# Uncrewed spacecraft

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Spacecraft without people on board

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Top: The uncrewed resupply vessel [Progress M-06M](/source/Progress_M-06M) (left). *[Galileo](/source/Galileo_(spacecraft))* space probe, prior to departure from Earth orbit in 1989 (right).

Bottom: Spaceplane *[Buran](/source/Buran_(spacecraft))* was launched, orbited Earth, and landed as an uncrewed spacecraft in 1988 (left). Model of [James Webb Space Telescope](/source/James_Webb_Space_Telescope) (right).

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**Uncrewed spacecraft** or **robotic spacecraft** are [spacecraft](/source/Spacecraft) without [people](/source/People) on board. Uncrewed spacecraft may have varying levels of autonomy from human input, such as [remote control](/source/Remotely_operated_vehicle), or remote guidance. They may also be [autonomous](/source/Autonomous_vehicle), in which they have a pre-programmed list of operations that will be executed unless otherwise instructed. A robotic spacecraft for scientific measurements is often called a space probe or [space observatory](/source/Space_observatory).

Many space missions are more suited to [telerobotic](/source/Telerobotic) rather than [crewed](/source/Human_spaceflight) operation, due to lower cost and risk factors. In addition, some planetary destinations such as [Venus](/source/Venus) or the vicinity of [Jupiter](/source/Jupiter) are too hostile for human survival, given current technology. Outer planets such as [Saturn](/source/Saturn), [Uranus](/source/Uranus), and [Neptune](/source/Neptune) are too distant to reach with current crewed spaceflight technology, so telerobotic probes are the only way to explore them. Telerobotics also allows exploration of regions that are vulnerable to contamination by Earth micro-organisms since spacecraft can be sterilized. Humans can not be sterilized in the same way as a spaceship, as they coexist with numerous micro-organisms, and these micro-organisms are also hard to contain within a spaceship or spacesuit.

The first uncrewed space mission was *[Sputnik](/source/Sputnik)*, launched October 4, 1957 to orbit the Earth. Nearly all [satellites](/source/Satellite), [landers](/source/Lander_(spacecraft)) and [rovers](/source/Rover_(space_exploration)) are robotic spacecraft. Not every uncrewed spacecraft is a robotic spacecraft; for example, a reflector ball is a non-robotic uncrewed spacecraft. Space missions where other [animals](/source/Animals_in_space) but no humans are on-board are called uncrewed missions.

Many habitable spacecraft also have varying levels of robotic features. For example, the space stations [Salyut 7](/source/Salyut_7) and [Mir](/source/Mir), and the [International Space Station](/source/International_Space_Station) module [Zarya](/source/Zarya_(ISS_module)), were capable of remote guided station-keeping and docking maneuvers with both resupply craft and new modules. [Uncrewed resupply spacecraft](/source/Uncrewed_resupply_spacecraft) are increasingly used for crewed [space stations](/source/Space_station).

## History

A replica of Sputnik 1 at the U.S. [National Air and Space Museum](/source/National_Air_and_Space_Museum)

A replica of Explorer 1

The first robotic spacecraft was launched by the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) (USSR) on 22 July 1951, a [suborbital](/source/Suborbital_spaceflight) flight carrying [two dogs](/source/Soviet_space_dogs) Dezik and Tsygan.[1] Four other such flights were made through the fall of 1951.

The first artificial [satellite](/source/Satellite), [Sputnik 1](/source/Sputnik_1), was put into a 215-by-939-kilometer (116 by 507 nmi) Earth orbit by the USSR on 4 October 1957. On 3 November 1957, the USSR orbited [Sputnik 2](/source/Sputnik_2). Weighing 113 kilograms (249 lb), Sputnik 2 carried the first animal into orbit, the dog [Laika](/source/Laika).[2] Since the satellite was not designed to detach from its [launch vehicle](/source/Launch_vehicle)'s upper stage, the total mass in orbit was 508.3 kilograms (1,121 lb).[3]

In a [close race with the Soviets](/source/Space_Race), the United States launched its first artificial satellite, [Explorer 1](/source/Explorer_1), into a 357-by-2,543-kilometre (193 by 1,373 nmi) orbit on 31 January 1958. Explorer I was an 205-centimetre (80.75 in) long by 15.2-centimetre (6.00 in) diameter cylinder weighing 14.0 kilograms (30.8 lb), compared to Sputnik 1, a 58-centimeter (23 in) sphere which weighed 83.6 kilograms (184 lb). Explorer 1 carried sensors which confirmed the existence of the Van Allen belts, a major scientific discovery at the time, while Sputnik 1 carried no scientific sensors. On 17 March 1958, the US orbited its second satellite, [Vanguard 1](/source/Vanguard_1), which was about the size of a grapefruit, and which remains in a 670-by-3,850-kilometre (360 by 2,080 nmi) orbit as of 2016[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Uncrewed_spacecraft&action=edit).

The first attempted lunar probe was the [Luna E-1 No.1](/source/Luna_E-1_No.1), launched on 23 September 1958. The goal of a lunar probe repeatedly failed until 4 January 1959 when [Luna 1](/source/Luna_1) orbited around the Moon and then the Sun.

The success of these early missions began a race between the US and the USSR to outdo each other with increasingly ambitious probes. *[Mariner 2](/source/Mariner_2)* was the first probe to study another planet, revealing Venus' extremely hot temperature to scientists in 1962, while the Soviet *[Venera 4](/source/Venera_4)* was the first atmospheric probe to study Venus. *[Mariner 4](/source/Mariner_4)*'s 1965 Mars flyby snapped the first images of its cratered surface, which the Soviets responded to a few months later with images from on its surface from *[Luna 9](/source/Luna_9)*. In 1967, America's *[Surveyor 3](/source/Surveyor_3)* gathered information about the Moon's surface that would prove crucial to the [Apollo 11](/source/Apollo_11) mission that landed humans on the Moon two years later.[4]

The first interstellar probe was *[Voyager 1](/source/Voyager_1)*, launched 5 September 1977. It entered interstellar space on 25 August 2012,[5] followed by its twin *[Voyager 2](/source/Voyager_2)* on 5 November 2018.[6]

Nine other countries have successfully launched satellites using their own launch vehicles: France (1965),[7] Japan[8] and China (1970),[9] the United Kingdom (1971),[10] India (1980),[11] Israel (1988),[12] Iran (2009),[13] North Korea (2012),[14] and South Korea (2022).[15]

## Design

In spacecraft design, the [United States Air Force](/source/United_States_Air_Force) considers a vehicle to consist of the mission [payload](/source/Payload_(air_and_space_craft)) and the [bus](/source/Satellite_bus) (or platform). The bus provides physical structure, thermal control, electrical power, attitude control and telemetry, tracking and commanding.[16] [JPL](/source/JPL) divides the "flight system" of a spacecraft into subsystems.[17] These include:

### Structure

The physical backbone structure, which

- provides overall mechanical integrity of the spacecraft

- ensures spacecraft components are supported and can withstand launch loads

### Data handling

This is sometimes referred to as the command and data subsystem. It is often responsible for:

- command sequence storage

- maintaining the spacecraft clock

- collecting and reporting spacecraft telemetry data (e.g. spacecraft health)

- collecting and reporting mission data (e.g. photographic images)

### Attitude determination and control

See also: [Attitude control system](/source/Attitude_control_system)

This system is mainly responsible for the correct spacecraft's orientation in space (attitude) despite external disturbance-gravity gradient effects, magnetic-field torques, solar radiation and aerodynamic drag; in addition it may be required to reposition movable parts, such as antennas and solar arrays.[18]

### Entry, descent, and landing

Integrated sensing incorporates an image transformation [algorithm](/source/Algorithm) to interpret the immediate imagery land data, perform a real-time detection and avoidance of terrain hazards that may impede safe landing, and increase the accuracy of landing at a desired site of interest using landmark localization techniques. Integrated sensing completes these tasks by relying on pre-recorded information and cameras to understand its location and determine its position and whether it is correct or needs to make any corrections (localization). The cameras are also used to detect any possible hazards whether it is increased fuel consumption or it is a physical hazard such as a poor landing spot in a crater or cliff side that would make landing very not ideal (hazard assessment).

### Landing on hazardous terrain

In planetary exploration missions involving robotic spacecraft, there are three key parts in the processes of landing on the surface of the planet to ensure a safe and successful landing.[19] This process includes an entry into the planetary gravity field and atmosphere, a descent through that atmosphere towards an intended/targeted region of scientific value, and a safe landing that guarantees the integrity of the instrumentation on the craft is preserved. While the robotic spacecraft is going through those parts, it must also be capable of estimating its position compared to the surface in order to ensure reliable control of itself and its ability to maneuver well. The robotic spacecraft must also efficiently perform hazard assessment and trajectory adjustments in real time to avoid hazards. To achieve this, the robotic spacecraft requires accurate knowledge of where the spacecraft is located relative to the surface (localization), what may pose as hazards from the terrain (hazard assessment), and where the spacecraft should presently be headed (hazard avoidance). Without the capability for operations for localization, hazard assessment, and avoidance, the robotic spacecraft becomes unsafe and can easily enter dangerous situations such as surface collisions, undesirable fuel consumption levels, and/or unsafe maneuvers.

### Telecommunications

Components in the [telecommunications](/source/Telecommunications) subsystem include radio antennas, transmitters and receivers. These may be used to communicate with ground stations on Earth, or with other spacecraft.[20]

### Electrical power

The supply of electric power on spacecraft generally come from [photovoltaic](/source/Photovoltaic) (solar) cells or from a [radioisotope thermoelectric generator](/source/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator). Other components of the subsystem include batteries for storing power and distribution circuitry that connects components to the power sources.[21]

### Temperature control and protection from the environment

Main article: [Spacecraft thermal control](/source/Spacecraft_thermal_control)

Spacecraft are often protected from temperature fluctuations with insulation. Some spacecraft use mirrors and sunshades for additional protection from solar heating. They also often need shielding from [micrometeoroids](/source/Micrometeoroid) and orbital debris.[22]

### Propulsion

Main article: [Spacecraft propulsion](/source/Spacecraft_propulsion)

Spacecraft [propulsion](/source/Propulsion) is a method that allows a [spacecraft](/source/Spacecraft) to travel through space by generating thrust to push it forward.[23] However, there is not one universally used propulsion system: monopropellant, bipropellant, ion propulsion, etc. Each propulsion system generates thrust in different ways with each system having advantages and disadvantages.

Most spacecraft propulsion today is based on [rocket](/source/Rocket) engines. The general idea behind rocket engines is that when an oxidizer meets the fuel source, there is explosive release of energy and heat at high speeds, which propels the spacecraft forward. This happens due to one basic principle known as [Newton's third law](/source/Newton's_laws_of_motion). According to Newton, "to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction." As the energy and heat is being released from the back of the spacecraft, gas particles are pushed that allow the spacecraft to propel forward. The main reason behind the use of rocket engines today is because rockets are the most powerful form of propulsion.

#### Monopropellant

For a propulsion system to work, there is usually an [oxidizer](/source/Oxidizing_agent) line and a fuel line. This way, the spacecraft propulsion is controlled. But in a monopropellant propulsion, there is no need for an oxidizer line and only the system only requires the fuel line.[24] This works due to the oxidizer being chemically bonded into the fuel molecule itself. But for the propulsion system to be controlled, the combustion of the fuel can only occur due to the presence of a [catalyst](/source/Catalysis). This is advantageous due to making the rocket engine lighter, less expensive, easy to control, and more reliable. But, the disadvantage is that the chemical is dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport.

#### Bipropellant

A bipropellant propulsion system is a rocket engine that uses a liquid propellant.[25] This means both the oxidizer and fuel line are in liquid states. This system is unique because it requires no ignition system, the two liquids would spontaneously combust as soon as they come into contact with each other thus producing the propulsion to push the spacecraft forward. The main benefit for having this technology is that these kinds of liquids have relatively high density, which allow the volume of the propellent tank to be small, therefore increasing space efficacy. The downside is the same as that of monopropellant propulsion system: dangerous to manufacture, store, and transport.

#### Ion

An [ion](/source/Ion) propulsion system is a type of engine that generates thrust by the means of electron bombardment or the acceleration of ions.[26] By shooting high-energy [electrons](/source/Electron) to a propellant atom (neutrally charged), it removes electrons from the propellant atom resulting in the propellant atom becoming positively charged. The positively charged ions, running at high voltages, are guided through positively charged grids that contain thousands of precisely aligned holes. The aligned positively charged ions accelerate through a negatively charged accelerator grid that further increases their speed, up to 40 kilometres per second (90,000 mph). The momentum of these ions provides the thrust to propel the spacecraft. The advantage of having this kind of propulsion is that it is incredibly efficient in maintaining constant velocity, which is needed for deep-space travel. However, the amount of thrust produced is extremely low and it needs substantial electrical power to operate.

### Mechanical devices

Mechanical components often need to be moved for deployment after launch or prior to landing. In addition to the use of motors, many one-time movements are controlled by [pyrotechnic](/source/Pyrotechnic) devices.[27]

## Robotic vs. uncrewed spacecraft

Robotic spacecraft are specifically designed system for a specific hostile environment.[28] Due to their specification for a particular environment, it varies greatly in complexity and capabilities. While an uncrewed spacecraft is a spacecraft without personnel or crew and is operated by automatic (proceeds with an action without human intervention) or remote control (with human intervention). The term 'uncrewed spacecraft' does not imply that the spacecraft is robotic.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Robotic spacecraft use [telemetry](/source/Telemetry) to radio back to Earth acquired data and vehicle status information. Although generally referred to as "remotely controlled" or "telerobotic", the earliest orbital spacecraft – such as Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 – did not receive control signals from Earth. Soon after these first spacecraft, command systems were developed to allow remote control from the ground. Increased [autonomy](/source/Autonomous_robot) is important for distant probes where the light travel time prevents rapid decision and control from Earth. Newer probes such as *[Cassini–Huygens](/source/Cassini%E2%80%93Huygens)* and the [Mars Exploration Rovers](/source/Mars_Exploration_Rovers) are highly autonomous and use on-board computers to operate independently for extended periods of time.[29][30]

## Space probes

Main article: [Space probe](/source/Space_probe)

Further information: [List of Solar System probes](/source/List_of_Solar_System_probes)

A [space probe](/source/Space_probe) is a robotic spacecraft that does not orbit Earth, but instead explores the outer space. Space probes have different sets of scientific instruments on board. A space probe may approach the Moon; travel through interplanetary space; flyby, orbit, or land on other planetary bodies; or enter interstellar space. Space probes send collected data to Earth. Space probes can also [gather materials from its target](/source/Sample_return_mission) and return it to Earth.[31][32]

Once a probe has left the vicinity of Earth, its trajectory will likely take it along an [orbit around](/source/Heliocentric_orbit) the [Sun](/source/Sun) similar to the Earth's orbit. To reach another planet, the simplest practical method is a [Hohmann transfer orbit](/source/Hohmann_transfer_orbit). More complex techniques, such as [gravitational slingshots](/source/Gravitational_slingshot), can be more fuel-efficient, though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit. Some high [Delta-V](/source/Delta-V) missions (such as those with high [inclination changes](/source/Orbital_inclination_change)) can only be performed using gravitational slingshots. A technique using very little propulsion, but requiring a considerable amount of time, is to follow a trajectory on the [Interplanetary Transport Network](/source/Interplanetary_Transport_Network).[33]

## Space telescopes

Main article: [Space telescope](/source/Space_telescope)

Further information: [List of space telescopes](/source/List_of_space_telescopes)

A **space telescope** or **space observatory** is a [telescope](/source/Telescope) in outer space used to observe astronomical objects. Space telescopes avoid the filtering and distortion of [electromagnetic radiation](/source/Electromagnetic_radiation) which they observe, and avoid [light pollution](/source/Light_pollution) which [ground-based observatories](/source/Observatory#Ground-based_observatories) encounter. They are divided into two types: satellites which map the entire sky ([astronomical survey](/source/Astronomical_survey)), and satellites which focus on selected [astronomical objects](/source/Astronomical_object) or parts of the sky and beyond. Space telescopes are distinct from [Earth imaging satellites](/source/Earth_imaging_satellite), which point toward Earth for [satellite imaging](/source/Satellite_imaging), applied for [weather analysis](/source/Weather_satellite), [reconnaissance](/source/Reconnaissance_satellite), and [other types of information gathering](/source/Remote_sensing).

## Cargo spacecraft

The six currently active space station cargo vehicles. Clockwise from top left: Progress, Cargo Dragon 2, HTV-X, Cygnus XL, Enhanced Cygnus, Tianzhou

Further information: [Comparison of space station cargo vehicles](/source/Comparison_of_space_station_cargo_vehicles)

**Cargo** or **resupply spacecraft** are robotic vehicles designed to transport supplies, such as food, propellant, and equipment, to crewed [space stations](/source/Space_station). This distinguishes them from space probes, which are primarily focused on scientific exploration.

Automated cargo spacecraft have been servicing space stations since 1978, supporting missions like [Salyut 6](/source/Salyut_6), [Salyut 7](/source/Salyut_7), [Mir](/source/Mir), the [International Space Station (ISS)](/source/International_Space_Station), and the [Tiangong space station](/source/Tiangong_space_station).

Currently, the ISS relies on four types of cargo spacecraft: the Japanese [HTV-X](/source/HTV-X), the Russian [Progress](/source/Progress_(spacecraft)),[34] along with the American [Cargo Dragon 2](/source/SpaceX_Dragon_2),[35][36] and [Cygnus](/source/Cygnus_(spacecraft)).[37] The European [Automated Transfer Vehicle](/source/Automated_Transfer_Vehicle) was previously used between 2008 and 2015.[38] China's Tiangong space station is solely supplied by the [Tianzhou](/source/Tianzhou_(spacecraft)).[39][40][41]

### Future cargo spacecraft

The American [Dream Chaser](/source/Dream_Chaser) is under development from 2004. As of 2025, its first orbital test flight is expected in 2026, but it is no longer contracted to resupply missions to the ISS.[42]

Since 2023, [ESA](/source/European_Space_Agency) has been pursuing the [LEO Cargo Return Service](/source/LEO_Cargo_Return_Service) initiative to develop one or more cargo spacecraft capable of returning to Earth.[43]

China is developing two new cargo spacecraft to complement the [Tianzhou](/source/Tianzhou_(spacecraft)) in supporting the [Tiangong space station](/source/Tiangong_space_station). [Qingzhou](/source/Qingzhou_(spacecraft)) is a small pressurized spacecraft with no heat shield, while [Haolong](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haolong_(spacecraft)&action=edit&redlink=1) is a reusable [spaceplane](/source/Spaceplane).[44][45][46]

## See also

- [Spaceflight portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight)

- [Beacon mode service](/source/Beacon_mode_service)

- [Geosynchronous satellite](/source/Geosynchronous_satellite)

- [Human spaceflight](/source/Human_spaceflight)

- [List of passive satellites](/source/List_of_passive_satellites)

- [Timeline of Solar System exploration](/source/Timeline_of_Solar_System_exploration)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz( 1999). *Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed.* Microcosm. pp. 354. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-881883-10-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881883-10-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Howard, Ayanna (January 2011). "Rethinking public–private space travel". *Space Policy*. **29** (4): 266–271. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2013SpPol..29..266A](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013SpPol..29..266A). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.spacepol.2013.08.002](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.spacepol.2013.08.002).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** LU. K. Khodarev (1979). ["Space Communications"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130510002527/http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/). The Great Soviet Encyclopedia. Archived from [the original](http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/) on 10 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013. The transmission of information between the earth and spacecraft, between two or more points on the earth via spacecraft or using artificial means located in space (a belt of needles, a cloud of ionized particles, and so on), and between two or more spacecraft.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz (1999). *Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed.*. Microcosm. p. 409. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-881883-10-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881883-10-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["Micrometeoroid and Orbital Debris (MMOD) Protection"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013503/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf) (PDF). NASA. Archived from [the original](https://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf) (PDF) on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Hall, Nancy (5 May 2015). ["Welcome to the Beginner's Guide to Propulsion"](https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bgp.html). *NASA*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114511/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/bgp.html) from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Zhang, Bin (October 2014). "A verification framework with application to a propulsion system". *Expert Systems with Applications*. **41** (13): 5669–5679. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.eswa.2014.03.017](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2014.03.017).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Chen, Yang (April 2017). ["Dynamic modeling and simulation of an integral bipropellant propulsion double-valve combined test system"](https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/123456789/18463/1/Wang%20Dynamic%20modeling%20and%20simulation%202016%20Accepted.pdf) (PDF). *Acta Astronautica*. **133**: 346–374. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017AcAau.133..346C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017AcAau.133..346C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.actaastro.2016.10.010](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.actaastro.2016.10.010). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231108114520/https://qmro.qmul.ac.uk/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/18463/Wang%20Dynamic%20modeling%20and%20simulation%202016%20Accepted.pdf;jsessionid=57E3E8B4D1F3713BB149517AED3E40A5?sequence=1) from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Patterson, Michael (August 2017). ["Ion Propulsion"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181231081317/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html). *NASA*. Archived from [the original](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs21grc.html) on 31 December 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Wiley J. Larson; James R. Wertz (1999). *Space Mission Analysis and Design, 3rd ed*. Microcosm. pp. 460. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-881883-10-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-881883-10-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Davis, Phillips. ["Basics of Space Flight"](https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter9-1/). *NASA*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190602200632/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/basics/chapter9-1/) from the original on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** Schilling, K.; Flury, W. (11 April 1989). ["AUTONOMY AND ON-BOARD MISSION MANAGEMENT ASPECTS FOR THE CASSINI-TITAN PROBE"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130505120105/http://www7.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/). ATHENA MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS. Archived from [the original](http://www7.informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de/) (PDF) on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013. Current space missions exhibit a rapid growth in the requirements for on-board autonomy. This is the result of increases in mission complexity, intensity of mission activity and mission duration. In addition, for interplanetary spacecraft, the operations are characterized by complicated ground control access, due to the large distances and the relevant solar system environment[…] To handle these problemsn, the spacecraft design has to include some form of autonomous control capability.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** ["Frequently Asked Questions (Athena for kids): Q) Is the rover controlled by itself or controlled by scientists on Earth?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20091029013503/http://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf) (PDF). ATHENA MARS EXPLORATION ROVERS. 2005. Archived from [the original](https://www.nasa.gov/externalflash/ISSRG/pdfs/mmod.pdf) (PDF) on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 10 May 2013. Communication with Earth is only twice per sol (martian day) so the rover is on its own (autonomous) for much of its journey across the martian landscape. Scientists send commands to the rover in a morning 'uplink' and gather data in an afternoon 'downlink.' During an uplink, the rover is told where to go, but not exactly how to get there. Instead, the command contains the coordinates of waypoints toward a desired destination. The rover must navigate from waypoint to waypoint without human help. The rover has to use its 'brain' and its 'eyes' for these instances. The 'brain' of each rover is the onboard computer software that tells the rover how to navigate based on what the Hazcams (hazard avoidance cameras) see. It is programmed with a given set of responses to a given set of circumstances. This is called 'autonomy and hazard avoidance.'

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** ["What Is a Space Probe?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210830134558/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html). *nasa.gov*. Archived from [the original](https://www.nasa.gov/centers/jpl/education/spaceprobe-20100225.html) on 30 August 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** ["Space Probes"](https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/space-probes/). *education.nationalgeographic.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230226080329/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/space-probes/) from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 26 February 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ross-SA-2006_33-0)** Ross, S. D. (2006). ["The Interplanetary Transport Network"](http://www2.esm.vt.edu/~sdross/papers/AmericanScientist2006.pdf) (PDF). *[American Scientist](/source/American_Scientist)*. **94** (3): 230–237. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1511/2006.59.994](https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2006.59.994). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131020185722/http://www2.esm.vt.edu/~sdross/papers/AmericanScientist2006.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 27 June 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Donaldson, Abbey A. (12 February 2024). ["NASA to Provide Coverage of Progress 87 Launch, Space Station Docking"](https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-to-provide-coverage-of-progress-87-launch-space-station-docking/). *Nasa*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Post, Hannah (16 September 2014). ["NASA Selects SpaceX to be Part of America's Human Spaceflight Program"](https://www.spacex.com/news/2014/09/16/nasa-selects-spacex-be-part-americas-human-spaceflight-program). SpaceX. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190315165820/https://www.spacex.com/news/2014/09/16/nasa-selects-spacex-be-part-americas-human-spaceflight-program) from the original on 15 March 2019. Retrieved 3 March 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Berger, Eric (9 June 2017). ["So SpaceX is having quite a year"](https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/06/so-spacex-is-having-quite-a-year/). *Ars Technica*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170609161325/https://arstechnica.com/science/2017/06/so-spacex-is-having-quite-a-year/) from the original on 9 June 2017. Retrieved 9 June 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Foust, Jeff (30 January 2024). ["Falcon 9 launches Cygnus cargo spacecraft to space station"](https://spacenews.com/falcon-9-launches-cygnus-cargo-spacecraft-to-space-station/). *Space News*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** ["ATV – Europe's space transporter for the ISS"](https://www.dlr.de/en/research-and-transfer/projects-and-missions/iss/europe-sets-a-course-for-the-iss). *www.dlr.de*. Retrieved 6 January 2026.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-SN-20210413_40-0)** Jones, Andrew (13 April 2021). ["China preparing Tianzhou-2 cargo mission to follow upcoming space station launch"](https://spacenews.com/china-preparing-tianzhou-2-cargo-mission-to-follow-upcoming-space-station-launch/). *[SpaceNews](/source/SpaceNews)*. Retrieved 24 April 2021.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Williams, Matthew (18 November 2024). ["China's Proposed Cargo Shuttle, the Haolong, Has Entered Development"](https://www.universetoday.com/articles/chinas-proposed-cargo-shuttle-the-haolong-has-entered-development). *Universe Today*. Retrieved 6 January 2026.

v t e Spaceflight General Astrodynamics History Timeline Space Race Records Accidents and incidents Space launch Space policy Australia China European Space Agency European Union India Japan North Korea South Korea Russia Soviet Union United States Space law Outer Space Treaty Rescue Agreement Space Liability Convention Registration Convention Moon Treaty Space warfare Space command Space force Militarisation of space Private spaceflight Billionaire space race Applications Astronomy Earth observation Archaeology Imagery and mapping Reconnaissance Weather and environment monitoring Communications satellite Internet Radio Telephone Television Satellite navigation Outline of artificial satellites Commercial use of space Space launch market competition Space architecture Space exploration Space research Space technology Space weather Human spaceflight General Astronaut commercial Life-support system Animals in space Bioastronautics Space suit Extravehicular activity Overview effect Weightlessness Space toilet Space tourism Space colonization Space diving Programs Vostok Mercury Voskhod Gemini Soyuz Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz Space Shuttle Mir Shuttle–Mir International Space Station Shenzhou Tiangong New Shepard Artemis Health issues Effect of spaceflight on the human body Space adaptation syndrome Health threat from cosmic rays Space psychology Psychological and sociological effects Space and survival Space medicine Space nursing Space sexology Spacecraft Launch vehicle Rocket Space capsule Orbital module Reentry capsule Service module Spaceplane Robotic spacecraft Satellite Space probe Lander Rover Self-replicating spacecraft Space telescope Spacecraft propulsion Rocket engine Electric propulsion Propellantless propulsion Solar sail Gravity assist Destinations Sub-orbital Orbital Geocentric Geosynchronous Interplanetary Interstellar Intergalactic Space launch Direct ascent Escape velocity Expendable and reusable launch systems Launch pad Non-rocket spacelaunch Spaceport Ground segment Flight controller Ground station Pass Mission control center Category Portal

v t e Cargo spacecraft Earth orbit Active Cygnus Cargo Dragon 2 Progress Tianzhou HTV-X Qingzhou In development Dream Chaser Nyx Earth Haolong Retired ATV Dragon 1 TKS HTV (Kounotori) Proposed TGK PG Soyuz GVK Argo (RFA) Argo (MTKS) Cancelled Andrews Cargo Module ARCTUS Jupiter Kistler K-1 S-550 OMV Lunar orbit In development Dragon XL Lunar surface In development Argonaut Blue Moon Starship Programs NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Resupply Services Gateway Logistics Services ESA LEO Cargo Return Service Comparison of space station cargo vehicles

v t e Mobile robots and uncrewed vehicles Aerial Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) Unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) Aerobot Helicam List of unmanned aerial vehicle applications Ornithopter Ground Walking Humanoid Android Hexapod list Other Unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) Automated guided vehicle (AGV) Self-driving car Automatic train operation (ATO) list Underwater Unmanned underwater vehicle (UUV) Autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) Intervention AUV (I-AUV) Remotely operated underwater vehicle (ROUV) Underwater glider Surface Unmanned surface vehicle (USV) Space Uncrewed spacecraft list of probes list by program list of orbiters Cargo spacecraft spaceflights to the ISS Space telescope list Other Domestic Military Rescue Medical Disability Agricultural BEAM robotics Microbotics Nanorobotics Robotics Robot locomotion Autonomous robot Autonomous logistics Radio-controlled model Remote control vehicle Remote control animal Categories Radio control Unmanned vehicles

v t e Spaceflight lists and timelines Timeline of spaceflight General Space exploration outline timeline Spacecraft Spaceflight records Space Race Rocket and missile technology Human spaceflight General Crewed spacecraft timeline by program Spaceflights 1961–1970 1971–1980 1981–1990 1991–2000 2001–2010 2011–2020 2021–present Soviet Russian Vostok and Voskhod Soyuz Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Shenzhou Gaganyaan Spacelab Artemis Civilian spaceflight Orbital Suborbital Salyut Expeditions Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors Mir Expeditions ESA Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors ISS Expeditions ESA Visiting Spaceflights crewed uncrewed Spacewalks Visitors Deployed Tiangong Expeditions Crewed Spaceflights Spacewalks Shuttle Crews Missions Rollbacks People Astronauts by name by year of selection Apollo Gemini Mercury African American Arab Asian Chinese Cosmonauts European Ibero-America Indian Muslim Women Space scientists Space travelers by name by first flight by nationality billionaires timeline by nationality Spaceflight-related human fatalities EVA 1965–1999 2000–2014 2015–2024 2025–present Cumulative spacewalk records Longest spacewalks Spacewalkers Solar System exploration Timeline Interplanetary voyages Landings on other planets rovers artificial objects Objects at Lagrange points Probes active future orbiters leaving the Solar System lunar probes Missions to the Moon Timeline of satellites Sample-return mission Mars Earth-orbiting satellites Communications satellite firsts CubeSats PocketQube Earth observation satellites Timeline of first Earth observation satellites Geosynchronous orbit GOES GPS Kosmos Magnetospheric NRO TDRS USA Vehicles Orbital launch systems Comparison Sounding rocket list Spacecraft uncrewed crewed heaviest Upper stages Sounding rocket Small-lift launch vehicle Medium-lift launch vehicle Heavy-lift launch vehicle Super heavy-lift launch vehicle Launches by rocket type Ariane Antares Atlas Atlas LV3B Atlas LV3C Black Brant Delta DM-19 Delta 1 Delta II Delta III Delta IV Heavy Delta IV Medium Delta IV Electron Firefly Alpha Falcon 9 and Heavy 2010–2019 2020–2022 2023 GSLV H-II Kosmos Long March Minotaur New Glenn Proton PSLV R-7 (including Semyorka, Molniya, Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz) Scout SLS Starship Thor and Delta Thor-Agena Thor DM-18 Able Thor DM-18 Agena-A Thor DM-18 Thor DM-21 Agena-B Titan Tsyklon V-2 tests Vega Vulcan Zenit Launches by spaceport Satish Dhawan Agencies, companies and facilities Communications satellite companies comparison Private spaceflight companies Rocket launch sites Space agencies Spacecraft manufacturers Other mission lists and timelines First orbital launches by country First satellites by country NASA missions Constellation missions Timeline of first images of Earth from space Timeline of longest spaceflights Timeline of private spaceflight

v t e NASA Policy and history History (creation) NACA (1915) National Aeronautics and Space Act (1958) Space Task Group (1958) Paine (1986) Rogers (1986) Ride (1987) Space Exploration Initiative (1989) Augustine (1990) U.S. National Space Policy (1996) CFUSAI (2002) CAIB (2003) Vision for Space Exploration (2004) Aldridge (2004) Augustine (2009) General Space Race Administrator and Deputy Administrator Chief Scientist Astronaut Corps Ranks and positions Chief Budget NASA research spinoff technologies NASA+ NASA TV NASA Social Launch Services Program Mercury Control Center Manned Space Flight Network Kennedy Space Center Vehicle Assembly Building Launch Complex 39 39A 39B Launch Complex 48 Launch Control Center Operations and Checkout Building Johnson Space Center Mission Control Lunar Sample Laboratory Science Mission Directorate Human spaceflight programs Past X-15 (suborbital) Mercury Gemini Apollo Skylab Apollo–Soyuz (with the Soviet space program) Space Shuttle Shuttle–Mir (with Roscosmos) Constellation Current International Space Station Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Crew Orion Artemis Robotic programs Past Hitchhiker Mariner Mariner Mark II MESUR Mars Surveyor '98 New Millennium Lunar Orbiter Pioneer Planetary Observer Ranger Surveyor Viking Project Prometheus Mars Exploration Mars Exploration Rover Current Living With a Star Lunar Precursor Robotic Program Earth Observing System Great Observatories program Explorers Voyager Discovery New Frontiers Solar Terrestrial Probes Commercial Lunar Payload Services SIMPLEx Individual featured missions (human and robotic) Past Apollo 11 Artemis II COBE Mercury 3 Mercury-Atlas 6 Magellan Pioneer 10 Pioneer 11 Galileo timeline GALEX GRAIL WMAP Space Shuttle Spitzer Space Telescope Sojourner rover Spirit rover LADEE MESSENGER Aquarius Cassini Dawn Kepler space telescope Opportunity rover timeline observed RHESSI MAVEN InSight Ingenuity helicopter flights Currently operating Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 2001 Mars Odyssey New Horizons International Space Station Hubble Space Telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory Swift Observatory THEMIS Curiosity rover timeline Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter SDO Juno Mars Science Laboratory timeline NuSTAR Voyager 1 Voyager 2 MMS OSIRIS-APEX TESS Mars 2020 Perseverance rover timeline James Webb Space Telescope timeline PACE Europa Clipper NISAR Future Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope DAVINCI VERITAS Communications and navigation Near Earth Network Space Network Deep Space Network (Goldstone Madrid Canberra Space Flight Operations Facility) Deep Space Atomic Clock NASA lists Astronauts by name by year Gemini astronauts Apollo astronauts Space Shuttle crews NASA aircraft NASA missions uncrewed missions Apollo missions Space Shuttle missions United States rockets NASA cancellations NASA cameras on spacecraft NASA images and artwork Earthrise The Blue Marble Family Portrait Pale Blue Dot Pillars of Creation Mystic Mountain Solar System Family Portrait The Day the Earth Smiled Hello, World Earthset Fallen Astronaut Deep fields Lunar plaques Pioneer plaques Voyager Golden Record Apollo 11 goodwill messages NASA insignia Gemini and Apollo medallions Mission patches Astronomy Picture of the Day Hubble Space Telescope anniversary images Related "We choose to go to the Moon" "One small step" Apollo 8 Genesis reading Apollo 15 postal covers incident Apollo Lunar Module Space Mirror Memorial The Astronaut Monument Lunar sample displays Moon rocks stolen or missing U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame Space program on U.S. stamps Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon tree Other primates in space NASA Exoplanet Archive NASA International Space Apps Challenge Astronauts Day National Astronaut Day Nikon NASA F4 Category

v t e Soviet and Russian space program Roscosmos Launch sites Baikonur Cosmodrome (in Kazakhstan) Dombarovsky Kapustin Yar Plesetsk Cosmodrome Svobodny Cosmodrome (defunct) Vostochny Cosmodrome Launch vehicles Angara Proton Soyuz Human spaceflight programs Past Vostok Voskhod Salyut Almaz (incorporated into Salyut program) / TKS Soyuz-Apollo (joint) Mir Shuttle–Mir (joint) Energia / Buran Cancelled Zond (7K-L1) (Moon flyby) Soviet crewed lunar programs (Moon landing) Zvezda (moonbase) TMK (Mars/Venus flyby) Spiral Zvezda Zarya MAKS Kliper Active International Space Station (joint) Russian Orbital Segment Soyuz In development Orel Robotic programs Past Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik (1961–1982) Prognoz (1972–1996) Luna (1958–1976) Venera (1961–1985) Zond (1964–1970) Astron (1983–1991) Vega (1984–1987) Phobos (failed) (1988–1989) Granat (1989–1998) Gamma (1990–1992) Mars 96 (failed) (1996) Resurs-DK No.1 (2006–2016) CORONAS (1994–2009) Fobos-Grunt (failed) (2011) Spektr-R (2011–2019) Luna 25 (failed) (2023) Cancelled Kazachok Active Arktika-M Bion-M Elektro–L Trace Gas Orbiter (joint) Meteor-M Resurs-P Spektr-RG In development Luna-Glob Luna 26 Luna 27 Luna 28 Spektr-UV Communications Sputnik (begun 1957) Sputnik 1 Sputnik 2 Sputnik 3 Sputnik 41 Sputnik 99 Luch Deep Space Network Concepts Baikal-Angara Laplace-P Mars-Grunt Mercury-P OPSEK Spektr-M Venera-D Sfera Images and artwork Mission patches Related List of cosmonauts Cosmonaut ranks and positions Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation Soviet space dogs Laika Belka and Strelka Veterok and Ugolyok Ivan Ivanovich Soviet space exploration history on Soviet stamps Cosmonauts Alley Monument to the Conquerors of Space Memorial Museum of Cosmonautics Cosmonautics Day Yuri's Night International Day of Human Space Flight Out of the Present (1995 documentary) Mission to Mir (1997 documentary) See also: Space industry of Russia Russian Aerospace Defence Forces

v t e Solar System Sun Mercury Venus Earth Mars Ceres Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Planets, dwarfs, minors Terrestrials Mercury Venus Earth Mars Giants Gas Jupiter Saturn Ice Uranus Neptune Dwarfs Ceres Orcus Pluto Haumea Quaoar Makemake Gonggong Eris Sedna Large Minor Planets Vesta Pallas Salacia Máni Achlys Aya Chiminigagua Varda Ixion List Moons Earth Moon claimed Mars Phobos Deimos Jupiter Ganymede Callisto Io Europa all 115 Saturn Titan Rhea Iapetus Dione Tethys Enceladus Mimas Hyperion Phoebe all 293 Uranus Titania Oberon Umbriel Ariel Miranda all 29 Neptune Triton Proteus Nereid all 16 Pluto Charon Nix Hydra Kerberos Styx Orcus Vanth Haumea Hiʻiaka Namaka Quaoar Weywot Makemake S/2015 (136472) 1 Gonggong Xiangliu Eris Dysnomia Exploration (outline) Colonization Discovery astronomy historical models timeline Space probes timeline list Human spaceflight space stations list programs Mercury Venus Moon mining Mars Ceres Asteroids mining Comets Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Deep space Hypothetical objects Bagby's moon Chiron Coatlicue Counter-Earth Chrysalis Fifth Giant Hyperion Lilith Mercury's moon Neith Nemesis Nibiru Petit's moon Phaeton Planet Nine Effects Planet Ten Planet V Planet X Subsatellites Synestia Theia Themis Tyche Vulcan Vulcanoids Waltemath's moons Lists Comets Possible dwarf planets Gravitationally rounded objects Minor planets Natural satellites Solar System models Solar System objects by size by discovery date Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Rings Planetary Terran Jovian Saturnian (Rhean?) Uranian Neptunian Minor objects' Charikloan Chironean Haumean Quaoarian Formation, evolution, contents, and History Star formation Accretion Accretion disk Excretion Capture theory Capture of Triton Circumplanetary disk Circumstellar disc Circumstellar envelope Coatlicue Co-orbital configuration Trojan moons Co-orbital moons Cosmic dust Debris disk Detached object Disk instability EXCEDE Exozodiacal dust Extraterrestrial materials Curation Sample-return mission Frost/Ice/Snow line Giant-impact hypothesis Grand tack hypothesis Gravitational collapse Hills cloud Hill sphere Interplanetary dust cloud Interplanetary medium/space Interstellar cloud Interstellar medium Interstellar space Kuiper belt Kuiper cliff Late Heavy Bombardment Molecular cloud Nebular hypothesis Nice model Nice 2 model Five-planet Nice model Oort cloud Oort limit Outer space Planet Disrupted Migration System Planetesimal Formation Merging stars Protoplanetary disk Ring system Roche limit vs. Hill sphere Rubble pile Scattered disc Small Solar System bodies Asteroid belt Asteroids Ceres Vesta Pallas Hygiea active List families PHA exceptional Kirkwood gap Centaurs Comets Damocloids Meteoroids Minor planets names and meanings moons Planetesimal Planetary orbit-crossers Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Trojans Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Trojan camp Greek camp Saturn Uranus Neptune Near-Earth objects NEAs Trans-Neptunian objects Kuiper belt Cubewanos Plutinos Detached objects Sednoids Scattered disc Hills cloud Oort cloud Oort limit Related Double planet Lagrange point Moonlet Syzygy Tidal locking Outline of the Solar System Solar System portal Astronomy portal Earth sciences portal Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Local Sheet → Local Volume → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex → Local Hole → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within" or "part of".

v t e Robotics Main articles Outline Glossary Index History Geography Hall of Fame Ethics Laws Competitions AI competitions Types Aerobot Anthropomorphic Humanoid Android Cyborg Gynoid Claytronics Companion Automaton Animatronic Audio-Animatronics Industrial Articulated arm Delivery Domestic Educational Entertainment Juggling Military Medical Service Disability Agricultural Food service Retail BEAM robotics Soft robotics Classifications Biorobotics Cloud robotics Continuum robot Unmanned vehicle aerial ground Mobile robot Microbotics Nanorobotics Necrobotics Robotic spacecraft Space probe Swarm Telerobotics Underwater remotely-operated Robotic fish Locomotion Tracks Walking Hexapod Climbing Electric unicycle Robotic fins Navigation and mapping Motion planning Simultaneous localization and mapping Visual odometry Vision-guided robot systems Algorithms Reinforcement learning Vision-language-action model Artificial neural network Research Evolutionary Kits Simulator Suite Open-source Software Adaptable Developmental Human–robot interaction Paradigms Perceptual Situated Ubiquitous Companies ABB Amazon Robotics Anybots Barrett Technology Boston Dynamics Daxbot Doosan Robotics Energid Technologies FarmWise FANUC Figure AI Foster-Miller Fourier Harvest Automation HD Hyundai Robotics Honeybee Robotics Intuitive Surgical IRobot KUKA Rainbow Robotics Robomow Starship Technologies Stäubli Symbotic Universal Robotics Wolf Robotics Waymo Zoox Yaskawa Agility Robotics Unitree Robotics 1X Technologies AgiBot Deep Robotics Engine AI Roborock UBtech Robotics Neura Robotics Fastbrick Robotics Universal Robots White Box Robotics Tesla inc. Welltec KUKA Related Critique of work Powered exoskeleton Workplace robotics safety Robotic tech vest Technological unemployment Terrainability Fictional robots List of robotics software Moravec's paradox Artificial general intelligence Category Outline

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Uncrewed spacecraft](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncrewed_spacecraft) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncrewed_spacecraft?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.