michael (2017). *The Vietnam War Re-Examined*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-04640-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-04640-5).

- Largo, V. (2002). *Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background*. Nova Science. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59033-368-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59033-368-6).

- Leonard, Jane Kate (1984). *Wei Yuan and China's Rediscovery of the Maritime World*. [Harvard Univ Asia Center](/source/Harvard_Univ_Asia_Center). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-674-94855-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-94855-6).

- Lewy, Guenter (1980). [*America in Vietnam*](https://archive.org/details/americainvietnam00lewy). [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-991352-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991352-7).

- Li, Tana (1998). Cornell University. Southeast Asia Program (ed.). [*Nguyễn Cochinchina: Southern Vietnam in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries*](https://books.google.com/books?id=05x5UGA8MmAC). Vol. 23 of Studies on Southeast Asia (illustrated ed.). SEAP Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-87727-722-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87727-722-2). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Li, Xiaobing (2012). *China at War: An Encyclopedia*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59884-415-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-415-3).

- [Lieberman](/source/Victor_Lieberman), Victor (2003). *Strange Parallels: Integration of the Mainland Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, Vol 1*. Cambridge University Press.

- Lim, David (2014). *Economic Growth and Employment in Vietnam*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-81859-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81859-5).

- Lockard, Craig A. (2010). *Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume 2: Since 1450*. [Cengage](/source/Cengage) Learning. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4390-8536-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4390-8536-3).

- Marsh, Sean (2016), "CLOTHES MAKE THE MAN: Body Culture and Ethnic Boundaries on the Lingnan Frontier in the Southern Song", in Mair, Victor H.; Kelley, Liam C. (eds.), *Imperial China and its southern neighbours*, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 80–110

- McLeod, Mark W. (1991). *The Vietnamese Response to French Intervention, 1862–1874*. [Greenwood Publishing Group](/source/Greenwood_Publishing_Group). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-275-93562-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-93562-7).

- Meggle, Georg (2004). *Ethics of Humanitarian Interventions*. [Walter de Gruyter](/source/Walter_de_Gruyter). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-11-032773-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-032773-1).

- [Miksic, John Norman](/source/John_N._Miksic); Yian, Go Geok (2016). *Ancient Southeast Asia*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-27903-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-27903-7).

- Miller, Robert Hopkins (1990). *United States and Vietnam 1787–1941*. DIANE Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7881-0810-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7881-0810-5).

- Moïse, Edwin E. (2017). *Land Reform in China and North Vietnam: Consolidating the Revolution at the Village Level*. [University of North Carolina Press](/source/University_of_North_Carolina_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8078-7445-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-7445-5).

- Muehlenbeck, Philip Emil; Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012). *Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective*. [Vanderbilt University Press](/source/Vanderbilt_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8265-1852-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8265-1852-1).

- Murphey, Rhoads (1997). *East Asia: A New History*. Pearson. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-205-69522-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-69522-5).

- Murray, Geoffrey (1997). [*Vietnam Dawn of a New Market*](https://archive.org/details/vietnamdawnofnew00murr). [St. Martin's Press](/source/St._Martin's_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-312-17392-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-17392-0).

- Neville, Peter (2007). *Britain in Vietnam: Prelude to Disaster, 1945–46*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-24476-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-24476-8).

- Olsen, Mari (2007). *Soviet-Vietnam Relations and the Role of China 1949–64: Changing Alliances*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-17413-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-17413-3).

- Olson, Gregory A. (2012). *Mansfield and Vietnam: A Study in Rhetorical Adaptation*. [MSU Press](/source/MSU_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-87013-941-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87013-941-3).

- Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). *Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57607-770-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-770-2).

- Ooi, Keat Gin; Anh Tuan, Hoang (2015). *Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1350–1800*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-55919-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-55919-1).

- Oxenham, Marc; Buckley, Hallie (2015). *The Routledge Handbook of Bioarchaeology in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-53401-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-53401-3).

- Oxenham, Marc; Tayles, Nancy (2006). *Bioarchaeology of Southeast Asia*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-82580-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82580-1).

- Page, Melvin Eugene; Sonnenburg, Penny M. (2003). *Colonialism: An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57607-335-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-335-3).

- [Phan, Huy Lê](/source/Phan_Huy_L%C3%AA); Nguyễn, Quang Ngọc; Nguyễn, Đình Lễ (1997). *The Country Life in the Red River Delta*.

- Phuong Linh, Huynh Thi (2016). *State-Society Interaction in Vietnam*. [LIT Verlag](/source/LIT_Verlag) Münster. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-643-90719-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-643-90719-6).

- Pike, Francis (2011). *Empires at War: A Short History of Modern Asia Since World War II*. [I.B.Tauris](/source/I.B.Tauris). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85773-029-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85773-029-9).

- Rabett, Ryan J. (2012). *Human Adaptation in the Asian Palaeolithic: Hominin Dispersal and Behaviour During the Late Quaternary*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-01829-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-01829-7).

- Ramsay, Jacob (2008). *Mandarins and Martyrs: The Church and the Nguyen Dynasty in Early Nineteenth-century Vietnam*. [Stanford University Press](/source/Stanford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8047-7954-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-7954-8).

- Richardson, John (1876). [*A school manual of modern geography. Physical and political*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GHYDAAAAQAAJ&q=french+settled+saigon+cochinchina&pg=PA269). Publisher not identified.

- [Schafer, Edward Hetzel](/source/Edward_H._Schafer) (1967), *The Vermilion Bird: T'ang Images of the South*, Los Angeles: University of California Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-01145-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01145-8)

- Smith, T. (2007). *Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50*. [Palgrave Macmillan UK](/source/Palgrave_Macmillan_UK). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-59166-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59166-0).

- Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). *The Birth of the Vietnam*. University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-07417-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07417-0).

- Taylor, Keith W. (2013). *A History of the Vietnamese*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-107-24435-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-24435-1).

- Thomas, Martin (2012). *Rubber, coolies and communists: In Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940 (Critical Perspectives on Empire from Part II – Colonial case studies: French, British and Belgian)*. pp. 141–176. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CBO9781139045643.009](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139045643.009). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-139-04564-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-04564-3).

- Tonnesson, Stein (2011). *Vietnam 1946: How the War Began*. [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-26993-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26993-4).

- Tran, Anh Q. (2017). *Gods, Heroes, and Ancestors: An Interreligious Encounter in Eighteenth-Century Vietnam*. Vol. 1. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780190677602.001.0001](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190677602.001.0001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-067760-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-067760-2).

- Tucker, Spencer (1999). *Vietnam*. University of Kentucky Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8131-2121-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8131-2121-5).

- Tucker, Spencer C. (2011). *The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History, 2nd Edition [4 volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-85109-961-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-961-0).

- Turner, Robert F. (1975). [*Vietnamese communism, its origins and development*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RclmAAAAMAAJ&q=100,000+execution+north+vietnam+land+reform). [Hoover Institution Press](/source/Hoover_Institution_Press), Stanford University. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8179-6431-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-6431-3).

- Vo, Nghia M. (2011). *Saigon: A History*. [McFarland & Company](/source/McFarland_%26_Company). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7864-8634-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-8634-2).

- Waite, James (2012). *The End of the First Indochina War: A Global History*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-27334-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-27334-6).

- Walker, Hugh Dyson (2012). *East Asia: A New History*. AuthorHouse. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4772-6516-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4772-6516-1).

- Willbanks, James H. (2013). *Vietnam War Almanac: An In-Depth Guide to the Most Controversial Conflict in American History*. [Skyhorse Publishing](/source/Skyhorse_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-62636-528-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62636-528-5).

- Woods, L. Shelton (2002). *Vietnam: a global studies handbook*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57607-416-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-416-9).

- Yü, Ying-shih (1986), "Han foreign relations", in Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King (eds.), *The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220*, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–463

### Journal articles and theses

- Crozier, Brian (1955). "The Diem Regime in Southern Vietnam". *Far Eastern Survey*. **24** (4): 49–56. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3023970](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3023970). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3023970](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3023970).

- Gallup, Luke John (September 2002). The Wage Labor Market and Inequality in Vietnam in the 1990s (Report). Policy Research Working Papers. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1596/1813-9450-2896](https://doi.org/10.1596%2F1813-9450-2896). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10986/19272](https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F19272).

- Gittinger, J. Price (1959). "Communist Land Policy in North Viet Nam". *Far Eastern Survey*. **28** (8): 113–126. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3024603](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3024603). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3024603](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3024603).

- Goodkind, Daniel (1995). "Rising Gender Inequality in Vietnam Since Reunification". *Pacific Affairs*. **68** (3): 342–359. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2761129](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2761129). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2761129](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2761129).

- Hirschman, Charles; Preston, Samuel; Vu, Manh Loi (1995). "Vietnamese Casualties During the American War: A New Estimate". *Population and Development Review*. **21** (4): 783–812. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/2137774](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2137774). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [2137774](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2137774).

- Maspero, Henri (1912). "Etudes sur la phonétique historique de la langue annamite. Les initiales". *Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient* (in French). **12**: 1–124. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3406/befeo.1912.2713](https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fbefeo.1912.2713).

- Matsumura, Hirofumi; Nguyen, Lan Cuong; Nguyen, Kim Thuy; Anezaki, Tomoko (2001). "Dental Morphology of the Early Hoabinian, the Neolithic Da But and the Metal Age Dong Son Civilized Peoples in Vietnam". *Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Anthropologie*. **83** (1): 59–73. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1127/zma/83/2001/59](https://doi.org/10.1127%2Fzma%2F83%2F2001%2F59). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [25757578](https://www.jstor.org/stable/25757578). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [11372468](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11372468).

- Matsumura, Hirofumi; Yoneda, Minoru; Yukio, Dodo; Oxenham, Marc; et al. (2008). ["Terminal Pleistocene human skeleton from Hang Cho Cave, northern Vietnam: implications for the biological affinities of Hoabinhian people"](https://doi.org/10.1537%2Fase.070416). *Anthropological Science*. **116** (3): 201–217. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1537/ase.070416](https://doi.org/10.1537%2Fase.070416).

- Ngo, Lan A. (2016). *Nguyễn–Catholic History (1770s–1890s) and the Gestation of Vietnamese Catholic National Identity* (PhD thesis). [Georgetown University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences](/source/Georgetown_University_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10822/1040724](https://hdl.handle.net/10822%2F1040724).

- Nhu Nguyen, Quynh Thi (2016). ["The Vietnamese Values System: A Blend of Oriental, Western and Socialist Values"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181015045249/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121509.pdf) (PDF). *International Education Studies*. **9** (12). Archived from [the original](https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1121509.pdf) (PDF) on 15 October 2018 – via [Institute of Education Sciences](/source/Institute_of_Education_Sciences).

- Obermeyer, Ziad; Murray, Christopher J L; Gakidou, Emmanuela (2008). ["Fifty years of violent war deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: analysis of data from the world health survey programme \[Table 3\]"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2440905). *[BMJ](/source/BMJ)*. **336** (7659): 1482–6. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1136/bmj.a137](https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.a137). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [2440905](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2440905). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [18566045](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18566045).

- Odell, Andrew L.; Castillo, Marlene F. (2008). ["Vietnam in a Nutshell: An Historical, Political and Commercial Overview"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181012072232/https://www.duanemorris.com/articles/static/odell_inpr_aut08.pdf) (PDF). *NYBSA International Law Practicum*. **21** (2). Archived from [the original](https://www.duanemorris.com/articles/static/odell_inpr_aut08.pdf) (PDF) on 12 October 2018 – via [Duane Morris](/source/Duane_Morris).

- Quach, Thanh Tâm (1991). ["Charles Fourniau: Annam-Tonkin 1885-1896. Lettrés et paysans vietnamiens face à la conquête coloniale. Travaux du Centre d'Histoire et Civilisations de la péninsule Indochinoise"](https://www.persee.fr/doc/befeo_0336-1519_1991_num_78_1_1802). *Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient*. **78** (1): 360–363.

- Taylor, Keith (1980). "An Evaluation of the Chinese Period in Vietnamese History". *The Journal of Asiatic Studies*. **23** (1).

- Vu, Tuong (2016), *State formation on China's southern frontier: Vietnam as a shadow empire and hegemon*, HumaNetten Nr 37Hösten

- Wagstaff, Adam; van Doorslaer, Eddy; Watanabe, Naoko (January 2003). "On decomposing the causes of health sector inequalities with an application to malnutrition inequalities in Vietnam". *Journal of Econometrics*. **112** (1): 207–223. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/S0304-4076(02)00161-6](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0304-4076%2802%2900161-6). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10986/19426](https://hdl.handle.net/10986%2F19426).

- Zinoman, Peter (January 2000). "Colonial Prisons and Anti-colonial Resistance in French Indochina: The Thai Nguyen Rebellion, 1917". *Modern Asian Studies*. **34** (1): 57–98. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0026749X00003590](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00003590).

### Web sources

- BBC News (1997). ["Vietnam: changing of the guard"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/analysis/42854.stm). *[BBC News](/source/BBC_News)*.

- Gillet, Kit (2011). ["Riding Vietnam's Ho Chi Minh trail"](https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/jul/28/ho-chi-minh-trail-motorbike). *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*.

- McKinney, Brennan (2009). ["The Human Migration: Homo Erectus and the Ice Age"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121112203432/http://voices.yahoo.com/the-human-migration-homo-erectus-ice-age-3357450.html). [Yahoo! Voices](/source/Yahoo!_Voices). Archived from [the original](http://voices.yahoo.com/the-human-migration-homo-erectus-ice-age-3357450.html) on 12 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013.

- The New York Times (3 July 1976). ["2 Parts of Vietnam Officially Reunited; Leadership Chosen"](https://www.nytimes.com/1976/07/03/archives/2-parts-of-vietnam-officially-reunited-leadership-chosen-north-and.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*.

- Shenon, Philip (23 April 1995). ["20 Years After Victory, Vietnamese Communists Ponder How to Celebrate"](https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/23/world/20-years-after-victory-vietnamese-communists-ponder-how-to-celebrate.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*.

- Spokesman-Review (1977). ["Vietnam outlines collectivization goals"](https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1314&dat=19770628&id=XjxOAAAAIBAJ&pg=6918,5104561). *[The Spokesman-Review](/source/The_Spokesman-Review)*.

- Thanh Niên (2015). ["Horrific photos recall Vietnamese Famine of 1945"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181031143909/http://www.thanhniennews.com/arts-culture/horrific-photos-recall-vietnamese-famine-of-1945-37591.html). *Vo An Ninh*. [Thanh Niên](/source/Thanh_Ni%C3%AAn). Archived from [the original](http://www.thanhniennews.com/arts-culture/horrific-photos-recall-vietnamese-famine-of-1945-37591.html) on 31 October 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2021.

- Vietnam Net (2015). ["Rare photos of Vietnam's famine in 1945"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181016125854/https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/society/138833/rare-photos-of-vietnam-s-famine-in-1945.html). *Vo An Ninh*. Vietnam Net. Archived from [the original](https://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/society/138833/rare-photos-of-vietnam-s-famine-in-1945.html) on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2021.

## Further reading

- Dutton, George; Werner, Jayne; Whitmore, John K., eds. (2012). *Sources of Vietnamese Tradition*. [Columbia University Press](/source/Columbia_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-51110-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-51110-0).

- Lockhart, Bruce M.; Duiker, William J. (14 April 2010). *The A to Z of Vietnam*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4617-3192-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4617-3192-4).

- Ray, Nick; et al. (2010), *Vietnam*, Lonely Planet, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-74220-389-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74220-389-8)

- McLeod, Mark; Nguyen, Thi Dieu (2001). *Culture and Customs of Vietnam*. Greenwood. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-361135](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-361135).

- Taylor, Keith Weller (1983). *The Birth of the Vietnam*. University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-07417-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07417-0).

- Taylor, Keith Weller (2013). *A History of the Vietnamese*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-87586-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-87586-8).

- Amer, Ramses (1996). "Vietnam's Policies and the Ethnic Chinese since 1975". *Sojourn*. **11** (1): 76–104. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [41056928](https://www.jstor.org/stable/41056928).

- Andaya, Barbara Watson (2006). [*The flaming womb: repositioning women in early modern Southeast Asia*](https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda). University of Hawaii Press. p. [146](https://archive.org/details/flamingwombrepos0000anda/page/146). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8248-2955-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-2955-7). Retrieved 28 June 2010.

- Bob Baulch; Truong Thi Kim Chuyen; [Dominique Haughton](/source/Dominique_Haughton); Jonathan Haughton (May 2002). [Ethnic Minority Development in Vietnam –A Socioeconomic Perspective](http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/05/30/000094946_02051604452763/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Vol. WPS 2836. The World Bank–Development Research Group. Retrieved 13 December 2012.

- Chen, King C. (1987). [*China's War With Vietnam, 1979: Issues, Decisions, and Implications*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4tBfqGvZ4C&q=ethnic+chinese+controlled+percent+of+the+wholesale+trade&pg=PA54). Hoover Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8179-8572-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8179-8572-7). Retrieved 8 May 2012.

- Cœdès, George. (1966). [*The Making of South East Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qgrAFlAC4-QC) (illustrated, reprint ed.). University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0520050614](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520050614). Retrieved 7 August 2013.

- Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James, eds. (2011). [*The Tongking Gulf Through History*](https://books.google.com/books?id=7mlKjn3FfoMC) (illustrated ed.). University of Pennsylvania Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8122-4336-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4336-9). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana (2004). [*Water Frontier: Commerce and the Chinese in the Lower Mekong Region, 1750–1880*](https://books.google.com/books?id=k74xZYbnynwC&q=%22tay+son%22+chinese+massacre). Rowman & Littlefield. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7425-3083-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-3083-3). Retrieved 28 June 2012.

- Cœdès, George (1968). [*The Indianized States of South-East Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iDyJBFTdiwoC) (3 ed.). University of Hawaii Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8248-0368-X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-0368-X). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- *The New Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 8. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-85229-961-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85229-961-3).

- Gernet, Jacques (1996). [*A History of Chinese Civilization*](https://archive.org/details/historyofchinese00gern_0) (2, illustrated, revised, reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-49781-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-49781-7).

- Hall, Kenneth R., ed. (2008). [*Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400–1800*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC). Volume 1 of Comparative urban studies. Lexington Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0739128353](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0739128353). Retrieved 7 August 2013.

- Hall, Kenneth R. (2010). [*A History of Early Southeast Asia: Maritime Trade and Societal Development, 100–1500*](https://books.google.com/books?id=fjsEn3w4TPgC) (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7425-6762-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6762-7). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Gibney, Matthew J; Hansen, Randall (30 June 2005). [*Immigration and Asylum: From 1900 to the Present*](https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt). ABC-CLIO. p. [664](https://archive.org/details/immigrationasylu00matt/page/664). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-57607-796-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-796-9). Retrieved 26 April 2012. hoa refugee -wikipedia.

- Heng, Derek (2009). [*Sino-Malay Trade and Diplomacy from the Tenth Through the Fourteenth Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cLE_ToRyuLsC&q=southeast+asian+ports+intermarriage+daoyi+zhilue+champa+chinese+traders+local+women+cham+ports&pg=PA133). Ohio University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-89680-271-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89680-271-1). Retrieved 28 June 2010.

- *Journal of Southeast Asian Studies*. **37** (1). 2006 [https://books.google.com/books?id=DIpRAQAAIAAJ](https://books.google.com/books?id=DIpRAQAAIAAJ). Retrieved 4 January 2013. {{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: Missing or empty |title= ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#citation_missing_title))

- Khánh, Trâǹ (1993). [*The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam*](https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ethnic-chinese-and-economic-development-in-vietnam/638085AB7D0A0A6FB28F2C2EFB93C838). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-3016-67-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-3016-67-5). Retrieved 26 April 2012.

- Lai, H. Mark (2004). [*On Becoming Chinese American: A History of Communities and Institutions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qZjruI0_XmcC&q=hakka+in+vietnam). Rowman Altamira. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7591-0458-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0458-1).

- Diana Lary, ed. (2007). [*The Chinese State at the Borders*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pFzhWyoYG_wC) (illustrated ed.). UBC Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7748-1333-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7748-1333-4). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Logan, William Stewart (2000). [*Hanoi: Biography of a City*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QiYG5lXd4XsC&q=cantonese+hanoi). UNSW Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-86840-443-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86840-443-8). Retrieved 13 December 2012.

- MacKerras, Colin (2003). [*Ethnicity in Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QLKpECdc4eIC&q=ethnic+chinese+owned+percent+of+the+sector&pg=PA120). Routledge-Curzon. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-415-25817-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25817-0). Retrieved 26 April 2012.

- Marr, David G.; White, Christine Pelzer (1988). [*Postwar Vietnam: Dilemmas in Socialist Development–Issue 3 of Southeast Asia Program Series*](https://books.google.com/books?id=H5FLg3N8nmEC&q=ethnic+chinese+control+percent+of+retail+trade&pg=PA77). SEAP Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-87727-120-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87727-120-8). Retrieved 6 May 2012.

- Marr, David G (2010). "Vietnamese, Chinese, and Overseas Chinese during the Chinese Occupation of Northern Indochina (1945–1946)". *Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies*. **4**: 129–139.

- Stratton, Eric (2002). [*Evolution Of Indian Stupa Architecture In East Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Urg4O5-YhmcC) (illustrated ed.). Vedams eBooks (P) Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [81-7936-006-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-7936-006-7). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Suryadinata, Leo (15 September 1997). [*Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VFDk4oyUAScC&q=vietnam+%22chinese+bang%22). Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-312-17576-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-17576-0). Retrieved 21 October 2012.

- Taylor, Keith Weller; Whitmore, John K., eds. (1995). [*Essays Into Vietnamese Pasts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=A60OggwLPrAC). SEAP Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-87727-718-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87727-718-4). Retrieved 4 January 2013.

- Taylor, Philip (2007). [*Cham Muslims of the Mekong Delta: place and mobility in the cosmopolitan periphery*](https://books.google.com/books?id=a5YntZEIUHMC&q=marriage+chinese). NUS Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9971-69-361-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-361-9). Retrieved 9 January 2011.

- Railways, Imperial Japanese Government; Tetsudōin, Japan (1917). *An Official Guide to Eastern Asia: East Indies*. Vol. 5. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/njp.32101073674309](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fnjp.32101073674309).

- Tong, Chee Kiong (2011). *Identity and Ethnic Relations in Southeast Asia*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-90-481-8909-0](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-8909-0). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-481-8908-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-8908-3).

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- Huang, Lan Xiang (黃蘭翔); 本院台灣史研究所副研究員 (December 2004). [華人聚落在越南的深植與變遷：以會安為例](https://web.archive.org/web/20130801084614/http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N26/2609.pdf) (PDF) (Report). Research Center for Humanities and Social Sciences, Academica Sinica. Archived from [the original](http://www.rchss.sinica.edu.tw/capas/publication/newsletter/N26/2609.pdf) (PDF) on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2014.

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- Nguyen, Xuan Tinh; et al. (2007). [*Thông báo văn hoá dân gian 2006*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tKUMAQAAMAAJ&q=%22H%E1%BA%A3i+Nam%22+%22H%C3%A0+Ti%C3%AAn%22). Vietnam: Nhà xuá̂t bản Khoa học xa̋ hội. Retrieved 13 December 2010.

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- Adhikari, Ramesh; Kirkpatrick, Colin H.; Weiss, John (1992). *Industrial and Trade Policy Reform in Developing Countries*. [Manchester University Press](/source/Manchester_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7190-3553-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-3553-1).

- [*Proceedings of the Regional Dialogue on Biodiversity and Natural Resources Management in Mainland Southeast Asian Economies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Yunnan, China, 21–24 February 1995*](https://books.google.com/books?id=yfaOAAAAIAAJ&q=vietnam+tropical+forest+25%25). Natural Resources and Environment Program, Thailand Development Research Institute Foundation. 1995.

- de Laet, Sigfried J.; Herrmann, Joachim (1996). *History of Humanity: From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-3-102812-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-3-102812-0).

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- Jones, John R. (1998). *Guide to Vietnam*. Bradt Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-898323-67-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-898323-67-9).

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- Litvack, Jennie; Litvack, Jennie Ilene; Rondinelli, Dennis A. (1999). *Market Reform in Vietnam: Building Institutions for Development*. [Greenwood Publishing Group](/source/Greenwood_Publishing_Group). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56720-288-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56720-288-5).

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- Green, Thomas A. (2001). *Martial Arts of the World: A-Q*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-57607-150-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-150-2).

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- Pelley, Patricia M. (2002). *Postcolonial Vietnam: New Histories of the National Past*. [Duke University Press](/source/Duke_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8223-2966-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-2966-4).

- Largo, V. (2002). *Vietnam: Current Issues and Historical Background*. [Nova Publishers](/source/Nova_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59033-368-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59033-368-6).

- Dodd, Jan; Lewis, Mark (2003). *Vietnam*. [Rough Guides](/source/Rough_Guides). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84353-095-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84353-095-4).

- Protected Areas and Development Partnership (2003). *Review of Protected Areas and Development in the Four Countries of the Lower Mekong River Region*. ICEM. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9750332-4-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9750332-4-1).

- Smith, Anthony L. (2005). *Southeast Asia and New Zealand: A History of Regional and Bilateral Relations*. [Victoria University Press](/source/Victoria_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86473-519-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86473-519-5).

- Anderson, Wanni Wibulswasdi; Lee, Robert G. (2005). *Displacements and Diasporas: Asians in the Americas*. [Rutgers University Press](/source/Rutgers_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8135-3611-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3611-8).

- Englar, Mary (2006). *Vietnam: A Question and Answer Book*. [Capstone Publishers](/source/Capstone_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7368-6414-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7368-6414-5).

- Tran, Nhung Tuyet; [Reid, Anthony](/source/Anthony_Reid_(academic)), eds. (2006). *Viet Nam: Borderless Histories*. [University of Wisconsin Press](/source/University_of_Wisconsin_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-299-21773-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-21773-0).

- Jeffries, Ian (2007). *Vietnam: A Guide to Economic and Political Developments*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-16454-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-16454-7).

- Koskoff, Ellen (2008). *The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music: The Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia*. [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-99404-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-99404-0).

- Calò, Ambra (2009). *Trails of Bronze Drums Across Early Southeast Asia: Exchange Routes and Connected Cultural Spheres*. [Archaeopress](/source/Archaeopress). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4073-0396-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0396-3).

- Sharma, Gitesh (2009). *Traces of Indian Culture in Vietnam*. [Rajkamal Prakashan](/source/Rajkamal_Prakashan). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-905401-4-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-905401-4-8).

- Koblitz, Neal (2009). *Random Curves: Journeys of a Mathematician*. [Springer Science + Business Media](/source/Springer_Science_%2B_Business_Media). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-74078-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-74078-0).

- Asian Development Bank (2010). *Asian Development Outlook 2010 Update*. [Asian Development Bank](/source/Asian_Development_Bank). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-92-9092-181-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-9092-181-3).

- Gustafsson, Mai Lan (2010). *War and Shadows: The Haunting of Vietnam*. [Cornell University Press](/source/Cornell_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8014-5745-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5745-6).

- Jones, Daniel (2011). *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary*. [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-76575-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76575-6).

- Lewandowski, Elizabeth J. (2011). *The Complete Costume Dictionary*. [Scarecrow Press](/source/Scarecrow_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8108-4004-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-4004-1).

- Vierra, Kimberly; Vierra, Brian (2011). *Vietnam Business Guide: Getting Started in Tomorrow's Market Today*. [John Wiley & Sons](/source/John_Wiley_%26_Sons). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-118-17881-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-17881-2).

- Cooke, Nola; Li, Tana; Anderson, James (2011). *The Tongking Gulf Through History*. [University of Pennsylvania Press](/source/University_of_Pennsylvania_Press), Incorporated. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8122-4336-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4336-9).

- Zwartjes, Otto (2011). *Portuguese Missionary Grammars in Asia, Africa and Brazil, 1550–1800*. [John Benjamins Publishing Company](/source/John_Benjamins_Publishing_Company). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-272-4608-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-4608-0).

- Kỳ Phương, Trần; Lockhart, Bruce M. (2011). *The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art*. [NUS Press](/source/NUS_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9971-69-459-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9971-69-459-3).

- Thaker, Aruna; Barton, Arlene (2012). *Multicultural Handbook of Food, Nutrition and Dietetics*. [John Wiley & Sons](/source/John_Wiley_%26_Sons). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-118-35046-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35046-1).

- Vo, Nghia M. (2012). *Legends of Vietnam: An Analysis and Retelling of 88 Tales*. [McFarland & Company](/source/McFarland_%26_Company). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7864-9060-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-9060-8).

- Chico, Beverly (2013). *Hats and Headwear around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia: A Cultural Encyclopedia*. [ABC-CLIO](/source/ABC-CLIO). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61069-063-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-063-8).

- Boobbyer, Claire; Spooner, Andrew (2013). [*Vietnam, Cambodia & Laos Footprint Handbook*](https://archive.org/details/vietnamcambodial0000boob). [Footprint Travel Guides](/source/Footprint_Travel_Guides). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-907263-64-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907263-64-4).

- Fröhlich, Holger L.; Schreinemachers, Pepijn; Stahr, Karl; Clemens, Gerhard (2013). *Sustainable Land Use and Rural Development in Southeast Asia: Innovations and Policies for Mountainous Areas*. [Springer Science + Business Media](/source/Springer_Science_%2B_Business_Media). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-642-33377-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-33377-4).

- Choy, Lee Khoon (2013). *Golden Dragon And Purple Phoenix: The Chinese And Their Multi-ethnic Descendants In Southeast Asia*. [World Scientific](/source/World_Scientific). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-4518-49-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-4518-49-9).

- Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2013). *Water Resources and Food Security in the Vietnam Mekong Delta*. [Springer Science + Business Media](/source/Springer_Science_%2B_Business_Media). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-02198-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-02198-0).

- de Mora, Javier Calvo; Wood, Keith (2014). *Practical Knowledge in Teacher Education: Approaches to teacher internship programmes*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-80333-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-80333-1).

- Yao, Alice (2016). *The Ancient Highlands of Southwest China: From the Bronze Age to the Han Empire*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-936734-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936734-4).

- Thanh Hai, Do (2016). *Vietnam and the South China Sea: Politics, Security and Legality*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-39820-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-39820-2).

- Ozolinš, Janis Talivaldis (2016). *Religion and Culture in Dialogue: East and West Perspectives*. [Springer Publishing](/source/Springer_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-25724-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-25724-2).

- Howard, Michael C. (2016). *Textiles and Clothing of Việt Nam: A History*. [McFarland & Company](/source/McFarland_%26_Company). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4766-2440-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4766-2440-2).

- Travel, DK (2017). *DK Eyewitness Travel Guide Vietnam and Angkor Wat*. [Dorling Kindersley Limited](/source/Dorling_Kindersley_Limited). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-241-30136-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-30136-4).

- Hinchey, Jane (2017). *Vietnam: Discover the Country, Culture and People*. Redback Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-925630-02-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-925630-02-2).

- Trieu Dan, Nguyen (2017). *A Vietnamese Family Chronicle: Twelve Generations on the Banks of the Hat River*. [McFarland Publishing](/source/McFarland_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7864-8779-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-8779-0).

- Tran, Tri C.; Le, Tram (2017). *Vietnamese Stories for Language Learners: Traditional Folktales in Vietnamese and English Text (MP3 Downloadable Audio Included)*. [Tuttle Publishing](/source/Tuttle_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4629-1956-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4629-1956-7).

- Cosslett, Tuyet L.; Cosslett, Patrick D. (2017). *Sustainable Development of Rice and Water Resources in Mainland Southeast Asia and Mekong River Basin*. [Springer Publishing](/source/Springer_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-10-5613-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-5613-0).

- Zhu, Ying; Ren, Shuang; Collins, Ngan; Warner, Malcolm (2017). *Business Leaders and Leadership in Asia*. [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-56749-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-56749-3).

- Lamport, Mark A. (2018). *Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South*. [Rowman & Littlefield Publishers](/source/Rowman_%26_Littlefield_Publishers). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4422-7157-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4422-7157-9).

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## External links

- Media related to [Vietnamese people](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vietnamese_people) at Wikimedia Commons

[Portals](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals):
- [Vietnam](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Vietnam)
- [History](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History)

v t e Ethnic groups of Vietnam Austroasiatic Vietic Việt (Kinh) Mường Thổ Chứt Arem Mày Sách Rục Nguồn Bahnaric Ba Na Brâu Co Chơ Ro Cơ Ho Srê Nộp Cil Lạt Giẻ Triêng Jeh Tariang Bh'noong Hrê Mạ M'Nông Rơ Măm Xtiêng Xơ Đăng Kayong Halang Monom Todrah Other Bru-Vân Kiều Ma Coong Trì Khùa Khmer Khơ Mú Cơ Tu Tà Ôi Pa Cô Xinh Mun Kháng Mảng Ơ Đu Hmong–Mien H'mông Dao Pà Thẻn Kra–Dai Tày Thái Black Red White Phu Thái Tày Thanh Thái Hàng Tổng Nùng Sán Chay Giáy Lào Lự Bố Y La Chí La Ha Cơ Lao Pu Péo Thủy Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Hoa (Chinese) Hoa Nùng Sán Dìu Ngái Tibeto-Burman Hà Nhì Phù Lá La Hủ Lô Lô Cống Si La Malayo-Polynesian Chăm H'roi Jarai Rade Raglai Churu Immigrants Indians Japanese Jews Koreans Nigerians Taiwanese The 54 officially recognised ethnic groups are ranked by population in their language families according to 2019 census italic – Not officially recognised Vietnam portal Category

v t e Ethnic groups in Laos by language family Lao-Tai Lao Lu Phuan Phu Thai Saek Tai Daeng (Red Tai) Tai Dam (Black Tai) Tai Khao (White Tai) Tai Maen Tai Nüa Vietic Atel Bo Chut (May) Krih Liha people [vi] (Đan Lai) Maleng Phong Phon Sung (Aheu) Thavung Tum Viet (Kinh) Khmeric Khmer Katuic Bru Ca Tu Kuy Makong Pacoh Sou Ta Oi Bahnaric Alak Brau (Lavae) Kataang Jeng Oy Laven Nyaheun Sedang Talieng Yae (Jeh) Khmu-Palaungic Bit Khang Htin (Lua) Khamu Keu Mlabri Lamet O Du Xinh Mun (Puoc) Samtao (Kiorr) Hmong–Mien Hmong Lanten Yao Tibeto-Burman Akha Hani Kado Kaduo Lahu Phana' Phunoi Si La Austronesian Cham Laotian Cham Other Chinese Doi Kaleung Lavy (Lawi) General grouping Lao Loum (Lowland) Lao Theung (Midland) Lao Sung (Highland) Laos portal

v t e Ethnic and linguistic groups in Thailand by language family Kra–Dai Southwestern Tai Isan Khün Lao Lao Ga Lao Krang Lao Lom Lao Loum Lao Ngaew Lao Song Lao Ti Lao Wiang Tai Lu Tai Yuan Nyong Phu Thai Phuan Tai Bueng Tai Daeng Tai Dam Tai Gapong Kaleun Tai Nüa Tai Wang Thai Noi Khorat Thai Thai Yai Northern Tai Saek Nyaw Yoy Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Cham Malay Bangkok Malays Patani Malays Satun Malays Moken Moklen Urak Lawoi’ Austroasiatic Khmuic Khmu Lua Mlabri Phai Pray Tin Bru Palaungic Blang Lamet Lawa Mok Palaung Khmer Khmer Northern Western Monic Mon Nyah Kur Katuic Kuy Pearic Pear Chong Sa'och Aslian Maniq Kintaq Kensiu Vietic Aheu Viet Sino-Tibetan Sinitic Chinese Teochew Chin Haw Peranakan Tibeto-Burman Akha Bisu Karen Kayah Lahu Lisu Lolo Mpi Pa'O Phrae Pwo Phunoi Pwo S'gaw Ugong Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indians Persians Pathans Roman Portuguese Hmong–Mien Hmong Yao Iu Mien Immigrants and expatriates Australians Burmese Farang Filipino Japanese Koreans Luk khrueng Nepalis Swedish

Authority control databases: National Czech Republic

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Viet people](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_people) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viet_people?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.