# Vertical support

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{{Short description|Member that transfers gravitational loads downward}}
{{about|an architectural element|notion of structural engineering|Structural support}}
thumb|A bridge design utilizes support elements (columns) and spanning elements (two orthogonal sets of beams)
'''Vertical support''' is a category of [structural system](/source/structural_system)s or [elements](/source/architectural_element) in [architecture](/source/architecture) and [architectural engineering](/source/architectural_engineering) designed to facilitate the vertical dimensions of [space and mass](/source/space_and_mass),{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=vii}} for example, [columns](/source/columns) and [load-bearing wall](/source/load-bearing_wall)s.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=2}} Along with horizontal [spanning system](/source/spanning_system)s (like [beams](/source/Beam_(structure)){{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=43}}), vertical supports form the core of a building's structure, housing human activities and enabling the creation of habitable environments.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=vii}}

== Function ==
The primary function of a vertical support is to act as part of a structural system (a "stable assembly" that sustains [architectural form](/source/architectural_form)s).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=2}} As a fundamental component of a structural system, it is responsible for supporting and transmitting applied [loads](/source/Structural_load) (such as gravity, wind, and earthquake forces) safely to the ground without exceeding the allowable [stresses](/source/Stress_(mechanics)) in the members.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=2}}

In the context of [architectural design](/source/architectural_design), vertical supports function similarly to a skeletal system in a body; they give shape and form to the building while providing support for other building systems and organs.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=14}}

=== Human scale ===
Vertical supports are instrumental in establishing the [scale](/source/Human_scale_(architecture)) of a building's interior. Of the three dimensions of a room, height has a greater impact on perceived scale than width or length; a ceiling height that feels comfortable in a smaller room may feel oppressive in a large assembly space.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=138}} As the unsupported height of columns and bearing walls increases, they must become thicker to maintain stability,{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=138}} which additionally influences the visual scale of the space.

== Structural behavior ==
Vertical supports must collect gravity loads from the horizontal spanning systems (trusses, beams, and slabs) and redirect them downward.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}}

=== Load distribution ===
The load imposed on a specific vertical support is determined by its [tributary area](/source/Tributary_area), which corresponds to the span of the floor or roof structure it carries.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}}  In a regular structural grid:
* ''Interior columns'': carry the gravity loads for one full bay (extending halfway to the nearest column in all directions).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}}
* ''Perimeter columns'': carry approximately one-half the load of an interior column.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}}
* ''Corner columns'': carry approximately a quarter of the load of an interior column.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}}

Skipping a column in the grid transfers its load to adjacent supports.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=142}} In multistory buildings, the gravity loads add up as they are transmitted downward through successive floors to the [foundation](/source/Foundation_(engineering)).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=143}}

== Development and types ==
The form and material of vertical supports have evolved significantly throughout history, transitioning from massive elements to lighter skeletal frames.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|pp=6-7}}

=== Stone and masonry ===
Early vertical supports were characterized by high mass:
* [Pillar](/source/Pillar)s and [columns](/source/columns): Neolithic structures, such as those in [Banpo](/source/Banpo), China (c. 5000 BC), utilized thick pillars to support roofs.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=2}} The [Egyptians](/source/Egyptian_architecture) mastered [trabeated](/source/trabeated) ([post-and-lintel](/source/post-and-lintel)) stone construction, exemplified by the [Hypostyle Hall](/source/Hypostyle_Hall) at [Karnak](/source/Karnak) (1500 BC).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=3}} [Ancient Greeks](/source/Ancient_Greeks) perfected the system, with the [Parthenon](/source/Parthenon) (447 BC) representing the pinnacle of the [Doric order](/source/Doric_order) in column design.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=4}}
* [Bearing walls](/source/Bearing_walls): Until the late-18th century, stone and [masonry](/source/masonry) bearing wall systems came to dominate the vertical support designs.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=16}} These systems simultaneously provided support and enclosure, with formal modifications limited to molding or carving the material mass.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=16}}

[Concrete](/source/Concrete) and [masonry](/source/masonry) walls rely on their bulk for load-carrying capability and can withstand high [compression forces](/source/Compression_(physics)), but require reinforcement to resist the [tensile stresses](/source/Tensile_stress).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=141}}

=== Timber, iron, and steel ===
The [Industrial Revolution](/source/Industrial_Revolution) introduced high-strength materials that allowed vertical supports to become slender skeletal elements rather than massive walls:{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=7}} Unlike [timber frames](/source/Timber_framing), the rigid steel and reinforced concrete designs might get away with no diagonal bracing or [shear planes](/source/Shear_wall) to ensure lateral stability.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=141}}
* [Cast iron frame](/source/Cast_iron_frame): By 1797, [Ditherington Flax Mill](/source/Ditherington_Flax_Mill) utilized a structural frame of [cast iron](/source/cast_iron) columns and beams, becoming the world's first iron-framed building.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=8}}
* [Steel frame](/source/Steel_frame)s: The [Home Insurance Building](/source/Home_Insurance_Building) (1884) utilized a 10-story frame of steel and cast iron to carry the majority of the weight of floors and walls, reducing the reliance on masonry for support.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=10}} Steel frames may utilize [moment connection](/source/moment_connection)s for rigidity but require [fireproofing](/source/fireproofing) to qualify as fire-resistive construction.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=141}}

=== Concrete ===
Vertical supports in [reinforced concrete](/source/reinforced_concrete) have allowed for diverse structural expressions. Concrete frames are typically rigid and qualify as [noncombustible construction](/source/Fire-resistance_rating).{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=141}}
* [Pillar](/source/Pillar)s: Modern suspension structures, such as the [Olympic Arena](/source/Yoyogi_National_Gymnasium) in Tokyo (1961), utilize reinforced concrete pillars to anchor steel cables.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=12}}
* [Ribs](/source/Rib_(architecture)): The [Sydney Opera House](/source/Sydney_Opera_House) (1973) utilizes precast concrete ribs to form its iconic shell structure.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=13}}

== Geometric and advanced support structures ==
In the field of [architectural geometry](/source/architectural_geometry), complex [freeform](/source/Freeform_surface_modelling) designs require support structures that address the geometric complexity of nodes where multiple beams intersect.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} 

=== Torsion-free supports ===
In large-scale steel [gridshell](/source/gridshell)s, the connection of beams at a vertex can introduce significant torsion if not geometrically optimized.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} A ''torsion-free support structure'' is defined geometrically as an arrangement of planar [quadrilateral](/source/quadrilateral)s along the edges of a mesh such that all quadrilaterals meeting at a vertex intersect in a single common line, known as the ''node axis''.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} When structural beams are aligned with these quadrilaterals, their symmetry planes pass through the node axis, creating a torsion-free node that is significantly easier to manufacture than a general node.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} This principle was utilized for the support structure of the [Yas Hotel Abu Dhabi](/source/Yas_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi).{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}

=== Parallel meshes and offsets ===
Torsion-free support structures can be derived from parallel meshes (also known as offset meshes).{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} Two meshes are considered parallel if they share the same combinatorics and their corresponding edges are parallel; the beam structure effectively connects these two layers.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} A special case is the ''conical mesh'', where the parallel meshes are at a constant face-to-face distance, allowing for the use of node axes that coincide with the axes of the cones associated with the mesh vertices.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}

=== Semidiscrete supports ===
For structures requiring curved members, the concept of a support structure can be refined through a limit process into a ''semidiscrete support structure''.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}  This results in support members that form [developable strips](/source/Developable_surface), which allows for the fabrication of curved beams with rectangular cross-sections by bending flat material rather than complex molding or machining.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} This technique was applied to the pavilions at the [Eiffel Tower](/source/Eiffel_Tower), where the beams follow the principal [curvature lines](/source/Line_of_curvature) of the reference surface.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}

=== Tensegrity ===
{{main|Tensegrity}}
[Tensegrity](/source/Tensegrity), a term coined by [Buckminster Fuller](/source/Buckminster_Fuller) in 1960, refers to structural systems composed of isolated components under compression (struts) inside a continuous net of tension (cables).{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}} This separation allows for lightweight support structures where distinct elements handle specific forces—cables allowing only tension and struts allowing only compression.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}  The [Kurilpa Bridge](/source/Kurilpa_Bridge) (2009) is cited as a notable example, being the largest tensegrity bridge in the world.{{sfn|Pottmann|Eigensatz|Vaxman|Wallner|2015}}

== Spatial relationship ==
The pattern of vertical supports is intrinsically linked to the spatial composition of a design.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=20}} Because columns and walls have a greater presence in the visual field than horizontal planes, they are instrumental in defining volumes of space.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=140}}
* ''Columns'': A structural frame of columns and beams allows for relationships to be established with adjacent spaces on all four sides of the defined volume.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=140}}
* ''Bearing walls'': Using parallel bearing walls creates a directional quality, orienting the space toward open ends. If a space is enclosed on all four sides by bearing walls, it becomes introverted and must rely on openings for connection to adjacent spaces.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2009|p=140}}

The structural/spatial relationship can be approached in two different ways:
* ''Correspondence between structural and spatial arrangements'': The pattern of supports prescribes the disposition of spaces, or conversely, the spatial requirements dictate the structural rhythm.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=20}}
* ''Flexibility'': The structural form is designed as a "looser fit," allowing freedom in the interior spatial layout independent of the vertical supports.{{sfn|Ching|Onouye|Zuberbuhler|2014|p=20}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book |last1=Ching |first1=Francis D.K. |last2=Onouye |first2=Barry |last3=Zuberbuhler |first3=Douglas |title=Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, Systems, and Design |edition=1st |year=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0470187852 | url=https://archive.org/details/buildingstructur0000chin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ching |first1=Francis D.K. |last2=Onouye |first2=Barry |last3=Zuberbuhler |first3=Douglas |title=Building Structures Illustrated: Patterns, Systems, and Design |edition=2nd |year=2014 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-45835-8}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Pottmann |first1=Helmut |last2=Eigensatz |first2=Michael |last3=Vaxman |first3=Amir |last4=Wallner |first4=Johannes |title=Architectural geometry |journal=Computers & Graphics |volume=47 |pages=145–164 |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.cag.2014.11.002 | url=https://repository.kaust.edu.sa/bitstream/handle/10754/555976/survey-final.pdf?sequence=2}}

Category:Structural system
Category:Architectural elements
Category:Columns and entablature

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Vertical support](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_support) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertical_support?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.