# Unitarianism

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Nontrinitarian sect of Christianity

This article is about the Christian theological tradition. For the doctrinal position, see [Nontrinitarianism](/source/Nontrinitarianism). For the liberal religious movement, see [Unitarian Universalism](/source/Unitarian_Universalism). For its British counterpart, see [General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches](/source/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches). For other uses, see [Unitarian](/source/Unitarian_(disambiguation)).

A view of the [pulpit](/source/Pulpit) and [communion table](/source/Communion_table) at the Unitarian Christian Church in [Săndulești](/source/S%C4%83ndule%C8%99ti), Romania (top photograph), as well as the view of the exterior of the church (bottom photograph)

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**Unitarianism**[1] is a [nontrinitarian](/source/Nontrinitarianism) [movement of Christianity](/source/List_of_Christian_movements), which affirms the [unitary](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unitary) [nature of God](/source/God_in_Christianity) as the singular and unique [creator of the universe](/source/Creator_deity).[2] Unitarian theology critiques the [traditional Christian theology](/source/History_of_Christian_theology) of the [Trinity](/source/Trinity), which regarded [God](/source/God_in_Christianity) as three distinct but unified beings—transcendent [Creator God](/source/God_the_Father), human Savior God (i.e., [Jesus Christ](/source/Jesus_Christ)), and immanent Spiritual God (i.e., the [Holy Spirit](/source/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity)). Unitarians viewed this understanding of God as a later theological corruption, and they embraced a view of God as a singular, unified entity; in most Unitarian theological interpretations, [Jesus Christ](/source/Jesus_Christ) retains highest respect as a spiritual and moral teacher of unparalleled insight and sensitivity, with his [divine nature](/source/Christology) as the [Son of God](/source/Son_of_God_(Christianity)) being subordinate to the [Creator God](/source/Creator_deity).[3][2]

Many Unitarians believe that [Jesus Christ](/source/Jesus_Christ) was [inspired by God](/source/Divine_inspiration) in his moral teachings and that he is the [savior](/source/Redeemer_(Christianity)) of mankind,[2][4][5] and the exalted Son of God,[3] but he is not equal to God himself.[6] Accordingly, Unitarians reject the [Ecumenical Councils](/source/Ecumenical_Councils) and [ecumenical creeds](/source/Ecumenical_creeds), and sit outside traditional, mainstream Christianity.[2][4][7] Unitarianism was established in order to restore "[primitive Christianity](/source/Restorationism) before later corruptions set in".[8] Likewise, Unitarian Christians generally reject the doctrine of [original sin](/source/Original_sin).[9][10] The churchmanship of Unitarianism may include [liberal](/source/Liberal_Christianity) [denominations](/source/Christian_denominations) or Unitarian Christian denominations that are more [conservative](/source/Conservatism), with the latter being known as [biblical Unitarians](/source/Biblical_unitarianism).[11][12]

The birth of the Unitarian faith is proximate to the [Radical Reformation](/source/Radical_Reformation), beginning almost simultaneously among the Protestant[13] [Polish Brethren](/source/Polish_Brethren) in the [Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth](/source/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth) and in the [Principality of Transylvania](/source/Principality_of_Transylvania_(1570%E2%80%931711)) in the mid-16th century.[14] The first Unitarian Christian denomination known to have emerged during that time was the [Unitarian Church of Transylvania](/source/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania), founded by the Unitarian preacher and theologian [Ferenc Dávid](/source/Ferenc_D%C3%A1vid) (c. 1520 – 1579).[14] Among its adherents were a significant number of [Italians](/source/Italians) who took refuge in [Bohemia](/source/Bohemia), [Moravia](/source/Moravia), Poland, and Transylvania in order to escape from the [religious persecution](/source/Religious_persecution) perpetrated against them by the [Roman Catholic](/source/Catholic_Church) and [Magisterial](/source/Magisterial_Reformation) [Protestant](/source/Protestantism) churches.[14][15][16][17]

The early Unitarian Christian leader [Demeter Hunyadi](/source/Demeter_Hunyadi) led the effort to [catechize](/source/Catechesis) the faithful.[18] The first Unitarian Christian [confession of faith](/source/Confession_of_faith) was the *Consensus Ministrorum*, which holds to a Unitarian view of God and teaches that Jesus Christ should be adored; the confession of faith titled the *Complanatio* (1638) established the necessity of the sacraments of [infant baptism](/source/Infant_baptism) and reception of the [eucharist](/source/Eucharist).[18] The widely used [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism) (1605) of the Polish Brethren explicated the Unitarian Christian faith from a [Socinian](/source/Socinianism) perspective, supporting its doctrine with proof-texts from the Bible.[19]

In the 17th century, significant repression in Poland led many Unitarians to flee or be killed for their faith.[15] From the 16th to 18th centuries, Unitarians in Britain often faced significant political persecution, including [John Biddle](/source/John_Biddle_(Unitarian)) and [Theophilus Lindsey](/source/Theophilus_Lindsey). In England, the [first Unitarian Church](/source/Essex_Street_Chapel) was established in 1774 on [Essex Street, London](/source/Essex_Street%2C_London),[20] where today's [British Unitarian](/source/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches) headquarters is still located.[21]

As is typical of [dissenters](/source/Dissenter) and [nonconformists](/source/Nonconformist_Relief_Act_1779), Unitarianism does not constitute one single [Christian denomination](/source/Christian_denomination); rather, it refers to a collection of both existing and extinct Christian groups (whether historically related to each other or not) that share a common theological concept of the unitary nature of God. Unitarian Christian communities and churches have developed in [Central Europe](/source/Central_Europe) (mostly [Romania](/source/Romania) and [Hungary](/source/Hungary)), [Ireland](/source/Ireland), [India](/source/India), [Jamaica](/source/Jamaica), [Japan](/source/Japan), [Canada](/source/Canada), [Nigeria](/source/Nigeria), [South Africa](/source/South_Africa), the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom), and the [United States](/source/United_States). In [British America](/source/British_America), different schools of Unitarian theology first spread in the [New England Colonies](/source/New_England_Colonies) and subsequently in the [Mid-Atlantic States](/source/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)). The first official acceptance of the Unitarian faith on the part of a congregation in North America was by [King's Chapel](/source/King's_Chapel) in Boston, from where [James Freeman](/source/James_Freeman_(clergyman)) began teaching Unitarian doctrine in 1784 and was appointed rector. Later in 1785, he created a [revised Unitarian *Book of Common Prayer*](/source/Book_of_Common_Prayer_(Unitarian)) based on Lindsey's work.[22]

## Terminology

Unitarianism is a [proper noun](/source/Proper_noun) and follows the same English usage as other Christian theologies that have developed within a religious group or denomination (such as [Calvinism](/source/Calvinism), [Anabaptism](/source/Anabaptism), [Adventism](/source/Adventism), [Lutheranism](/source/Lutheranism), [Wesleyanism](/source/Wesleyanism), etc.).[23] The term existed shortly before it became the name of a distinct religious tradition, thus occasionally it is used as a common noun to describe any [understanding of Jesus Christ](/source/Christology) that denies the doctrine of the [Trinity](/source/Trinity) or affirms the belief that [God is only one person](/source/Monotheism). In that case, it would be a [Nontrinitarian](/source/Nontrinitarianism) belief system not necessarily associated with the Unitarian movement.[24][25][26] For example, the Unitarian movement has never accepted the Godhood of Jesus, and therefore does not include those *nontrinitarian* belief systems that do, such as [Oneness Pentecostalism](/source/Oneness_Pentecostalism), [United Pentecostal Church International](/source/United_Pentecostal_Church_International), the [True Jesus Church](/source/True_Jesus_Church), and the writings of [Michael Servetus](/source/Michael_Servetus) (all of which maintain that Jesus is God as a single person).

Unitarianism is a Christian theology and practice that precedes and is distinct from [Unitarian Universalism](/source/Unitarian_Universalism).[27][28][29][30] In the 1890s the [American Unitarian Association](/source/American_Unitarian_Association) began to allow non-Christian and [non-theistic](/source/Non-theism) churches and individuals to be part of their fellowship.[31] As a result, people who held no Unitarian belief began to be called *Unitarians* because they were members of churches that belonged to the American Unitarian Association. After several decades, the non-theistic members outnumbered the theological Unitarians.[32]

## History

Main article: [History of Unitarianism](/source/History_of_Unitarianism)

Further information: [Radical Reformation](/source/Radical_Reformation) and [Reformation in the Kingdom of Hungary](/source/Reformation_in_the_Kingdom_of_Hungary)

[Ferenc Dávid](/source/Ferenc_D%C3%A1vid) holding his speech at the Diet of Torda (1568), in the [Kingdom of Hungary](/source/Kingdom_of_Hungary) (today [Turda](/source/Turda), [Romania](/source/Romania)). Painting by [Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch](/source/Alad%C3%A1r_K%C3%B6r%C3%B6sf%C5%91i-Kriesch) (1896).

The [pulpit](/source/Pulpit) of the [Unitarian Christian Church in Dârjiu](/source/D%C3%A2rjiu_fortified_church), Romania. Its prominent position in the church is characteristic of Unitarian Christian church furnishings.

Unitarianism, both as a theology and as a [denominational family of churches](/source/Christian_denomination), was defined and developed in Poland, Transylvania, England, Wales, India, Japan, Jamaica, the United States, and beyond in the 16th century through the present.[33][34] Although common beliefs existed among Unitarians in each of these regions, they initially grew independently from each other. Only later did they influence one another and accumulate more similarities.[35]

The *Ecclesia minor* or *Minor Reformed Church of Poland*, better known today as the [Polish Brethren](/source/Polish_Brethren), was born as the result of a controversy that started on January 22, 1556, when [Piotr of Goniądz](/source/Piotr_of_Goni%C4%85dz) (Peter Gonesius), a Polish student, spoke out against the [doctrine of the Trinity](/source/Doctrine_of_the_Trinity) during the general synod of the Reformed ([Calvinist](/source/Calvinist)) churches of Poland held in the village of [Secemin](/source/Secemin).[36] After nine years of debate, in 1565, the anti-Trinitarians were excluded from the existing synod of the [Polish Reformed Church](/source/Polish_Reformed_Church) (henceforth the *Ecclesia maior*) and they began to hold their own synods as the *Ecclesia minor*. Though frequently called "[Arians](/source/Arians)" by those on the outside, the views of [Fausto Sozzini](/source/Fausto_Sozzini) (Faustus Socinus) became the standard in the church, and these doctrines were quite removed from Arianism. So important was Socinus to the formulation of their beliefs that those outside Poland usually referred to them as [Socinians](/source/Socinianism).[37] The Polish Brethren were disbanded in 1658 by the [Sejm](/source/Sejm) (Polish Parliament). They were ordered to convert to Roman Catholicism or leave Poland. Most of them went to Transylvania or Holland, where they embraced the name "Unitarian". Between 1665 and 1668 a grandson of Socinus, [Andrzej Wiszowaty Sr.](/source/Andrzej_Wiszowaty_Sr.), published *[Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum](/source/Bibliotheca_Fratrum_Polonorum) quos Unitarios vocant* (*Library of the Polish Brethren who are called Unitarians* 4 vols. 1665–1669).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The [Unitarian Church of Transylvania](/source/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania) was first recognized by the [Edict of Torda](/source/Edict_of_Torda), issued by the [Transylvanian Diet](/source/Transylvanian_Diet) under [Prince](/source/Rulers_of_Transylvania) [John II Sigismund Zápolya](/source/John_II_Sigismund_Z%C3%A1polya) (January 1568),[38] and was first led by [Ferenc Dávid](/source/Ferenc_D%C3%A1vid) (a former [Reformed](/source/Reformed_Christianity) bishop, who had begun preaching the new doctrine in 1566). The term "Unitarian" first appeared as *unitaria religio* in a document of the Diet of [Lécfalva](/source/Le%C8%9B), [Transylvania](/source/Transylvania), on 25 October 1600, though it was not widely used in Transylvania until 1638, when the formal *recepta Unitaria Religio* was published.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] The early Unitarian Christian leader [Demeter Hunyadi](/source/Demeter_Hunyadi) led the effort to [catechize](/source/Catechesis) the faithful.[18] The first Unitarian Christian [confession of faith](/source/Confession_of_faith) was the *Consensus Ministrorum*, which holds to a Unitarian view of God and teaches that Jesus Christ should be adored; the confession of faith titled the *Complanatio* (1638) established the necessity of the sacraments of [infant baptism](/source/Infant_baptism) and reception of the [eucharist](/source/Eucharist).[18] The widely used [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism) (1605) of the Polish Brethren explicated the Unitarian Christian faith from a [Socinian](/source/Socinianism) perspective, supporting its doctrine with proof-texts from the Bible.[19]

Churches in the Unitarian Christian tradition featured prominent [pulpits](/source/Pulpit) for the preaching of the [Bible](/source/Bible); they contained wooden [communion tables](/source/Communion_table) for the celebration of the Lord's Supper, in contrast to the altars of Evangelical-Lutheran and Roman Catholic churches.[18] In describing the interior of Unitarian Christian churches, the historian Andrew Spicer states: "The pulpit was located opposite the entrance and the hexagonal wooden communion table was placed at its foot. Together they created the focal point of the liturgical space, as can be seen at Rimetea and Colțești (Torockószentgyörgy)."[18]

The word *Unitarian* had been circulating in private letters in England, in reference to imported copies of such publications as the *[Library of the Polish Brethren who are called Unitarians](/source/Bibliotheca_Fratrum_Polonorum)* (1665). [Henry Hedworth](/source/Henry_Hedworth) was the first to use the word "Unitarian" in print in English (1673), and the word first appears in a title in [Stephen Nye](/source/Stephen_Nye)'s *A Brief History of the Unitarians, called also Socinians* (1687). The movement gained popularity in England in the wake of the [Enlightenment](/source/Age_of_Enlightenment) and began to become a formal denomination in 1774 when [Theophilus Lindsey](/source/Theophilus_Lindsey) organised meetings with [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley), founding the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in the country. This occurred at [Essex Street Church](/source/Essex_Street_Church) in London.[20] Official [toleration came in 1813](/source/Doctrine_of_the_Trinity_Act_1813).

The first official acceptance of the Unitarian faith on the part of a congregation in America was by [King's Chapel](/source/King's_Chapel) in Boston, which settled [James Freeman](/source/James_Freeman_(clergyman)) (1759–1835) in 1782, and revised the Prayer Book into a mild Unitarian liturgy in 1785. In 1800, [Joseph Stevens Buckminster](/source/Joseph_Stevens_Buckminster) became minister of the [Brattle Street Church](/source/Brattle_Street_Church) in Boston, where his brilliant sermons, literary activities, and academic attention to the [German "New Criticism"](/source/Historical_criticism#Application) helped shape the subsequent growth of Unitarianism in New England. Unitarian [Henry Ware](/source/Henry_Ware_(Unitarian)) (1764–1845) was appointed as the [Hollis professor of divinity](/source/Hollis_Chair_of_Divinity) at Harvard College, in 1805. [Harvard Divinity School](/source/Harvard_Divinity_School) then shifted from its conservative roots to teach Unitarian theology (see [Harvard and Unitarianism](/source/Harvard_Divinity_School#Harvard_Divinity_School_and_Unitarianism)). Buckminster's close associate [William Ellery Channing](/source/William_Ellery_Channing) (1780–1842) was settled over the [Federal Street Church](/source/Federal_Street_Church_(Boston)) in Boston, 1803, and in a few years he became the leader of the Unitarian movement. A theological battle with the [Congregational Churches](/source/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States) resulted in the formation of the [American Unitarian Association](/source/American_Unitarian_Association) at Boston in 1825. Certainly, the unitarian theology was being "adopted" by the Congregationalists from the 1820s onwards. This movement is also evident in England at this time.[39]

The first school founded by the Unitarians in the United States was the [Clinton Liberal Institute](/source/Clinton_Liberal_Institute), in [Clinton, Oneida County, New York](/source/Clinton%2C_Oneida_County%2C_New_York), founded in 1831.

## Beliefs

"God is One" (*Egy az Isten*) stained glass window in a Unitarian church in [Budapest](/source/Budapest), Hungary

### Christology

Unitarians charge that the doctrine of the [Trinity](/source/Trinity) fails to adhere to strict monotheism. Unitarians maintain that Jesus was a great man and a [prophet](/source/Prophet) of God—perhaps even a [supernatural](/source/Supernatural) being—but not God himself.[4] They believe Jesus did not claim to be God and that his teachings did not suggest the existence of a [triune God](/source/Triune_God).

Unitarian [Christology](/source/Christology) can be divided according to whether or not Jesus is believed to have had a pre-human existence. Both forms maintain that [God](/source/God) is one [being](/source/Ousia) and one [person](/source/Hypostasis_(philosophy_and_religion)) and that Jesus is the (or a) [Son of God](/source/Son_of_God_(Christianity)), but generally not God himself.[40]

In the early 19th century, Unitarian [Robert Wallace](/source/Robert_Wallace_(Unitarian)) identified three particular classes of Unitarian doctrines in history:

- **[Arian](/source/Arianism)**, which believed in a pre-existence of the [Logos](/source/Logos_(Christianity));

- **[Socinian](/source/Socinianism)**, which denied his pre-existence but agreed that Jesus should be [worshipped](/source/Worship);

- **"Strict Unitarian"**, which, believing in an "incommunicable divinity of God", denied the worship of "the man Christ."[41][42]

Unitarianism is considered a factor in the decline of classical [deism](/source/Deism) because believers increasingly preferred to identify themselves as Unitarians rather than deists.[43]

#### Socinian Christology

Main article: [Socinianism](/source/Socinianism)

[Fausto Sozzini](/source/Fausto_Sozzini) was an Italian theologian who helped define Unitarianism and also served the [Polish Brethren](/source/Polish_Brethren) church.

The Christology commonly called "[Socinian](/source/Socinianism)"—after [Fausto Sozzini](/source/Fausto_Sozzini), one of the founders of Unitarian theology—refers to the belief that Jesus began his life when he was born as a human. In other words, the teaching that Jesus [pre-existed](/source/Pre-existence_of_Christ) his human body is rejected. The [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism) (1605) of the Polish Brethren explicated the Unitarian Christian faith from a Socinian perspective, supporting its doctrines with proof-texts from the Bible.[19]

There are various views ranging from the belief that Jesus was simply a human ([psilanthropism](/source/Psilanthropism)) who, because of his greatness, was adopted by God as his Son ([adoptionism](/source/Adoptionism)) to the belief that Jesus literally became the [son of God](/source/Son_of_God_(Christianity)) when he was conceived by the [Holy Spirit](/source/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity).[a][*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

This Christology existed in some form or another before Sozzini. [Theodotus of Byzantium](/source/Theodotus_of_Byzantium),[44] [Artemon](/source/Artemon)[45] and [Paul of Samosata](/source/Paul_of_Samosata)[46] denied the pre-existence of the [Christ](/source/Christ_(title)). These ideas were continued by [Marcellus of Ancyra](/source/Marcellus_of_Ancyra) and his pupil [Photinus](/source/Photinus) in the 4th century AD.[47][48] In the [Radical Reformation](/source/Radical_Reformation) and [Anabaptist](/source/Anabaptist) movements of the 16th century, this idea resurfaced with Sozzini's uncle, [Lelio Sozzini](/source/Lelio_Sozzini). Having influenced the [Polish Brethren](/source/Polish_Brethren) to a formal declaration of this belief in the [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism), Sozzini involuntarily ended up giving his name to this Christological position,[49] which continued with English Unitarians, such as [John Biddle](/source/John_Biddle_(Unitarian)), [Thomas Belsham](/source/Thomas_Belsham), [Theophilus Lindsey](/source/Theophilus_Lindsey), and [James Martineau](/source/James_Martineau). In America, most of the early Unitarians were [Arian](/source/Arianism) in Christology (see below), but among those who held to a "Socinian" view was [James Freeman](/source/James_Freeman_(clergyman)).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Regarding the [virgin birth of Jesus](/source/Virgin_birth_of_Jesus), among those who denied the preexistence of the [Christ](/source/Christ_(title)), some held to it, and others did not. Its denial is sometimes ascribed to the [Ebionites](/source/Ebionites); however, [Origen](/source/Origen) (*[Contra Celsum](/source/Contra_Celsum)* volume 61) and [Eusebius](/source/Eusebius) (*HE* iii.27) both indicate that some Ebionites did accept the virgin birth.[50] On the other hand, [Theodotus of Byzantium](/source/Theodotus_of_Byzantium), [Artemon](/source/Artemon), and [Paul of Samosata](/source/Paul_of_Samosata) all accepted the virgin birth.[51] In the early days of Unitarianism, the stories of the virgin birth were accepted by most. There were a number of Unitarians who questioned the [historicity of the Bible](/source/Historicity_of_the_Bible), including [Symon Budny](/source/Symon_Budny), [Jacob Palaeologus](/source/Jacob_Palaeologus), [Thomas Belsham](/source/Thomas_Belsham), and [Richard Wright](/source/Richard_Wright_(Unitarian)), and this made them question the virgin birth story.[52][53][54][55] Beginning in England and America in the 1830s and manifesting itself primarily in [transcendentalist Unitarianism](/source/Transcendentalist_Unitarianism), which emerged from the German [liberal theology](/source/Liberal_theology) associated primarily with [Friedrich Schleiermacher](/source/Friedrich_Schleiermacher), the psilanthropist view increased in popularity.[56] Its proponents took an intellectual and humanistic approach to religion. They embraced evolutionary concepts, asserted the "inherent goodness of man", and abandoned the doctrine of [biblical infallibility](/source/Biblical_infallibility), rejecting most of the miraculous events in the Christian Bible (including the virgin birth). Notable examples are [James Martineau](/source/James_Martineau), [Theodore Parker](/source/Theodore_Parker), [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/source/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson) and [Frederic Henry Hedge](/source/Frederic_Henry_Hedge). Famous American Unitarian [William Ellery Channing](/source/William_Ellery_Channing) was a believer in the virgin birth until later in his life, after he had begun his association with the Transcendentalists.[57][58][59]

#### Arianism

[Constantine I](/source/Constantine_I) burning [Arian](/source/Arian) books, illustration from a book of canon law, c. 825

[Arianism](/source/Arianism) is often considered a form of Unitarianism.[60]

The Christology of Arianism holds that Jesus, before his human life, existed as the [Logos](/source/Logos_(Christianity)) (Word), a being begotten or created by God, who dwelt with God in [Heaven](/source/Heaven).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] There are many varieties of this form of Unitarianism, ranging from the belief that the Son was a divine spirit of the same substance (called [subordinationism](/source/Subordinationism)) or [of a similar substance](/source/Homoiousian) to that of God (called [semi-Arianism](/source/Semi-Arianism)) to the belief that he was an angel or other lesser spirit creature of a wholly different nature from God.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Not all of these views necessarily were held by [Arius](/source/Arius), the namesake of Arianism. It is still nontrinitarian because, according to it, Jesus was and is a being always been beneath God in divinity, though higher than humans. Arian Christology was not the majority view among Unitarians in Poland, Transylvania, or England. It was only with the advent of American Unitarianism that it gained a foothold in the Unitarian movement.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Among early Christian theologians who believed in a pre-existent Jesus subordinate to God the Father were [Lucian of Antioch](/source/Lucian_of_Antioch), [Eusebius of Caesarea](/source/Eusebius_of_Caesarea), [Arius](/source/Arius), [Eusebius of Nicomedia](/source/Eusebius_of_Nicomedia), [Asterius the Sophist](/source/Asterius_the_Sophist), [Eunomius](/source/Eunomius), and [Ulfilas](/source/Ulfilas), as well as [Felix, Bishop of Urgell](/source/Felix%2C_Bishop_of_Urgell). Proponents also associate it (more controversially) with [Justin Martyr](/source/Justin_Martyr) and [Hippolytus of Rome](/source/Hippolytus_of_Rome). Antitrinitarian [Michael Servetus](/source/Michael_Servetus) did not deny the pre-existence of the Christ.[61][*[unreliable source?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources)*] In his *Treatise Concerning the Divine Trinity*, Servetus taught that the Logos was the reflection of Jesus, that said reflection of the Logos was the Word with God "and it was God Himself".[62] He further wrote that "the Word was the very essence of God or the manifestation of God's essence, and there was in God no other substance or hypostasis than His Word, in a bright cloud where God then seemed to subsist. And in that very spot the face and personality of Christ shone bright."[62] [Isaac Newton](/source/Isaac_Newton) held Arian beliefs as well.[63][64][65] Other 19th-century Arian Unitarians included [Andrews Norton](/source/Andrews_Norton)[66] and [William Ellery Channing](/source/William_Ellery_Channing) (in his earlier years).[67]

### Other beliefs

Although there is no specific authority on Unitarian beliefs aside from their inclusion of the rejection of the Trinity, the following beliefs are generally accepted:[68][69][70][71][72][73]

- One God and the oneness or unity of God.

- The life and teachings of Jesus constitute the exemplary model for living one's own life.

- Reason, rational thought, science, and philosophy coexist with faith in God.

- Humans have the ability to exercise [free will](/source/Free_will) in a responsible, constructive and ethical manner with the assistance of religion.

- [Human nature](/source/Human_nature) in its present condition is neither inherently corrupt nor depraved (see [original sin](/source/Original_sin)) but capable of both good and evil, as God intended.

- No religion can claim an absolute monopoly on the Holy Spirit or theological truth.

- Though God inspired the authors of the Christian Bible, they were humans and, therefore, subject to human error.

- The traditional [doctrines](/source/Doctrines) of [predestination](/source/Predestination), [Hell](/source/Hell_in_Christianity), and the [vicarious sacrifice](/source/Substitutionary_atonement) and [satisfaction](/source/Satisfaction_theory_of_atonement) theories of the [atonement](/source/Atonement_in_Christianity) are invalid because they malign God's character and veil the true nature and mission of Jesus.[74]

In 1938, *The Christian Leader* attributed "*the* religion *of* Jesus, not *a* religion *about* Jesus", to Unitarians,[75] though the phrase was used earlier by [Congregationalist](/source/Congregationalist) [Rollin Lynde Hartt](/source/Rollin_Lynde_Hartt) in 1924.[76]

## Worship

Early worship in the Unitarian Christian tradition gave prominence to the preaching of the Bible, exemplified by the promiment [pulpits](/source/Pulpit) in Unitarian Christian churches.[18] Unitarian Christian churches traditionally contain a wooden [communion table](/source/Communion_table) for the celebration of the [Lord's Supper](/source/Eucharist).[18] The *[Summa Universae Theologiae Christianae secundum Unitarios](/source/Summa_Universae_Theologiae_Christianae_secundum_Unitarios)* maintains a [memoralist](/source/Memorialism) theology of the Lord's Supper, as does the [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism), which states that "this rite is to be observed for the purpose of commemorating or showing forth the kindness manifested by Christ towards us".[77]

In Britain, Unitarian worship varies by congregation, with some congregations including a time for parishioners to publicly share their recent joys or concerns.[78]

## Modern Christian Unitarian organizations

Main article: [History of Unitarianism](/source/History_of_Unitarianism)

[First Unitarian Meeting House](/source/First_Unitarian_Society_of_Madison) in [Madison, Wisconsin](/source/Madison%2C_Wisconsin), designed by Unitarian [Frank Lloyd Wright](/source/Frank_Lloyd_Wright)

This section relates to Unitarian churches and organizations today which are still specifically Christian, whether within or outside Unitarian Universalism. Unitarian Universalism, conversely, refers to the embracing of non-Christian religions.

### International groups

The [Unitarian Christian Alliance](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unitarian_Christian_Alliance&action=edit&redlink=1) represents various Unitarian Christian denominations and churches.[79] Some Unitarian Christian groups are affiliated with the [International Council of Unitarians and Universalists](/source/International_Council_of_Unitarians_and_Universalists) (ICUU), founded in 1995.[80] The ICUU has "full member" groups in Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, EUU, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, India, Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland,[81] Romania, South Africa, Spain. Sri Lanka and the United States. Brazil is a Provisional Member.[82]

The ICUU includes small "Associate Groups", including Congregazione Italiana Cristiano Unitariana, [Turin](/source/Turin) (founded in 2004)[83][84] and the Bét Dávid Unitarian Association, [Oslo](/source/Oslo) (founded 2005).[85]

### Transylvania

The [Dârjiu fortified church](/source/D%C3%A2rjiu_fortified_church), a 13th-century fortified church belonging to the [Unitarian Church of Transylvania](/source/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania). This is the only Unitarian fortified church in Transylvania which is on the [UNESCO](/source/UNESCO)'s [World Heritage List](/source/World_Heritage_List).

The largest Unitarian denomination worldwide today is also the oldest Unitarian denomination (since 1565, first use of the term "Unitarian" 1600):[86] the [Unitarian Church of Transylvania](/source/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania) (in [Romania](/source/Romania), which is in union with the Unitarian Church in Hungary). The church in Transylvania still looks to the statement of faith, the *[Summa Universae Theologiae Christianae secundum Unitarios](/source/Summa_Universae_Theologiae_Christianae_secundum_Unitarios)* (1787), though today assent to this is not required. The modern [Unitarian Church in Hungary](/source/Unitarian_Church_in_Hungary) (25,000 members) and the [Transylvanian Unitarian Church](/source/Transylvanian_Unitarian_Church) (75,000 members) are affiliated with the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists (ICUU) and claim continuity with the historical Unitarian Christian tradition established by [Ferenc Dávid](/source/Ferenc_D%C3%A1vid) in 1565 in [Transylvania](/source/Transylvania) under [John II Sigismund Zápolya](/source/John_II_Sigismund_Z%C3%A1polya). The Unitarian churches in Hungary and Transylvania are structured and organized along a church hierarchy that includes the election by the synod of a national bishop who serves as superintendent of the Church. Many Hungarian Unitarians embrace the principles of rationalist Unitarianism.[87] Unitarian high schools exist only in Transylvania (Romania), including the [John Sigismund Unitarian Academy](/source/John_Sigismund_Unitarian_Academy) in [Cluj-Napoca](/source/Cluj-Napoca), the [Protestant Theological Institute of Cluj](/source/Protestant_Theological_Institute_of_Cluj), and the Berde Mózes Unitárius Gimnázium in [Cristuru Secuiesc](/source/Cristuru_Secuiesc); both teach Rationalist Unitarianism.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### United Kingdom

[Newington Green Unitarian Church](/source/Newington_Green_Unitarian_Church) in London, England. Built in 1708, this is the oldest [nonconformist](/source/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)) church in London still in use.

The [Unitarian Christian Association](/source/Unitarian_Christian_Association) (UCA) was founded in the United Kingdom in 1991 by Rev. [Lancelot Garrard](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lancelot_Garrard&action=edit&redlink=1) (1904–1993)[88] and others to promote specifically Christian ideas within the [General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches](/source/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches) (GAUFCC), the national Unitarian body in the UK. Just as the UUCF and ICUU maintain formal links with the [Unitarian Universalist Association](/source/Unitarian_Universalist_Association) in the US, so the UCA is an affiliate body of the GAUFCC in the UK.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The majority of Unitarian Christian publications are sponsored by an organization and published specifically for their membership. Generally, they do not serve as a tool for missionary work or encouraging conversions.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### India

In India, three different schools of Unitarian thought influenced varying movements, including the [Brahmo Samaj](/source/Brahmo_Samaj), the Unitarian Church of the [Khasi Hills](/source/Khasi_Hills),[89] and the Unitarian Christian Church of [Chennai](/source/Chennai), in Madras, founded in 1795.[90] As of 2011, "Thirty-five congregations and eight fellowships comprising almost 10,000 Unitarians now form the Unitarian Union of North East India."[91]

### United States

Unitarian minister [Theodore Parker](/source/Theodore_Parker) (1810–1860) was a prominent reformer and abolitionist. His statue is in front of the [Theodore Parker Unitarian Universalist Church](/source/Theodore_Parker_Unitarian_Universalist_Church) in West Roxbury, Massachusetts.

The American Unitarian Conference (AUC) was formed in 2000 and stands between UUA and ICUU in attachment to the Christian element of modern Unitarianism. The American Unitarian Conference is open to non-Christian Unitarians, being particularly popular with non-Christian [theists](/source/Theists) and [deists](/source/Deists).[92] As of 2009, the AUC has three congregations in the United States.[93]

Unitarian Christian Ministries International was a Unitarian ministry incorporated in South Carolina until its dissolution in 2013 when it merged with the Unitarian Christian Emerging Church. The Unitarian Christian Emerging Church has recently undergone reorganization and today is known as the Unitarian Christian Church of America. In addition, the Unitarian Universalist Faith Alliance and Ministries follow a Progressive Christian format honoring Sacred Space and Creation Spirituality.[94]

The Unitarian Christian Church of America (UCCA) was formed on 1 October 2016 through the merging of the Unitarian Christian Emerging Church and the Unitarian Christian Conference. The church's current ministry in on-line and through local fellowship gatherings. The current senior pastor and current president of the UCCA is the Reverend Dr. Shannon Rogers. The UCCA has both ordained and lay members.[95]

### Australia and New Zealand

Further information: [Australia and New Zealand Unitarian Universalist Association](/source/Australia_and_New_Zealand_Unitarian_Universalist_Association)

The first Unitarian Church in Australia was built in 1854 in Melbourne and was followed soon afterwards by chapels in Sydney and Adelaide, and later regional centres including Ballarat.[96][97] The modern church, no longer unitarian Christian, retains properties in Adelaide, Sydney and Melbourne, and smaller congregations elsewhere in Australia and New Zealand.[98]

### South Africa

The Unitarian movement in South Africa was founded in 1867 by [David Faure](/source/David_Faure),[99] member of a well-known Cape family. He encountered advanced liberal religious thought while completing his studies at the [University of Leiden](/source/University_of_Leiden) in the [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands) for the ministry of the [Dutch Reformed Church](/source/Dutch_Reformed_Church_in_South_Africa) in [Cape Town](/source/Cape_Town).

### Ireland

There are two active [Unitarian churches](/source/Unitarian_Church_in_Ireland) in Ireland, one in Dublin and the other in Cork. Both are member churches of the [Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland](/source/Non-subscribing_Presbyterian_Church_of_Ireland).

### Denmark

Unitarianism was a latecomer to Denmark. Some of the inspiration came from Norway and England – family members of the founders, and the wife of Edward Grieg. 1900–1918 the society priest was Uffe Birkedal, who had previously been a Lutheran priest. He held the first worship 18 February 1900. A founding general assembly 18 May 1900 elected Mary Bess Westenholz as the first chairman of the Society. The Society newsletter was named *Protestantisk Tidende* 1904–1993, and then renamed *Unitaren*, reflecting a gradually changing perception of being part of the Danish Lutheran Church, to one where this was no longer assumed ([100]).

### Biblical Unitarians

Main article: [Biblical Unitarianism](/source/Biblical_Unitarianism)

[Biblical Unitarianism](/source/Biblical_Unitarianism) identifies the [Christian belief](/source/Christianity#Beliefs) that the [Bible](/source/Bible) teaches that God the Father is [one singular being](/source/Monotheism), and that [Jesus Christ](/source/Jesus_Christ) is a distinct being, the exalted [Son of God](/source/Son_of_God_(Christianity)).[101][102] [A few denominations](/source/Biblical_Unitarianism#Denominations) use this term to describe themselves, clarifying the distinction between them and those churches which, from the late 19th century, evolved into [modern British Unitarianism](/source/General_Assembly_of_Unitarian_and_Free_Christian_Churches) and, primarily in the United States, [Unitarian Universalism](/source/Unitarian_Universalism).[101] In 16th-century Italy, Biblical Unitarianism was powered by the ideas of the Non-trinitarian theologians [Lelio](/source/Lelio_Sozzini) and [Fausto Sozzini](/source/Fausto_Sozzini), founders of [Socinianism](/source/Socinianism);[103] their doctrine was embraced and further developed by the [Unitarian Church of Transylvania](/source/Unitarian_Church_of_Transylvania) during the 16th and 17th centuries.[104] Unitarian Christian doctrine from the Socinian perspective, is codified in the [Racovian Catechism](/source/Racovian_Catechism).[19] Today, it's represented by the churches associated with the [Christian Church in Italy](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christian_Church_in_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1).[105]

## Notable Unitarians

Main article: [List of Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists](/source/List_of_Unitarians%2C_Universalists%2C_and_Unitarian_Universalists)

[Isaac Newton](/source/Isaac_Newton) held [Arian](/source/Arian) views.

Notable Unitarians include classical composers [Edvard Grieg](/source/Edvard_Grieg) and [Béla Bartók](/source/B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k); [Ralph Waldo Emerson](/source/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson), [Theodore Parker](/source/Theodore_Parker), [Yveon Seon](/source/Yvonne_Seon) and [Thomas Lamb Eliot](/source/Thomas_Lamb_Eliot) in theology and ministry; [Oliver Heaviside](/source/Oliver_Heaviside), [Erasmus Darwin](/source/Erasmus_Darwin), [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley), [John Archibald Wheeler](/source/John_Archibald_Wheeler), [Linus Pauling](/source/Linus_Pauling), [Sir Isaac Newton](/source/Sir_Isaac_Newton)[106] and inventor Sir [Francis Ronalds](/source/Francis_Ronalds)[107][108] in science; [George Boole](/source/George_Boole) in mathematics; [Susan B. Anthony](/source/Susan_B._Anthony) in civil government; [Frances Ellen Watkins Harper](/source/Frances_Harper), [Whitney Young](/source/Whitney_Young) of the [National Urban League](/source/National_Urban_League), and [Florence Nightingale](/source/Florence_Nightingale) in humanitarianism and social justice; [John Bowring](/source/John_Bowring), [Samuel Taylor Coleridge](/source/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge) and [Elizabeth Gaskell](/source/Elizabeth_Gaskell) in literature; [Frank Lloyd Wright](/source/Frank_Lloyd_Wright) in the arts; [Josiah Wedgwood](/source/Josiah_Wedgwood), [Richard Peacock](/source/Richard_Peacock)[109] and [Samuel Carter](/source/Samuel_Carter_(Coventry_MP)) MP[110] in industry; [Thomas Starr King](/source/Thomas_Starr_King) in ministry and politics; and [Charles William Eliot](/source/Charles_William_Eliot) in education. [Julia Ward Howe](/source/Julia_Ward_Howe) was a leader in the woman suffrage movement, the first ever woman to be elected to the Academy of Arts and Letters, and author of the "[Battle Hymn of the Republic](/source/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic)", volumes of poetry, and other writing. Although raised a Quaker, [Ezra Cornell](/source/Ezra_Cornell), founder of [Cornell University](/source/Cornell_University) in Ithaca, New York, attended the Unitarian church and was one of the founders of Ithaca's First Unitarian Church. Eramus Darwin Shattuck, a signatory to the Oregon State Constitution, founded the first Unitarian church in Oregon in 1865.[111]

[Frances Ellen Watkins Harper](/source/Frances_Ellen_Watkins_Harper) was an abolitionist, journalist, and suffragist associated with both American Unitarianism and the [African Methodist Episcopal Church](/source/African_Methodist_Episcopal_Church).

Eleven Nobel Prizes have been awarded to Unitarians: [Robert Millikan](/source/Robert_Millikan)[112] and [John Bardeen](/source/John_Bardeen) (twice) in physics; [Emily Green Balch](/source/Emily_Green_Balch), [Albert Schweitzer](/source/Albert_Schweitzer) and [Linus Pauling](/source/Linus_Pauling) for peace; [George Wald](/source/George_Wald) and [David H. Hubel](/source/David_H._Hubel) in medicine; [Linus Pauling](/source/Linus_Pauling) in chemistry; and [Herbert A. Simon](/source/Herbert_A._Simon) in economics.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Four presidents of the United States were Unitarians: [John Adams](/source/John_Adams), [John Quincy Adams](/source/John_Quincy_Adams), [Millard Fillmore](/source/Millard_Fillmore), and [William Howard Taft](/source/William_Howard_Taft).[113] [Adlai Stevenson II](/source/Adlai_Stevenson_II), the Democratic presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956, was a Unitarian; he was the last Unitarian to be nominated by a major party for president as of 2024.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Although a self-styled materialist, [Thomas Jefferson](/source/Thomas_Jefferson) was pro-Unitarian to the extent of suggesting that it would become the predominant religion in the United States.[114] John Adams is widely considered the first Unitarian president, while some describe him as Christian Deist.[115] In a 1813 letter to Jefferson, Adams asserted that the Christian Trinity was a "fabrication" derived from Pythagorean and Platonic philosophies rather than divine revelation, and expressed surprise that theologian [Joseph Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley) had overlooked these connections.[116]

In the United Kingdom, although Unitarianism was the religion of only a small minority of the population, its practitioners had an enormous impact on Victorian politics, not only in the larger cities – [Birmingham](/source/Birmingham), [Leeds](/source/Leeds), [Manchester](/source/Manchester) and [Liverpool](/source/Liverpool) – but in smaller communities such as [Leicester](/source/Leicester), where there were so many Unitarian mayors that the Unitarian Chapel was known as the "Mayors' Nest".[117] Numerous Unitarian families were highly significant in the social and political life of Britain from Victorian times to the middle of the 20th century. They included the [Nettlefolds](/source/Joseph_Nettlefold), [Martineaus](/source/Martineau_family), [Luptons](/source/Lupton_family), [Kitsons](/source/James_Kitson%2C_1st_Baron_Airedale), [Chamberlains](/source/Joseph_Chamberlain) and Kenricks.[118][119] In [Birmingham, England](/source/Birmingham%2C_England), a Unitarian church – the Church of the Messiah – was opened in 1862. It became a cultural and intellectual centre of a whole society, a place where ideas about society were openly and critically discussed.[b]

## See also

- [Religion portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Religion)
- [Christianity portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Christianity)

- [Anomoeanism](/source/Anomoeanism) – radical Arians of the 4th century.

- [Binitarianism](/source/Binitarianism)

- [Christadelphians](/source/Christadelphians)

- [Divine simplicity](/source/Divine_simplicity)

- [Jesus in Islam](/source/Jesus_in_Islam)

- [Jehovah's Witnesses](/source/Jehovah's_Witnesses_beliefs)

- [Messianic Judaism](/source/Messianic_Judaism)

- [Monarchianism](/source/Monarchianism)

- [The New Church](/source/The_New_Church)

- [New Thought](/source/New_Thought)

- [Nondualism](/source/Nonduality_(spirituality))

- [Nontrinitarianism](/source/Nontrinitarianism)

- [Non-Trinitarian churches](/source/Non-Trinitarian_churches)

- [Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland](/source/Non-subscribing_Presbyterian_Church_of_Ireland), a denomination that maintains close links with Unitarianism while maintaining its own identity.

- [Sabellianism](/source/Sabellianism)

- [Tawhid](/source/Tawhid)

- [Unitarian (disambiguation)](/source/Unitarian_(disambiguation)) - [Unitarian church (disambiguation)](/source/Unitarian_church_(disambiguation))

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** The biblical narrative of Jesus' conception by the Holy Spirit is primarily found in the Gospel of Luke (1:26-38) and Matthew (1:18-25). In Luke, the angel Gabriel tells Mary she will conceive through the Holy Spirit, and in Matthew, the angel explains to Joseph that the child conceived in Mary is of the Holy Spirit.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Henry W. Crosskey's congregation included [Joseph Chamberlain](/source/Joseph_Chamberlain), father of British prime minister [Neville Chamberlain](/source/Neville_Chamberlain)[117] and Arthur, his younger brother, who was married to Louisa Kenrick; William Kenrick, his brother-in-law, who was married to Mary Chamberlain; and [Sir Thomas Martineau](/source/Martineau_family), who was the nephew of [Harriet Martineau](/source/Harriet_Martineau), another outspoken public figure and author. Sir Thomas Martineau (died 1893) was related to the [Chamberlain family](/source/Neville_Chamberlain) by marriage; Sir Thomas had married Emily Kenrick, the sister of Florence Chamberlain, née Kenrick.[120] In Lambeth, South London, another two members of the Martineau family, Caroline and Constance, worked at Morley College, the former acting as (unpaid) principal for over 11 years. Several other prominent Unitarians were involved in the development of this liberal arts college, which was founded by actors at the Old Vic theatre.[121]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** (from [Latin](/source/Latin_language) *unitas* 'unity, oneness')

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bremer_2015_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bremer_2015_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Bremer_2015_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Bremer_2015_2-3) Bremer, Thomas S. (2015). ["Transcendentalism"](https://books.google.com/books?id=GE3YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235). *Formed From This Soil: An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America*. [Chichester, West Sussex](/source/Chichester): [Wiley-Blackwell](/source/Wiley-Blackwell). p. 235. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1002/9781394260959](https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781394260959). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4051-8927-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8927-9). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2014030507](https://lccn.loc.gov/2014030507). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [127980793](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:127980793). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230113235453/https://books.google.com/books?id=GE3YBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA235) from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Boney-Maury_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Boney-Maury_3-1) Boney-Maury, Amy Gaston Charles Auguste (1884). [*Early sources of English Unitarian Christianity, revised by the author and tr. by E.P. Hall*](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Early_sources_of_English_Unitarian_Chris/crEHAAAAQAAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Unitarians+Jesus+subordinate+God+divinity&pg=PA214&printsec=frontcover). British & Foreign Unitarian Association. p. 214. The other three elements are these: Saving faith consits in obedience to the commandements of God, and in imitation of Jesus Christ; when it follows that faith depends in part, on the free efforts of the human will, and that in all the Churches salvation may e secured. There is but one sole person in the Divine essence, namely, the God of Israel, the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ; and this God has no certain knowledge of future contingencies (thus predestination is rejected). Lastly, Jesus Christ, the only, but not the eternal, Son of God, had not to satisfy by his death the justice of God; was not makde Lord and King before his resurrection, nor High Priest before his ascension.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Miano_2003_15_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Miano_2003_15_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Miano_2003_15_4-2) Miano, David (2003), [*An Explanation of Unitarian Christianity*](https://web.archive.org/web/20190521191654/http://www.americanunitarian.org/explanation.htm), AUC, p. 15, archived from [the original](http://americanunitarian.org/explanation.htm) on 2019-05-21, retrieved 2012-10-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Drzymala, Daren. 2002. *Biblical Christianity*. Xulon press. p. 122: "Classically, Unitarian Universalist Christians [and Unitarian Christians] have understood Jesus as a Savior because he was a God-filled human being, not a supernatural being."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Rees, Thomas (1818). *The Racovian Catechism*. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 55.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Jesus Christ: Incarnated or Created? – Was he actually born?"](https://www.biblicalunitarian.com/articles/jesus-christ-incarnated-or-created). *BiblicalUnitarian.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220519153315/https://www.biblicalunitarian.com/articles/jesus-christ-incarnated-or-created) from the original on 19 May 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Joseph Priestley, one of the founders of the Unitarian movement, defined Unitarianism as the belief of primitive Christianity before later corruptions set in. Among these corruptions, he included not only the doctrine of the Trinity, but also various other orthodox doctrines and usages (Earl Morse Wilbur, *A History of Unitarianism*, [Harvard University Press](/source/Harvard_University_Press) 1952, pp. 302–303).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** From *The Catechism of the Hungarian Unitarian Church in Transylvanian Romania*: "Unitarians do not teach original sin. We do not believe that through the sin of the first human couple we all became corrupted. It would contradict the love and justice of God to attribute to us the sin of others, because sin is one's own personal action" (Ferencz Jozsef, 20th ed., 1991. Translated from Hungarian by Gyorgy Andrasi, published in *The Unitarian Universalist Christian,* Fall/Winter, 1994, Volume 49, Nos. 3–4; VII:107).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** In his history of the Unitarians, David Robinson writes: "At their inception, both Unitarians and Universalists shared a common theological enemy: Calvinism." He explains that they "consistently attacked Calvinism on the related issues of original sin and election to salvation, doctrines that in their view undermined human moral exertion." (D. Robinson, *The Unitarians and the Universalists*, Greenwood Press, 1985, pp. 3, 17).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Larsen2011_11-0)** Larsen, Timothy (27 January 2011). *A People of One Book: The Bible and the Victorians*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). p. 143. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-161433-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161433-0). Biblical Unitarians are standardly portrayed as denouncing liberal Unitarians

1. **[^](#cite_ref-MandelbroteLedger-Lomas2013_12-0)** Mandelbrote, Scott; Ledger-Lomas, Michael (October 2013). *Dissent and the Bible in Britain, C.1650–1950*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). p. 160. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-960841-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960841-6). Although a biblical Unitarian, Mary Carpenter was lifelong friends with James Martineau, the pioneer of English liberal Unitarianism.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Lerski, Jerzy Jan; Lerski, George J.; Lerski, Halina T. (1996). [*Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&dq=%22polish+brethren%22+%22protestant%22&pg=PA16). Greenwood Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0313260070](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313260070). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230520/https://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&dq=%22polish+brethren%22+%22protestant%22&pg=PA16) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2021-12-25.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Williams_1995_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Williams_1995_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Williams_1995_14-2) [Williams, George Huntston](/source/George_Huntston_Williams) (1995). ["Chapter 28: The Rise of Unitarianism in the Magyar Reformed Synod in Transylvania"](https://books.google.com/books?id=ppmYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1099). *The Radical Reformation* (3rd ed.). [University Park, Pennsylvania](/source/University_Park%2C_Pennsylvania): [Penn State University Press](/source/Penn_State_University_Press). pp. 1099–1133. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-943549-83-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-943549-83-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230113232336/https://books.google.com/books?id=ppmYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1099) from the original on 2023-01-13. Retrieved 2023-01-13.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Luszczynska_2018_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Luszczynska_2018_15-1) Luszczynska, Magdalena (2018). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=mQh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6). *Politics of Polemics: Marcin Czechowic on the Jews*. [Berlin](/source/Berlin) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [De Gruyter](/source/De_Gruyter). pp. 1–26. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1515/9783110586565-001](https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110586565-001). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783110586565](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110586565). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [158456664](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158456664). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230210201605/https://books.google.com/books?id=mQh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6) from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2023-02-10.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** James Hastings *Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics: Algonquins-Art* p. 785 – 2001 "The first Unitarians were Italians, and the majority took refuge in Poland, where the laxity of the laws and the independence of the nobility secured for them a toleration which would have been denied to their views in other countries."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** The encyclopedia of Protestantism 137 Hans Joachim Hillerbrand – 2004 "The so-called Golden Age of Unitarianism in Transylvania (1540–1571) resulted in a rich production of works both in Hungarian and Latin".

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Spicer2016_18-7) Spicer, Andrew (5 December 2016). *Parish Churches in the Early Modern World*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-351-91276-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-91276-1).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Wilbur1925_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Wilbur1925_19-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Wilbur1925_19-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Wilbur1925_19-3) Wilbur, Earl Morse (1925). *Our Unitarian Heritage: An Introduction to the History of the Unitarian Movement*. Beacon Press. p. 266.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_20-1) Schofield, Robert E. (2010). [*The Enlightened Joseph Priestley: A Study of His Life and Work from 1773 to 1804*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qL9K2e4KIvsC). Penn State Press. p. 26. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-271-04624-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-04624-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230520/https://books.google.com/books?id=qL9K2e4KIvsC) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2020-05-13.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Erwin Fahlbusch The encyclopedia of Christianity 5 603 2008 "Lindsey attempted but failed to gain legal relief for Anglican Unitarians, so in 1774 he opened his own distinctly Unitarian church on Essex Street, London, where today's British Unitarian headquarters are still located."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** *American Unitarianism: or, A Brief history of "The progress and State of the Unitarian Churches in America,* third edition, 1815 "So early as the year 1786, Dr. Freeman had persuaded his church to adopt a liturgy, which the Rev. ... Thus much for the history of Unitarianism at the Stone Chapel."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** L. Sue Baugh, *Essentials of English Grammar: A Practical Guide to the Mastery of English* ([ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0844258218](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0844258218)). Second Edition 1994, p. 59: "Religious Names and Terms: The names of all religions, denominations, and local groups are capitalized."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** J. Gordon Melton, *Encyclopedia of Protestantism*, 2005, p. 543: "Unitarianism – The word *unitarian* [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Letter from Matthew F. Smith to Editor *World faiths Encounter*, 7–12 World Congress of Faiths – 1994 – "In an otherwise excellent article by Jasbir Singh Ahluwalia, 'Sikh Spirit in an Age of Plurality' (No. 6, November 1993), the writer makes a number of pejorative remarks about 'unitarianism', associating the term with a striving for a monolithic polity and reductionism to a common denominator. This is a very unfortunate misuse of the word. A correct definition of 'unitarianism' (small 'u') is the mono-[hypo-static](/source/Hypostasis_(philosophy)#Trinitarian_definitions) belief system of someone not directly associated with the Unitarian movement, almost always applied to a person from the Christian tradition, as the word was coined in distinction to the orthodox 'Trinitarian' doctrine of Christianity. 'Unitarians' (capital 'U') are, of course, those who follow the Unitarian approach to religion and are formally associated with the movement. In neither case can it be claimed that there is an underlying agenda towards reductionism and uniformity. Quite the reverse, in fact. Modern Unitarianism is remarkable among religions in not only welcoming the variety of faiths that there are to be found but also, as a creedless church, welcoming and encouraging acceptance of the same. We readily accept that not all our members are 'realist' theists, for example. Our long-standing commitment to interfaith understanding, evident in our practical support of the International Association for Religious Freedom, the World Congress of Faiths and the newly established International Interfaith centre in Oxford cannot be taken to mean that Unitarians are seeking the creation of a single world religion out of the old. I do not know a single Unitarian who believes or seeks that. On the contrary, we reject uniformity and cherish instead the highest degree of spiritual integrity, both of the existing religious traditions of the world and of religious persons as unique, thinking individuals. Matthew F Smith, Information Officer" ([Essex Street Chapel](/source/Essex_Street_Chapel), Unitarian Church headquarters, UK)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** "The name originated at the time of the great dispute at Gyulafehérvár in 1568, in the course of which Mélius quite often concluded his argument by saying, *Ergo Deus est trinitarius*.... Hence his party naturally came to be called Trinitarians and their opponents would naturally be called Unitarians. The name seems thus to have come into general use only gradually and it was long before it was employed in the formal proclamations of their Superintendents.... It is not found in print as the denomination of the church until 1600, when the *unitaria religio* is named as one of the four received religions in a decree of the Diet of Léczfalva (cf. Magyar Emlékek, iv, 551) in the extreme southeastern part of Transylvania. The name was never used by the Socinians in Poland; but late in the seventeenth century Transylvanian Unitarian students made it well-known in Holland, where the Socinians in exile, who had never adopted Socinian as the name of their movement and were more and more objecting to it, welcomed it as distinguishing them from Trinitarians. It thus gradually superseded the term Socinian, and spread to England and America." Earl Morse Wilbur, *A History of Unitarianism*, vol. 2, pp. 47–48.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Robinson, *The Unitarians and the Universalists*, pp. 159–184.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** AW Gomes, EC Beisner, and RM Bowman, *Unitarian Universalism* (Zondervan, 1998), pp. 30–79.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** American Unitarian association, 1886. *The Unitarian Register*. American Unitarian Association. p. 563

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Rationalist Press Association Limited, 1957. *Humanist, Volume 72*. p. III

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** George Willis Cooke, *Unitarianism in America* (AUA, 1902), pp. 224–230.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** [*Engaging Our Theological Diversity*](http://www.uua.org/documents/coa/engagingourtheodiversity.pdf) (PDF), UUA, pp. 70–72, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20100615181113/http://uua.org/documents/coa/engagingourtheodiversity.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2010-06-15, retrieved 2011-01-02

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** ["Book Talk with Michel Mohr "Unitarianism in Japan: Unravelling Its Saga through the UUA Archives""](https://library.hds.harvard.edu/news/ahtl-book-talk-michel-mohr). *library.hds.harvard.edu*. 28 September 2018. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210731112559/https://library.hds.harvard.edu/news/ahtl-book-talk-michel-mohr) from the original on 2021-07-31. Retrieved 2021-03-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** ["Unitarians, Universalists, and Unitarian Universalists Around the World | International Unitarian Universalism | UUA.org"](https://www.uua.org/international/uus-abroad). *www.uua.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210411001543/https://www.uua.org/international/uus-abroad) from the original on 2021-04-11. Retrieved 2021-03-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** "The religious movement whose history we are endeavoring to trace...became fully developed in thought and polity in only four countries, one after another, namely Poland, Transylvania, England and America, but in each of these it showed, along with certain individual characteristics, a general spirit, a common point of view, and a doctrinal pattern that tempt one to regard them as all outgrowths of a single movement which passed from one to another; for nothing could be more natural than to presume that these common features implied a common ancestry. Yet such is not the fact, for in each of these four lands the movement, instead of having originated elsewhere, and been translated only after attaining mature growth, appears to have sprung independently and directly from its own native roots, and to have been influenced by other and similar movements only after it had already developed an independent life and character of its own." Earl Morse Wilbur, *A History of Unitarianism*, vol. 2 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1952), p. 166.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Hewett, *Racovia*, pp. 20–21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Livingstone, B. A. (2014). "Unitarianism". [*The Concise Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church*](https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001/acref-9780199659623-e-5941) (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780191744303](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191744303). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230522/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199659623.001.0001/acref-9780199659623-e-5941) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2022-09-17. Poland, where Faustus Socinus was their leader from 1579 until his death.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-poperamet_38-0)** Earl A. Pope, "Protestantism in Romania", in Sabrina Petra Ramet (ed.), *Protestantism and Politics in Eastern Europe and Russia: The Communist and Postcommunist Eras*, [Duke University Press](/source/Duke_University_Press), Durham, 1992, p. 160. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8223-1241-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8223-1241-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Bowers, J. (2010). [*Joseph Priestley and English Unitarianism in America*](https://books.google.com/books?id=LVQd6MitmpoC&q=congregationalists++adopting+Unitarian+theology&pg=PA245). Penn State Press. p. 245. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0271045818](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0271045818). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230521/https://books.google.com/books?id=LVQd6MitmpoC&q=congregationalists++adopting+Unitarian+theology&pg=PA245#v=snippet&q=congregationalists%20%20adopting%20Unitarian%20theology&f=false) from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2020. ...Before 1819, American Unitarians followed the teachings of [England's] Priestly...[in the next few decades] the liberal Congregationalists adopted their Unitarian theology.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** [Hastings, James](/source/James_Hastings), *Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics*, vol. 2, p. 785, Unitarianism started, on the other hand, with the denial of the pre-existence... These opinions, however, must be considered apart from Arianism proper.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Wallace, Robert. 1819. *[A Plain Statement and Scriptural Defence of the Leading Doctrines of Unitarianism](https://books.google.com/books?id=a-orAAAAYAAJ) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164814/https://books.google.com/books?id=a-orAAAAYAAJ) 2023-03-26 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*. "Statement of The Peculiar Doctrines of Unitarians": pp. 7–10

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** See also *[Socinianism, Arianism and Unitarianism](http://www.ccg.org/z/P185z.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150120235633/http://www.ccg.org/z/P185z.html) 2015-01-20 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)*, by Christian Churches of God, Wade Cox, Summary No. 185z

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Mossner, Ernest Campbell (1967). "Deism". Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2. Collier-MacMillan. pp. 326–336.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** Hoben, Allan (1903), *The Virgin Birth*, Of the above-stated beliefs that of Theodotus of Byzantium is perhaps the most striking, in that, while it admits the virgin birth, it denies the deductions commonly made therefrom, attributing to Christ only pre-eminent righteousness.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Bright, William, *Some Aspects of Primitive Church Life*, p. 127, His original view was put into more definite form by Artemon, who regarded Jesus Christ as distinguished from prophets by (1) virgin-birth, (a) superior virtue.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Charles, Tutorial Prayer Book, p. 599.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Houdt, Toon, *Self-Presentation and Social Identification*, p. 238, Christian apologists traced the origin of Socinianism to the doctrine of Photinus (4th century), who according to St. Augustine denied the pre-existence of Christ.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** [R. P. C. Hanson](/source/R._P._C._Hanson) (1916–1988), [Lightfoot Professor of Divinity](/source/Lightfoot_Professor_of_Divinity) *The Search for the Christian Doctrine of God: The Arian Controversy, 318–381* (9780801031465): 1973 "Photinus' doctrine appears to have been a form of what might be called middle Marcellism, i.e., what Marcellus originally taught before his vicissitudes caused him to temper the edge of his doctrine and take account of the criticisms of his friends as well as of his enemies, a little more moderated."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Watson, R., *A Biblical and Theological Dictionary*, p. 999.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1982), *International Standard Bible Encyclopedia*, vol. E–J, p. 9, Origen was the first to distinguish between two types of Ebionites theologically: those who believed in the Virgin Birth and those who rejected it.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Stead_52-0)** Stead, Christopher (1996), *Philosophy in Christian Antiquity*, Cambridge: [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press), p. 189, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-46955-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-46955-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Webb, R. K. (2007), "Miracles in English Unitarian Thought", in Micale, Mark S.; Dietle, Robert L; Gay, Peter (eds.), *Enlightenment, Passion, Modernity: Historical Essays in European Thought and Culture*, p. 120.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Belsham (1806), "Remarks on Mr. Proud's Pamphlet", *Monthly Repository*, p. 423.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Wright, Richard (1808), *An Essay on the Miraculous Conception of Jesus Christ*, London.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Wright, R, *A Review of the Missionary Life and Labors of Richard Wright*, p. 68, After they were excited to think freely, some gave up the doctrine of the miraculous conception, from reading the scriptures only, and observing certain things there with which it could not be reconciled.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Gura, Philip F. *American Transcendentalism: A History*. New York: Hill and Wang, 2007: 7–8. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8090-3477-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8090-3477-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Placher, William Carl (1983), *A History of Christian Theology: An Introduction*, p. 265, Rationalist Unitarians like William Ellery Channing had argued from the Bible and the evidence of its miracles.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Chadwick, John White, *William Ellery Channing: Minister of Religion*, p. 440.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Mendelsohn, Jack (1971), *Channing, the Reluctant Radical: A Biography*, A Suffolk County grand jury indicted him on three charges of blasphemy and obscenity: (1) he had quoted a scurrilous passage by Voltaire disparaging the virgin birth of Jesus.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** ["Arianism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arianism). *Britannica*. 28 August 2023. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091909/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Arianism) from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 15 September 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Odhner, CT (1910), [*Michael Servetus, His Life and Teachings*](https://archive.org/details/michaelservetush00odhn), p. 77, It will be seen from these extracts how completely without foundation is the assertion that Servetus denied the eternal pre-existence of Christ.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Servetus_1553_75_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Servetus_1553_75_63-1) Servetus, Michael (1553). *The Restoration of Christianity – An English Translation of Christianismi restitutio, 1553, Translated by Christopher A. Hoffman and Marian Hillar*. [Lewiston, New York](/source/Lewiston%2C_New_York): [Edwin Mellen Press](/source/Edwin_Mellen_Press). p. 75. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7734-5520-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7734-5520-7). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. (1997), "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?", *Journal of the History of Ideas*, pp. 57–80, Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Wiles, Maurice F (1996), *Archetypal Heresy: Arianism Through the Centuries*, p. 133, Modern Unitarianism emerged after Newton's death.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Nicholls, David (1995), *God and Government in an 'age of Reason'*, p. 44, Unitarianism ideas emerged after Newton's death.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** *A Statement of Reasons for Not Believing the Doctrines of Trinitarians*, 1859.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** "Unitarian Christianity", *The Works of WE Channing, DD*, 1841.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** May, Samuel Joseph (1867) [1860], *What Do Unitarians Believe?*, Albany: Weed, Parsons, and Co., [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[2027/hvd.32044081810715](https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fhvd.32044081810715).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** Henderson, AC (1886), *What Do Unitarians Believe?*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Dewey, Orville (1873), *The Unitarian Belief*, Boston{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** Clarke, James Freeman (1924) [1885], *Manual of Unitarian Belief* (20th ed.)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Ellis, George H (1890), *What Do Unitarians Believe About Jesus Christ?*, Boston{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher)).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** [Sunderland, Jabez T](/source/Jabez_T._Sunderland) (1891), *What Do Unitarians Believe?*, New York: AUA.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** ["The Unitarian Denomination"](https://books.google.com/books?id=zPgQAAAAIAAJ&q=%22unitarian+theory+of+atonement%22&pg=PA168). *The Quarterly Journal of the American Unitarian Association*. **5**. Boston: [American Unitarian Association](/source/American_Unitarian_Association): 168. 1858. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230522/https://books.google.com/books?id=zPgQAAAAIAAJ&q=%22unitarian+theory+of+atonement%22&pg=PA168#v=snippet&q=%22unitarian%20theory%20of%20atonement%22&f=false) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2020-11-22.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** An esteemed Unitarian minister (1938), "2", *The Christian Leader*, vol. 120, p. 1034, This view finds pat expression in the dictum that Christianity is the religion of Jesus, not a religion about Jesus.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Hartt, Rollin Lynde (1924), *The Man Himself*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rees_78-0)** Rees, Thomas (1818). *The Racovian Catechism*. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 264.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** ["BBC – Religions – Unitarianism: Unitarian worship"](https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/worship/worship.shtml). *www.bbc.co.uk*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220328224957/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/worship/worship.shtml) from the original on 2022-03-28. Retrieved 2022-03-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BowmanKomoszewski2024_80-0)** Bowman, Robert M. Bowman; Komoszewski, J. Ed (12 November 2024). *The Incarnate Christ and His Critics: A Biblical Defense*. Kregel Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8254-7568-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8254-7568-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** [A Brief History](https://web.archive.org/web/20101001122144/http://icuu.net/about/History/history.html) on archived ICUU website. Retrieved 15 January 2020

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** [Unitarians in Poland](https://icuu.net/2019/04/15/unitarians-poland-now/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200115122454/https://icuu.net/2019/04/15/unitarians-poland-now/) 2020-01-15 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) on official website, 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** [Member Groups](https://web.archive.org/web/20090828104243/http://www.icuu.net/membergroups/index.html) on archived ICUU website. Retrieved 15 January 2020

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** [Italy – Emerging Group](https://web.archive.org/web/20081206111942/http://www.icuu.net/membergroups/Emerging/Italy.html) on archived ICUU website. Retrieved 15 January 2020

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Rosso, Rev. Roberto, [*Protestanti radicale*](http://www.cesnur.org/religioni_italia/p/prot_radicale_04.htm) (in Italian), Cesnur, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20091014163124/http://www.cesnur.org/religioni_italia/p/prot_radicale_04.htm) from the original on 2009-10-14, retrieved 2010-06-12

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** [*Unitarforbundet Bét Dávid (Den norske unitarkirke)*](http://unitarforbundet.org/) (in Norwegian), [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090422054210/http://www.unitarforbundet.org/) from the original on 2009-04-22, retrieved 2010-06-12

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** a the [Diet of Lécfalva](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diet_of_L%C3%A9cfalva&action=edit&redlink=1) 1600, in Gordon A. *Heads of Unitarian History*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Keyes, David (1999), *Most Like An Arch*, p. 106, And for those [UUs] who take the time to understand Transylvanian Unitarian beliefs, there may be some surprising discoveries to be made. They are humanists! Their Unitarian Christianity is steeped in rationalism, is heavily influenced by judaism

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Cross, Tony (1993-01-21). ["Obituary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180924133843/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-the-rev-lancelot-garrard-1479893.html). *Science*. **70** (1803). The Independent: 58–60. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1126/science.70.1803.58](https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.70.1803.58). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [17755824](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17755824). Archived from [the original](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituary-the-rev-lancelot-garrard-1479893.html) on 2018-09-24. Retrieved 2017-11-01.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** ["Unitarianism in Khasi-Jaintia Hills: A unique movement"](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Unitarianism-in-Khasi-Jaintia-Hills-A-unique-movement/articleshow/16454581.cms?referral=PM). *The Times of India*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181031161134/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/Unitarianism-in-Khasi-Jaintia-Hills-A-unique-movement/articleshow/16454581.cms?referral=PM) from the original on 2018-10-31. Retrieved 2018-09-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** ["Our Partner Church in India"](http://www.edinburgh-unitarians.org.uk/our-partner-church-in-india). *Unitarians in Edinburgh*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190822122439/http://www.edinburgh-unitarians.org.uk/our-partner-church-in-india) from the original on 2019-08-22. Retrieved 2021-02-27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** Jane, Greer (21 February 2011). ["Morales visits Unitarians and humanitarian partners in India"](https://www.uuworld.org/articles/morales-visits-india). *UU World*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210411211019/https://www.uuworld.org/articles/morales-visits-india) from the original on 11 April 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** The Connection of Deism to American Unitarianism – Nathan De May

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** ["AUC Congregations"](https://web.archive.org/web/20191021084244/http://www.americanunitarian.org/AUCCongregations.htm). americanunitarian.org. Archived from [the original](http://www.americanunitarian.org/AUCCongregations.htm) on October 21, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** ["Unitarian Christian Emerging Church ... a 21st century spiritual community, and faith ministry – Home"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120529072310/http://unitarianministries.com/). Unitarianministries.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.unitarianministries.com/) on 2012-05-29. Retrieved April 19, 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** ["Welcome to the Unitarian Christian Church of America"](https://unitarianchristians.org/). *unitarianchristians.org*. Retrieved 2024-07-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** Lee, E.R. (1926). *A Brief History of the Unitarian Christian Church Melbourne*. Privately Printed.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** Ronalds, B.F. (2022). *Alfred Ronalds: Angler, Artisan and Australian Pioneer*. Medlar Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-99)** ["Stephen Crittenden: The President of the Unitarian church in Sydney, Peter Crawford, speaking to John Russell"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100418231729/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1135435.htm). *[Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/source/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1135435.htm) on 2010-04-18.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** Heller-Wagner, E. ["Radical religion and civil society: The Unitarians of South Africa"](http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/19562/De_Grunchy__JW__0869819437__Section4.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y) (PDF). University of South Africa. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180517032443/http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/19562/De_Grunchy__JW__0869819437__Section4.pdf?sequence=4&isAllowed=y) (PDF) from the original on 2018-05-17. Retrieved 2018-10-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-101)** ["Unitarisk Kirkesamfund – Unitarian Church Society"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220703231837/http://www.unitarerne.dk/). Archived from [the original](http://www.unitarerne.dk/) on 2022-07-03.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tuggy_2020_102-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tuggy_2020_102-1) Tuggy, Dale (Winter 2020). ["Trinity – Unitariansm"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html#18t21sCenUni). In [Zalta, Edward N.](/source/Edward_N._Zalta) (ed.). *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/source/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy)*. The Metaphysics Research Lab, [Center for the Study of Language and Information](/source/Center_for_the_Study_of_Language_and_Information), [Stanford University](/source/Stanford_University). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1095-5054](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [643092515](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643092515). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170311130654/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html) from the original on 11 March 2017. Retrieved 9 August 2021. There are presently a number of small Christian groups calling themselves "biblical unitarians" (or: Christian monotheists or one God believers) to distinguish themselves from late 19th to 21st century Unitarians and Unitarian Universalists. Their arguments draw on early modern unitarian sources, while eschewing some of the idiosyncrasies of [Socinus's theology](/source/Socinianism) and most of the extra revisions of the [Priestley](/source/Joseph_Priestley)-derived stream of unitarians. Like late 18th to early 19th century unitarians, they argue at length that trinitarianism has no biblical foundation, and is inconsistent with its clear teachings. They also reject trinitarianism as contradictory or unintelligible, as involving [idolatry](/source/Idolatry_in_the_Bible), and as having been, as it were, illegally imported from [Platonic philosophy](/source/Platonic_philosophy) [...]. On some issues they draw support from recent [biblical scholarship](/source/Biblical_studies), for example, the point that talk of "generation" and "procession" in the [Gospel of John](/source/Gospel_of_John) doesn't support later claims about inter-trinitarian relations [...]. Although this literature points out real tensions within contemporary theology (between text-oriented commentators and systematic theologians) it is widely ignored in academic theology and philosophy, and its adherents are generally excluded from the institutions of [mainstream Christianity](/source/Mainstream_Christianity).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Reform2026_103-0)** ["FAQ"](https://web.archive.org/web/20250414035122/https://www.unitarianreform.com/aur-faq/). Unitarian Reform. 18 April 2009. Archived from [the original](https://www.unitarianreform.com/aur-faq/) on 14 April 2025. Retrieved 1 April 2026. If Unitarians believe in one God, what about the Son of God? In the Christian idiom, this means worshipping The One God through the only-begotten Son of God — a divine entity also called the *Word/Logos* of God, the *Name* of God, and (in the *Letter to the Colossians* 1:15) "the Image of the invisible God, firstborn of creatures." Christian Unitarians worship God through the Word because it is the Word through whom God created all things.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mortimer_2010_104-0)** Mortimer, Sarah (2010). ["The Socinian Challenge to Protestant Christianity"](https://books.google.com/books?id=fYeP_htzw14C&pg=PA13). *Reason and Religion in the English Revolution: The Challenge of Socinianism*. Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History. [Cambridge](/source/Cambridge): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). pp. 13–38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-51704-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51704-1). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2010000384](https://lccn.loc.gov/2010000384). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230522/https://books.google.com/books?id=fYeP_htzw14C&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2021-08-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-105)** [Wilbur, Earl Morse](/source/Earl_Morse_Wilbur) (1952) [1945]. ["The Unitarian Church under Calvinist Princes: 1604–1691"](https://books.google.com/books?id=G5U9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA121). *A History of Unitarianism: In Transylvania, England, and America*. Vol. 2. [Cambridge, Massachusetts](/source/Cambridge%2C_Massachusetts): [Harvard University Press](/source/Harvard_University_Press). pp. 121–122. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230522/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5U9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q&f=false) from the original on 2023-09-28. Retrieved 2021-08-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-106)** cf. ["Christian Church in Italy beliefs"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121028161300/http://www.chiesadifrosinone.it/cosa_crediamo.html). Archived from [the original](http://www.chiesadifrosinone.it/cosa_crediamo.html) on 2012-10-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** Baierlein, Ralph. (1992). *Newton to Einstein*. Cambridge: [Cambridge University Press & Assessment](/source/Cambridge_University_Press_%26_Assessment). p. 54. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-521-42323-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-42323-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-108)** Ronalds, B.F. (2016). *Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph*. London: [Imperial College Press](/source/Imperial_College_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78326-917-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** ["Francis Ronalds"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210413001247/https://uudb.org/articles/francisronalds.html). *Dictionary of Unitarian & Universalist Biography*. Archived from [the original](http://uudb.org/articles/francisronalds.html) on 13 April 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** Lang, Ernest F. (July 1927). "The early history of our firm: Richard Peacock". *The Beyer-Peacock Quarterly Review*. London: [Beyer, Peacock & Company](/source/Beyer%2C_Peacock_%26_Company). p. 17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** ["Samuel Carter"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180320171112/http://uudb.org/articles/samuelcarter.html). *Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography*. Archived from [the original](http://uudb.org/articles/samuelcarter.html) on 20 March 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** *The Centennial History of Oregon 1811–1912* by Joseph Gaston, p. 582.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** ["Caltech Alum and UCLA Professor Calls for Removal of Robert A. Millikan's Name, Bust From Caltech Campus Over Eugenics Support – Pasadena Now"](https://www.pasadenanow.com/main/caltech-alum-and-ucla-professor-calls-for-removal-of-robert-a-millikans-name-bust-from-caltech-campus-over-eugenics-support). *www.pasadenanow.com*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220209074337/https://www.pasadenanow.com/main/caltech-alum-and-ucla-professor-calls-for-removal-of-robert-a-millikans-name-bust-from-caltech-campus-over-eugenics-support) from the original on 2022-02-09. Retrieved 2022-02-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** ["God in the White House"](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/godinamerica-white-house/). *pbs.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191204185621/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/godinamerica-white-house/) from the original on 2019-12-04. Retrieved 2019-12-04.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** ["Jefferson's Religious Beliefs"](https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-religious-beliefs). *monticello.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191207083820/https://www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/jeffersons-religious-beliefs) from the original on 2019-12-07. Retrieved 2019-12-04.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Oxford-Adams_116-0)** Holmes, David L (2006-05-01), ["The Religious Views of John Adams"](https://academic.oup.com/book/49983/chapter/422704966), *The Faiths of the Founding Fathers*, Oxford University PressNew York, NY, pp. 73–78, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oso/9780195300925.003.0007](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780195300925.003.0007), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-530092-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530092-5), retrieved 2026-02-16, Adams was the first president who was a Unitarian, a faith that, in Adams's case, could be described with some accuracy as "Christian Deism.{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Adams-Dec-1813-Tri_117-0)** ["Founders Online: John Adams to Thomas Jefferson, 25 December 1813"](https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-07-02-0040). *founders.archives.gov*. Retrieved 2026-02-16. "I wonder that Priestley has overlooked this (Timaeus's philosophy of Matter, Moving Power, and directing Intelligence) because it is the same philosophy as Plato's and would have shown that the Pythagorean as well as the Platonic Philosophers probably concurred in the fabrication of the Christian Trinity."

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Dare_118-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Dare_118-1) Dare, J. (1991). [*Working Class Life in Victorian Leicester: The Joseph Dart Reports*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JpRIAAAAYAAJ&q=mayors+nest++leister++unitarian). Leicestershire Libraries and Information Service. p. 10. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [085022294X](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/085022294X). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230928230527/https://books.google.com/books?id=JpRIAAAAYAAJ&q=mayors+nest++leister++unitarian) from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 18 September 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** ["Chapter 12 – William Chamberlain comes to London"](http://www.ianchamberlain.net.au/script/03-Parliamentary%20Chamberlains.pdf) (PDF). *The Parliamentary Chamberlains*. Ian Chamberlain – 2003. pp. 57–74. Retrieved March 2, 2013.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** Holt, Raymond V. (1906). "Chapter 3, including Georgian and Victorian period. Ref Chamberlain, Lupton (Leeds) and Martineau, Nettlefold, Kenrick (Birmingham) families". [*The Unitarian Contribution to Social Progress in England*](https://web.archive.org/web/20140302103107/http://www.unitarian.org.uk/docs/publications/1952_SocialProgress.pdf) (PDF). Lindsey Press. Archived from [the original](http://www.unitarian.org.uk/docs/publications/1952_SocialProgress.pdf) (PDF) on March 2, 2014. Retrieved March 1, 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Times, Waikato. ["Waikato Times, Volume XXVIII, Issue 2328, 11 June 1887, p. 2"](http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=WT18870611.2.43.6). Waikato Times (Papers Past) 11 June 1887. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20141013062551/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=WT18870611.2.43.6) from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** *Offspring of the Vic* by Denis Richards, originally published in 1958

**Sources**

- Tuggy, Dale (Winter 2020). ["Trinity – Unitariansm"](https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html#18t21sCenUni). In [Zalta, Edward N.](/source/Edward_N._Zalta) (ed.). *[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy](/source/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy)*. The Metaphysics Research Lab, [Center for the Study of Language and Information](/source/Center_for_the_Study_of_Language_and_Information), [Stanford University](/source/Stanford_University). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1095-5054](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1095-5054). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [643092515](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643092515). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170311130654/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/trinity/unitarianism.html) from the original on 11 March 2017. Retrieved 9 August 2021.

- [Wilbur, Earl Morse](/source/Earl_Morse_Wilbur) (1925), [*Our Unitarian Heritage*](https://web.archive.org/web/20060909175126/http://www.sksm.edu/research/publications/ouh.pdf) (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Starr King School for the Ministry, archived from [the original](http://www.sksm.edu/research/publications/ouh.pdf) (PDF) on 2006-09-09.

- Joseph Henry Allen, *Our Liberal Movement in Theology* (Boston, 1882)

- Joseph Henry Allen, *Sequel to our Liberal Movement* (Boston, 1897)

- [Anthony F. Buzzard](/source/Anthony_F._Buzzard) and Charles F. Hunting, *The Doctrine of the Trinity: Christianity's Self-Inflicted Wound* (Lanham, Maryland, 1998). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-57309-309-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57309-309-2).

- John White Chadwick, *Old and New Unitarian Belief* (Boston, 1894).

- George Willis Cooke, *Unitarianism in America: a History of its Origin and Development* (Boston, 1902).

- Patrick Navas, *Divine Truth or Human Tradition: A Reconsideration of the Roman Catholic-Protestant Doctrine of the Trinity in Light of the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures* (Bloomington, Indiana 2007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-4259-4832-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4259-4832-4).

- Earl Morse Wilbur, *A History of Unitarianism: Socinianism and Its Antecedents*, Harvard University Press, 1945.

- Andrew M. Hill, *The Unitarian Path*, Lindsey Press (London, 1994). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-85319-046-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85319-046-1).

- Charles A. Howe, *For Faith and Freedom: A Short History of Unitarianism in Europe*, Skinner House Books (Boston, 1997). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-55896-359-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55896-359-6).

- Smith, Matthew F (2005). *Christianity: The Complete Guide*. London: Continuum. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8264-5937-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-5937-4).

**Bibliography**

- Buzzard, A. and Hunting, C. (1998). *The Doctrine of the Trinity: Christianity's Self-Inflicted Wound*. International Scholars Publications. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-57309-309-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57309-309-2).

- Lloyd, Walter (1899). *The Story of Protestant Dissent and English Unitarianism*. London: P. Green.

- Rowe, Mortimer (1959). [*The Story of Essex Hall*](https://www.unitarian.org.uk/resources/document-library/story-essex-hall-unitarian-hq-london) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170110211111/https://www.unitarian.org.uk/resources/document-library/story-essex-hall-unitarian-hq-london) 2017-01-10 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine). London: Lindsey Press.

**Further reading**

- [Emerton, Ephraim](/source/Ephraim_Emerton) (1911). [*Unitarian Thought*](https://archive.org/details/cu31924029478058). New York: Macmillan Co. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1403642](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1403642). Retrieved 2011-04-22.

- Hewett, Austin Phillip (1955). *An Unfettered Faith: the Religion of a Unitarian*. London: Lindsey Press.

- Kingston, A. Richard (2014) [1993]. [*God in One Person: The Case for Non-Incarnational Christianity*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gOeuCwAAQBAJ) (Softcover reprint ed.). u.a.: Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1349131006](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1349131006). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [935187820](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/935187820).

## External links

[Wikisource](/source/Wikisource) has the text of the [1911 *Encyclopædia Britannica*](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition) article "[Unitarianism](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Unitarianism)".

- [Unitarian Christian Alliance](https://www.unitarianchristianalliance.org/)

- [Biblical Unitarians](https://www.biblicalunitarian.com/)

- [American Unitarian Reform](https://www.unitarianreform.com/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20250414035122/https://www.unitarianreform.com/aur-faq/) 14 April 2025 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- [Unitarian Ministries International](http://unitarianministries.com/) ([Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090219005036/http://unitarianministries.com/our_statement_of_faith) 19 February 2009 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine))

- [Unitarianism](https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/unitarianism/) at BBC Religions

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Unitarianism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarianism) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarianism?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.