# Types of nationalism

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Among [scholars of nationalism](/source/Nationalism_studies), a number of **types of nationalism** have been presented. [Nationalism](/source/Nationalism) may manifest itself as part of an official state ideology or as a popular non-state movement and may be expressed along [racial](/source/Racial_nationalism), [civic](/source/Civic_nationalism), [ethnic](/source/Ethnic_nationalism), [linguistic](/source/Linguistic_nationalism_(disambiguation)), [religious](/source/Religious_nationalism) or [ideological](/source/Ideological) lines. These self-definitions of the nation are used to classify types of nationalism, but such categories are not mutually exclusive and many nationalist movements combine some or all of these elements to varying degrees. Nationalist movements can also be classified by other criteria, such as scale and location.

Some political theorists, like [Umut Özkirimli](/source/Umut_%C3%96zkirimli), make the case that any distinction between forms of nationalism is false.[1] In all forms of nationalism, the populations believe that they share some kind of common [culture](/source/Culture).[2] Arguably, all types of nationalism merely refer to different ways academics throughout the years have tried to define nationalism.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Similarly, Yael Tamir has argued that the differences between the oft-dichotomized ethnic and civic nationalism are blurred.[3]

## Racial nationalism

Main article: [Racial nationalism](/source/Racial_nationalism)

Racial nationalism is an ideology that advocates a [racial](/source/Race_(human_categorization)) definition of national identity. Racial nationalism seeks to preserve a given race through policies such as [banning race mixing](/source/Anti-miscegenation_laws) and the [immigration](/source/Immigration) of other races. Its ideas tend to be in direct conflict with those of [anti-racism](/source/Anti-racism) and [multiculturalism](/source/Multiculturalism).[4][5] An example is [white nationalism](/source/White_nationalism).

## Ethnic nationalism

Main article: [Ethnic nationalism](/source/Ethnic_nationalism)

Ethnic nationalism, also known as ethnonationalism,[6] is a form of [nationalism](/source/Nationalism) wherein the nation and nationality are defined in terms of [ethnicity](/source/Ethnicity),[7][8] with emphasis on an [ethnocentric](/source/Ethnocentrism) (and in some cases an [ethnocratic](/source/Ethnocracy)) approach to various political issues related to national affirmation of a particular [ethnic group](/source/Ethnic_group).[9][10]

The central tenet of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a [common ethnic ancestry](/source/Y-DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_group)".[11] Those of other ethnicities may be classified as second-class citizens.[12][13]

Ethnic nationalism was traditionally the determinant type of nationalism in Eastern Europe.[14]

### Expansionist nationalism

[Expansionist nationalism](/source/Expansionist_nationalism)[15] is an aggressive radical form of ethnic nationalism (*ethnonationalism*) that incorporates autonomous, heightened ethnic consciousness and patriotic sentiments with [atavistic](/source/Atavism) fears and hatreds focused on "other" or foreign peoples, framing a belief in [expansion](/source/Expansionism) or recovery of formerly owned territories through militaristic means.[16][17][18]

### Romantic nationalism

[Romantic nationalism](/source/Romantic_nationalism), also known as organic nationalism and identity nationalism, is the form of [ethnic nationalism](/source/Ethnic_nationalism) in which the state derives political legitimacy as a natural ("organic") consequence and expression of the nation, race, or ethnicity. It reflected the ideals of [Romanticism](/source/Romanticism) and was opposed to Enlightenment [rationalism](/source/Rationalism). Romantic nationalism emphasized a historical ethnic culture which meets the Romantic Ideal; [folklore](/source/Folklore) developed as a Romantic nationalist concept. The [Brothers Grimm](/source/Brothers_Grimm) were inspired by Herder's writings to create an idealized collection of tales which they labeled as ethnically German. Historian [Jules Michelet](/source/Jules_Michelet) exemplifies French romantic-nationalist history.

### Liberal ethnonationalism

Generally, "liberal nationalism" is used in a similar sense to "civic nationalism"; liberal nationalism is a kind of nationalism recently defended by political philosophers who believe that there can be a non-[xenophobic](/source/Xenophobic) form of nationalism compatible with liberal values of freedom, tolerance, [equality](/source/Equality_before_the_law), and individual rights.[19] However, not all "liberal nationalism" is always "civic nationalism"; there are also liberals who advocate moderate nationalism that affirm ethnic identity, also referred to as "liberal ethnonationalism".[20]

Xenophobic movements in long-established Western European states indeed often took a 'civic national' form, rejecting a given group's ability to assimilate with the nation due to its belonging to a cross-border community (ex. [Irish Catholics](/source/Irish_Catholics) in Britain, [Ashkenazi Jews](/source/Ashkenazi_Jews) in France).[21][22] On the other hand, while liberal subnational separatist movements were commonly associated with ethnic nationalism; such nationalists as the [Corsican Republic](/source/Corsican_Republic), [United Irishmen](/source/United_Irishmen), [Breton Federalist League](/source/Breton_Federalist_League) or [Catalan Republican Party](/source/Catalan_Republican_Party) could combine a rejection of the unitary civic-national state with a belief in liberal universalism.[23][24]

During [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan)'s [KMT one-party dictatorship](/source/Dang_Guo), the [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang) (KMT) defended [Chinese state nationalism](/source/Chinese_state_nationalism). Opposing this, liberals and progressives such as the [Democratic Progressive Party](/source/Democratic_Progressive_Party) (DPP) defended [Taiwanese-based](/source/Taiwanese_nationalism) "liberal [ethnic] nationalism" (自由民族主義).[20] [South Korea](/source/South_Korea) prioritized South Korean-based "[state nationalism](/source/Korean_nationalism#State-aligned_nationalism)" (국가주의) over [Korean ethnic nationalism](/source/Korean_ethnic_nationalism) during the right-wing dictatorship; in response, political liberals and leftists defended "liberal [ethnic] nationalism" (자유민족주의),[25] a moderate version of Korean ethnic nationalism. Even today, major left-liberal and progressive nationalists in Taiwan and South Korea advocate anti-imperialistic [*minzu*-based nationalism](/source/Minzu_(anthropology)#National_liberation_movements) (民族主義) and are critical of right-wing state nationalism (國家主義).[26][27]

[Liberal Zionism](/source/Liberal_Zionism) is an ideology that combines [Zionism](/source/Zionism)—an ethnocultural nationalist ideology—with secular liberal values. Liberal Zionists define Israel as a [Jewish and democratic state](/source/Jewish_and_democratic_state) and support [two-state solution](/source/Two-state_solution) and equal rights to [Arab citizens of Israel](/source/Arab_citizens_of_Israel).

In 19th century Europe, liberal movements often affirmed ethnic nationalism in the modern sense along with to topple [classical conservatism](/source/Classical_conservatism); [István Széchenyi](/source/Istv%C3%A1n_Sz%C3%A9chenyi) was a representative of liberal ethnic nationalism.[28]

### Left-wing ethnonationalism

Main article: [Left-wing nationalism § Social ethno-nationalism](/source/Left-wing_nationalism#Social_ethno-nationalism)

While left-wing nationalism has a weaker ethnic nationalist component than right-wing nationalism, some national liberation movements have also combined with ethnic nationalism; [Northeast Asia](/source/Northeast_Asia) and [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam)'s "national liberation" (民族解放, *[Minzu jiefang](/source/Minzu_jiefang)*) are representative.

## Civic nationalism

[Civic nationalism](/source/Civic_nationalism), sometimes known as democratic nationalism and liberal nationalism, is a political identity built around shared [citizenship](/source/Citizenship) within the state, with emphasis on political institutions and liberal principles, which its citizens pledge to uphold. It aims to adhere to traditional liberal values of [freedom](/source/Freedom_(political)), [tolerance](/source/Toleration), [equality](/source/Egalitarianism), and [individual rights](/source/Individual_rights), and is not based on [ethnocentrism](/source/Ethnocentrism).[29][30] Civic nationalists often defend the value of [national identity](/source/National_identity) by arguing that individuals need it as a partial shared aspect of their identity to lead meaningful, autonomous lives[31] and that democratic [polities](/source/Polity) need a [national identity](/source/National_identity) to function properly.[32]

Membership in the civic nation is open to every person by citizenship, regardless of culture or ethnicity; those who share these values can be considered members of the nation.[33] In theory, a civic nation or state does not aim to promote one culture over another.[33] German philosopher [Jürgen Habermas](/source/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas) has argued that immigrants to a [liberal-democratic](/source/Liberal_democracy) state need not assimilate into the host culture but only accept the principles of the country's constitution ([constitutional patriotism](/source/Constitutional_patriotism)).[33]

[Donald Ipperciel](/source/Donald_Ipperciel) argues civic nationalism historically was a determining factor in the development of modern [constitutional](/source/Constitution) and democratic states.[34] The 20th-century revival of civic nationalism played a key role in the ideological war against racism.[35] However, as the Turkish political scientist [Umut Özkirimli](/source/Umut_%C3%96zkirimli) states, "civic" nations can be as intolerant and cruel as the so-called "ethnic" nations, citing [French Jacobin](/source/Jacobins) techniques of persecution that were used by [20th-century fascists](/source/History_of_fascism).[36]

### State nationalism

[State nationalism](/source/State_nationalism), state-based nationalism, state-led nationalism,[37] or "statism" (Chinese: 國家主義) equates 'state identity' with '[national identity](/source/National_identity)' and values state authority. State nationalism is classified as civic nationalism by the dichotomy that divides nationalism into "civic" and "ethnic",[38][39][40] but it is not necessarily liberal and has been present in authoritarian politics. [Soviet nationalism](/source/Soviet_nationalism), [Shōwa Statism](/source/Sh%C5%8Dwa_Statism), [Kemalism](/source/Kemalism),[41] [Francoism](/source/Francoism),[40] and [Communist](/source/Chinese_Communist_Party)-led [Chinese state nationalism](/source/Chinese_state_nationalism)[38] are all classified as state nationalism.

## Ideological nationalism

### Revolutionary nationalism

[Revolutionary nationalism](/source/Revolutionary_nationalism) is a broad label that has been applied to many different types of nationalist political movements that wish to achieve their goals through a revolution against the established order. Individuals and organizations described as being revolutionary nationalist include some political currents within the [French Revolution](/source/French_Revolution),[42] [Irish republicans](/source/Irish_republicanism) engaged in armed struggle against the [British crown](/source/British_crown),[43] the [Can Vuong movement](/source/Can_Vuong_movement) against French rule in 19th century [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam),[44] the [Indian independence movement](/source/Indian_independence_movement) in the 20th century,[45] some participants in the [Mexican Revolution](/source/Mexican_Revolution),[46] [Benito Mussolini](/source/Benito_Mussolini) and the [Italian Fascists](/source/Italian_Fascism),[47] the [Autonomous Government of Khorasan](/source/Autonomous_Government_of_Khorasan),[48] [Augusto Cesar Sandino](/source/Augusto_Cesar_Sandino), the [Revolutionary Nationalist Movement](/source/Revolutionary_Nationalist_Movement) in Bolivia,[49] [black nationalism](/source/Black_nationalism) in the United States,[50] and some [African independence movements](/source/African_independence_movements).[51]

### Liberation nationalism

Many nationalist movements in the world are dedicated to [national liberation](/source/National_liberation) in the view that their nations are being persecuted by other nations and thus need to exercise self-determination by liberating themselves from the accused persecutors. [Anti-revisionist](/source/Anti-revisionism) [Marxist–Leninism](/source/Marxism-Leninism) is closely tied with this ideology, and practical examples include Stalin's early work *[Marxism and the National Question](/source/Marxism_and_the_National_Question)* and his [Socialism in One Country](/source/Socialism_in_One_Country) edict, which declares that nationalism can be used in an internationalist context i.e. fighting for national liberation without racial or religious divisions.

### Left-wing nationalism

[Left-wing nationalism](/source/Left-wing_nationalism), also occasionally known as socialist nationalism,[52] refers to any political movement that combines [left-wing politics](/source/Left-wing_politics) or [socialism](/source/Socialism) with [nationalism](/source/Nationalism). Notable examples include [Fidel Castro](/source/Fidel_Castro)'s [26th of July Movement](/source/26th_of_July_Movement) that launched the [Cuban Revolution](/source/Cuban_Revolution) that ousted dictator [Fulgencio Batista](/source/Fulgencio_Batista) in 1959, Ireland's [Sinn Féin](/source/Sinn_F%C3%A9in), [Labor Zionism](/source/Labor_Zionism) in Israel, and the [African National Congress](/source/African_National_Congress) in South Africa.

## Schools of anarchism which acknowledge nationalism

Main article: [Anarchism and nationalism](/source/Anarchism_and_nationalism)

[Anarchists](/source/Anarchism) who see value in nationalism typically argue that a nation is first and foremost a *people*; that the [state](/source/Sovereign_state) is parasite upon the nation and should not be confused with it; and that since in reality states rarely coincide with national entities, the ideal of the [nation state](/source/Nation_state) is actually little more than a myth. Within the European Union, for instance, they argue there are over 500 ethnic nations within the 25 member states, and even more in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Moving from this position, they argue that the achievement of meaningful [self-determination](/source/Self-determination) for all of the world's nations requires an anarchist political system based on local control, free federation, and [mutual aid](/source/Mutual_aid_(organization_theory)). There has been a long history of anarchist involvement with left-nationalism all over the world. Contemporary fusions of anarchism with anti-state left-nationalism include some strains of [Black anarchism](/source/Black_anarchism) and [indigenism](/source/Indigenism).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

In early to mid-19th-century Europe, the ideas of nationalism, [liberalism](/source/Liberalism), and [socialism](/source/Socialism). were closely intertwined. Revolutionaries and radicals like [Giuseppe Mazzini](/source/Giuseppe_Mazzini) aligned with all three in about equal measure.[53] The early pioneers of anarchism participated in the spirit of their times: they had much in common with both liberals and socialists, and they shared much of the outlook of early nationalism as well. Thus [Mikhail Bakunin](/source/Mikhail_Bakunin) had a long career as a [pan-Slavic](/source/Pan-Slavism) nationalist before adopting anarchism. He also agitated for a United States of Europe (a contemporary nationalist vision originated by Mazzini).[54] In 1880–1881, the [Boston](/source/Boston)-based Irish nationalist W. G. H. Smart wrote articles for a magazine called *The Anarchist*.[55] Similarly, [anarchists in China](/source/Anarchism_in_China) during the early part of the 20th century were very much involved in the left wing of the nationalist movement while actively opposing[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] racist elements of the anti-[Manchu](/source/Manchu_people) wing of that movement.

## Pan-nationalism

[Pan-nationalism](/source/Pan-nationalism) is usually an ethnic and cultural nationalism, but the 'nation' is itself a cluster of related ethnic groups and cultures, such as [Slavic](/source/Pan-Slavism) peoples. Occasionally pan-nationalism is applied to [mono-ethnic](/source/Monoethnicity) nationalism, when the national group is dispersed over a wide area and several states – as in [Pan-Germanism](/source/Pan-Germanism).

## Transnationalism

[Transnationalism](/source/Transnationalism) puts nations within an overarching concept, such as [global citizenry](/source/Global_citizen), seeing shared overarching institutions, for example such as institutions for [continental union](/source/Continental_union) or [globalizing](/source/Globalization) society.

## Religious nationalism

Main article: [Religious nationalism](/source/Religious_nationalism)

Religious nationalism is the relationship of nationalism to a particular religious belief, [religious organization](/source/Religious_organization), or [religious identity](/source/Religious_identity). This relationship can be broken down into two aspects; the [politicization](/source/Politicization) of religion and the converse influence of religion on politics. In the former aspect, a shared religion can be seen to contribute to a sense of national unity, by the citizens of the nation. Another political aspect of religion is the support of a national identity, similar to a shared ethnicity, language or culture. The influence of religion on politics is more ideological, where current interpretations of religious ideas inspire political activism and action; for example, laws are passed to foster stricter religious adherence.[56] [Hindu nationalism](/source/Hindu_nationalism) is common in many states and union territories in India which joined the union of India solely on the basis of religion and post-colonial nationalism.

## Post-colonial nationalism

Since the process of [decolonisation](/source/Decolonisation) that occurred after [World War II](/source/World_War_II), there has been a rise of Third World nationalisms (or nationalisms in less-developed states). Third world nationalisms occur in those nations that have been colonized and exploited. The nationalisms of these nations are the result of the required resistance made against colonial domination in order to survive. As such, resistance is part and parcel of such nationalisms and their very existence is a form of resistance to imperialist intrusions. Third World nationalism attempts to ensure that the identities of Third World peoples are authored primarily by themselves, not by colonial powers.[57]

Examples of third world nationalist ideologies are [African nationalism](/source/African_nationalism) and [Arab nationalism](/source/Arab_nationalism). Other important nationalist movements in the developing world have included the ideas of the [Mexican Revolution](/source/Mexican_Revolution) and [Haitian Revolution](/source/Haitian_Revolution). Third world nationalist ideas have been particularly influential among governments elected in South America.

## Multi-ethnic nationalism

See also: [Plurinationalism](/source/Plurinationalism)

Multi-ethnic nationalism denotes ethnic nationalism in a [multinational state](/source/Multinational_state).

[Chinese nationalism](/source/Chinese_nationalism) is a representative multi-ethnic nationalism. The concept of "[Zhonghua minzu](/source/Zhonghua_minzu)" ("Chinese ethnicity") includes many indigenous minorities in China who already live on Chinese territory, but does not include immigrants who are not part of the traditional Chinese ethnic group (ex, [Japanese Chinese](/source/Japanese_people_in_China), European Chinese, [African Chinese](/source/African_Chinese), etc). Therefore, Chinese nationalism is multi-ethnic nationalism, but it is distinct from civic nationalism or ethnic nationalism in a narrow sense.[58][59][60] [Taiwanese nationalism](/source/Taiwanese_nationalism)[61] and [India's](/source/Indian_nationalism) [composite nationalism](/source/Composite_nationalism) are also considered multi-ethnic nationalism.

Multi-ethnic nationalism may be similar to [civic nationalism](/source/Civic_nationalism). However, multi-ethnic nationalism tends to embrace multi-ethnic elements without embracing the core elements of civic nationalism.[62]

## Diaspora nationalism

[Diaspora nationalism](/source/Diaspora_politics), or as [Benedict Anderson](/source/Benedict_Anderson) terms it, "long-distance nationalism", generally refers to nationalist feeling among a [diaspora](/source/Diaspora) such as the Irish in the United States, Jews around the world after the expulsion from Jerusalem (586 BCE), the Lebanese in the Americas and Africa, or Armenians in Europe and the United States.[63] Anderson states that this sort of nationalism acts as a "phantom bedrock" for people who want to experience a national connection, but who do not actually want to leave their diaspora community. The essential difference between pan-nationalism and diaspora nationalism is that members of a diaspora, by definition, are no longer resident in their national or ethnic [homeland](/source/Homeland). In some instances, 'Diaspora' refers to a dispersal of a people from a (real or imagined) 'homeland' due to a cataclysmic disruption, such as war, famine, etc. New networks – new 'roots' – form along the 'routes' travelled by diasporic people, who are connected by a shared desire to return 'home'. In reality, the desire to return may be [eschatologica](/source/Eschatology)l (i.e. end times orientation), or may not occur in any foreseeable future, but the longing for the lost homeland and the sense of difference from circumambient cultures in which diasporic people live becomes an identity unto itself.

## Language nationalism

Language nationalism is a nationalism that defends and promotes a language of a nation. Language nationalists in many cases campaign for the national language to be made the [official language](/source/Official_language).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

## See also

- [Anti-nationalism](/source/Anti-nationalism)

- [Buddhist nationalism](/source/Buddhist_nationalism)

- [Christian nationalism](/source/Christian_nationalism)

- [Hindu nationalism](/source/Hindu_nationalism)

- [Integral nationalism](/source/Integral_nationalism)

- [Islamic nationalism](/source/Islamic_nationalism)

- [Jewish nationalism](/source/Jewish_national_movements_(disambiguation))

- [Jingoism](/source/Jingoism)

- [Postnationalism](/source/Postnationalism)

- [Zionism](/source/Zionism)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [Özkirimli, Umut](/source/Umut_%C3%96zk%C4%B1r%C4%B1ml%C4%B1) (2005). "Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction". *Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction*. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 24–25..

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Özkirimli, Umut (2005). "Chapter 2: What is Nationalism?; A critique of the ethnic-civic distinction". *Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction*. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 24–25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Tamir, Yael (Yuli) (2019). ["Not So Civic: Is There a Difference Between Ethnic and Civic Nationalism?"](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-022018-024059). *[Annual Review of Political Science](/source/Annual_Review_of_Political_Science)*. **22** (1): 419–434. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1146/annurev-polisci-022018-024059](https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-polisci-022018-024059). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1094-2939](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1094-2939).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-taub_4-0)** Taub, Amanda (21 November 2016). ["White Nationalism, Explained"](https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230614003947/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/22/world/americas/white-nationalism-explained.html) from the original on 14 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-silverstein_5-0)** Silverstein, Jason (January 11, 2015). ["Billboard from 'white genocide' segregation group goes up along highway near Birmingham, Ala"](https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126). *[New York Daily News](/source/New_York_Daily_News)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190322082831/https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/billboard-white-genocide-group-ala-article-1.2074126) from the original on 22 March 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2023.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeoussi200181-84_6-0)** [Leoussi 2001](#CITEREFLeoussi2001), p. 81-84. sfn error: no target: CITEREFLeoussi2001 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1987134-138,_144–149_7-0)** [Smith 1987](#CITEREFSmith1987), p. 134-138, 144–149. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith1987 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith200961-80_8-0)** [Smith 2009](#CITEREFSmith2009), p. 61-80. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith2009 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith198118_9-0)** [Smith 1981](#CITEREFSmith1981), p. 18. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSmith1981 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoshwald2001_10-0)** [Roshwald 2001](#CITEREFRoshwald2001). sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoshwald2001 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuller2008_11-0)** [Muller 2008](#CITEREFMuller2008). sfn error: no target: CITEREFMuller2008 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERangelov2013_12-0)** [Rangelov 2013](#CITEREFRangelov2013). sfn error: no target: CITEREFRangelov2013 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYilmaz2018_13-0)** [Yilmaz 2018](#CITEREFYilmaz2018). sfn error: no target: CITEREFYilmaz2018 ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Friedli, Andrea; Gohard-Radenkovic, Aline; Francois Ruegg, Francois (2017). [*Nation-Building and Identities in Post-Soviet Societies: New Challenges for Social Sciences Volume 47 of Freiburg Studies in Social Anthropology/Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien Series Freiburg Studies in Social Anthropology/ Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien Volume 47 of Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zz9BDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Eastern+European%22+%22ethnic+nationalism%22&pg=PA75). [LIT Verlag Münster](/source/LIT_Verlag_M%C3%BCnster). p. 75. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783643802187](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783643802187).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21st-Century-Political-Sci_15-0)** Salih Bicakcic (2011). "Vol.2, Part V: Political Thought; Chapter 74: Nationalism". In [Ishiyama, John T.](/source/John_Ishiyama); Breuning, Marijke (eds.). [*21st Century Political Science: A Reference Handbook*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IR1GCphhU7EC). SAGE. pp. 633–638. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781412969017](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412969017). Retrieved 19 April 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Political-ideologies-Heywood_16-0)** [Heywood, Andrew](/source/Andrew_Heywood) (2017). "Chapter 6: Nationalism; 6.4.3.: Expansionist Nationalism". [*Political Ideologies: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Sy8hDgAAQBAJ&q=Heywood.+Political+Ideologies:+An+Introduction+2004) (6th ed.). PALGRAVE; Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 176–187. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781137606044](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137606044). Retrieved 19 April 2019.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Political-theory-Heywood_17-0)** Heywood, Andrew (2015). "Chapter 4 Sovereignty, the Nation and Transnationalism; 4.1. Nationalism". [*Political Theory: An Introduction*](https://books.google.com/books?id=mEH_CAAAQBAJ). Macmillan International Higher Education. pp. 95–99. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781137437280](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781137437280). Retrieved 19 April 2019.[*[permanent dead link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nationalism-Theory-revisionworld.com_18-0)** ["Nationalism Theory – Politics A-Level – Revision World"](https://revisionworld.com/a2-level-level-revision/politics/nationalism-theory). *revisionworld.com*. Retrieved 19 April 2019.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Yael Tamir. 1993. *Liberal Nationalism.* Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-691-07893-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07893-9); Will Kymlicka. 1995. *Multicultural Citizenship.* Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-827949-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-827949-3); David Miller. 1995. [*On Nationality.*](http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9) 2000-06-01 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-828047-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828047-5).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Taiwan_20-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Taiwan_20-1) Drover, Glenn; Graham Johnson; Julia Lai Po-Wah Tao (2001). [*Regionalism and Subregionalism in East Asia: The Dynamics of China*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OO9OAAAAMAAJ&q=%22liberal+ethno-nationalism%22). Nova Science. p. 101. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-56072-872-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56072-872-6). In response to the rise of 'liberal ethno-nationalism' and the DPP, it has increasingly promoted the discourse and practices of a 'Taiwanized' KMT.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Yack, Bernard (1996). "The myth of the civic nation". *Critical Review*. **10** (2): 193–211. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/08913819608443417](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08913819608443417).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Rogers Brubaker. *Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany*. Harvard University Press. pp. 14–17. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: Unknown parameter |dates= ignored ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#parameter_ignored))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** Guibernau, Montserrat (1999). *Nations Without States: Political Communities in a Global Age*. Polity. pp. 81–85.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Stephen John Small (2002). *Political Thought in Ireland, 1776-1798: Republicanism, Patriotism, and Radicalism*. Clarendon Press. pp. 220–225.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Kim, Hee-sun (2007). "Musical Representation of Nationalism in Contemporary South Korea" 민족주의의 음악적 표상: 한국 전통 음악 담론과 연행에서 민족주의 [Musical Representation of Nationalism in Contemporary South Korea]. *동양음악 (Journal of the Asian Music Research Institute)* 동양음악 [*Journal of the Asian Music Research Institute*]. **29**: 165–194. [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10371/87889](https://hdl.handle.net/10371%2F87889). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1975-0218](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1975-0218).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** Whigham, Stuart (8 February 2024). *Sport and Nationalism: Theoretical Perspectives*. Taylor & Francis. p. 170.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Baogang He (8 July 2015). *Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches*. [Edinburgh University Press](/source/Edinburgh_University_Press). p. 81.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Mark Hewitson; Timothy Baycroft (2001). *What Is a Nation?; Europe 1789–1914*. [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). p. 180. The shifting of ground in the Magyar case from the 'estate nationalism' of the 1790s to the liberal-ethnic nationalism of the 1840s can be followed in the 'national road' trodden by Count István Széchenyi where liberal and romantic were combined.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Auer_29-0)** [Auer, Stefan](/source/Stefan_Auer) (2004). [*Liberal Nationalism in Central Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=BhNsM_ttOb4C&pg=PA5). Routledge. p. 5. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1134378602](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1134378602). Retrieved 13 May 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Tamir, Yael. 1993. *Liberal Nationalism.* Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-691-07893-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-07893-9)[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]; [Will Kymlicka](/source/Will_Kymlicka). 1995. *Multicultural Citizenship.* Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-827949-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-827949-3)[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]; David Miller. 1995. [*On Nationality.*](http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9) 1 June 2000 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-828047-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828047-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Kymlicka, Will. 1995. *Multicultural Citizenship*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-827949-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-827949-3). For criticism, see: Patten, Alan. 1999. ["The Autonomy Argument for Liberal Nationalism."](https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1354-5078.1999.00001.x) *[Nations and Nationalism](/source/Nations_and_Nationalism_(journal)).* 5(1): 1–17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Miller, David. 1995. *On Nationality*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-828047-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-828047-5). For criticism, see: [Abizadeh, Arash](/source/Arash_Abizadeh). 2002. ["Does Liberal Democracy Presuppose a Cultural Nation? Four Arguments."](http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Does-Liberal-Democracy-Presuppose-a-Cultural-Nation/c22zv/558da7580cf298ff2bcbdc82) 2016-08-07 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) *American Political Science Review* 96 (3): 495–509; Abizadeh, Arash. 2004. "[Liberal Nationalist versus Postnational Social Integration](http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160807114607/http://abizadeh.wix.com/arash#!Article-Liberal-Nationalist-vs-Postnational-Social-Integration/c22zv/558eaf0b0cf20d45521f9542) 2016-08-07 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)." *[Nations and Nationalism](/source/Nations_and_Nationalism_(journal))* 10(3): 231–250.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-definition_33-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-definition_33-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-definition_33-2) Stilz, Anna. "Civic Nationalism and Language Policy". *Philosophy & Public Affairs*. **37** (3): 257.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Ipperciel, Donald (2007). "Constitutional democracy and civic nationalism". *[Nations and Nationalism](/source/Nations_and_Nationalism_(journal))*. **13** (3). [Wiley-Blackwell](/source/Wiley-Blackwell) on behalf of the [Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism](/source/Association_for_the_Study_of_Ethnicity_and_Nationalism): 395–416. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00293.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8129.2007.00293.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1469-8129](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1469-8129).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** [Nancy Foner](/source/Nancy_Foner); Patric Simon (2015). [*Fear, Anxiety, and National Identity Immigration and Belonging in North America and Western Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NRooCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT38). [Russell Sage Foundation](/source/Russell_Sage_Foundation). p. 38. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781610448536](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781610448536).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Özkirimli, Umut (2005). *Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction* (1st ed.). London: [Red Globe Press](/source/Red_Globe_Press). pp. 27–28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780333947739](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780333947739).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Liu_Li_Fan_Hong_37-0)** Liu Li; Fan Hong (14 July 2017). *The National Games and National Identity in China*. Taylor & Francis. p. 4.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mohammad_Ateequ_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mohammad_Ateequ_38-1) Mohammad Ateeque. *Identity Conscience Nationalism and Internationalism*. Educreation Publishing. p. 52.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Jacob T. Levy (2000). *The Multiculturalism of Fear*. OUP Oxford. p. 87.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-J._C._Chatturvedi_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-J._C._Chatturvedi_40-1) J. C. Chatturvedi (2005). *Political Governance: Political theory*. Isha Books. p. 75.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Cengiz Gunes (2020). *The Political Representation of Kurds in Turkey: New Actors and Modes of Participation in a Changing Society*. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** David A. Bell, "Lingua Populi, Lingua Dei: Language, Religion, and the Origins of French Revolutionary Nationalism" in *The American Historical Review*, Dec. 1995, Vol. 100, No. 5, p. 1436

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Brian Jenkins, *Irish Nationalism and the British State: From Repeal to Revolutionary Nationalism*, McGill-Queen's University Press, 2006, p. 255

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** David L. Anderson, edit., *The Columbia History of the Vietnam War*, Columbia University Press, 2017, chapter: "Setting the Stage: Vietnamese Revolutionary Nationalism and the First Vietnam War," Mark Philip Bradley, p. 96-97

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** L.N. Rana, "Revolutionary Nationalism in Jharkhand" in *Proceedings of the Indian History Congress*, 2000–2001, Vol. 61, Part One, p. 718

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Robert F. Alegre, *Railroad Radicals in Cold War Mexico: Gender, Class, and Memory*, University of Nebraska Press, 2014, chapter: "'The Mexican Revolution Was Made on the Rails': Revolutionary Nationalism, Class Formation, and the Early Impact of the Cold War," p. 29

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** A. James Gregor, *Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism*, University of California Press, 1979, p. 99

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Stephanie Cronin, "An Experiment in Revolutionary Nationalism: The Rebellion of Colonel Muhammad Taqi Khan Pasyan in Mashhad, April–October 1921" in *Middle Eastern Studies*, Oct. 1997, Vol. 33, No. 4, p. 693

1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Christian Anglade, Carlos Fortin, edit., *The State and Capital Accumulation in Latin America, Vol. 2*, Palgrave Macmillan, 1990, chapter: "Capital Accumulation and Revolutionary Nationalism in Bolivia, 1952–85," Winston Moore Casanovas, p. 32

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Akinyele Omowale Umoja, *We Will Shoot Back: Armed Resistance in the Mississippi Freedom Movement*, NYU Press, 2013, chapter: "'Black Revolution Has Come': Armed Insurgency, Black Power, and Revolutionary Nationalism in the Mississippi Freedom Struggle," p. 173

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Basil Davidson, "On Revolutionary Nationalism: The Legacy of Cabral" in *Latin American Perspectives*, Spring, 1984, Vol. 11, No. 2

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** [Political Science, Volume 35, Issue 2; *Class and Nation: Problems of Socialist Nationalism*](https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171019203758/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1987.tb01886.x/abstract)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Hearder (1966), p. 46-47, 50.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** [Robert Knowles. "Anarchist Notions of Nationalism and Patriotism"](http://raforum.info/imprimerart.php3?id_article=2221) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20071006082128/http://raforum.info/imprimerart.php3?id_article=2221) 2007-10-06 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** *The Raven*, No. 6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Juergensmeyer, Mark. "The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism",*[Journal of International Affairs](/source/Journal_of_International_Affairs)*, Summer 1996, 50, 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Chatterjee, Partha. "Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World," University of Minnesota Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-8166-2311-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8166-2311-2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Fei, Xiaotong (1989). "The Pattern of Diversity in Unity of the Chinese Nation". *Social Sciences in China*. **10** (4): 155–214.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** James Leibold (2013). *Ethno-Diplomacy: The Uyghur Hitch in Sino-Turkish Relations*. ASAA Women in Asia Series. pp. 45–48.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Stroup, David R. (13 October 2022). ["Chinese Nationalism: Insights and Opportunities for Comparative Studies"](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fnps.2022.99). *Educational Philosophy and Theory*. **51** (3): 497–511. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/nps.2022.99](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fnps.2022.99). [...] In China, however, the CCP's pursuit of legitimation through rhetorical appeals to citizens that both urge them to resist external threats to limit China's rise and to join in the building of a multi-ethnic and inclusive Chinese national identity (zhonghua minzu yishi) blur the lines between civic and ethnic nationalisms, as well as the lines between populism, patriotism, and nationalism.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Gunter Schubert; Jens Damm (2012). *Taiwanese Identity in the 21st Century: Domestic, Regional and Global Perspectives*. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 270. In the multi-ethnic nationalism approach, the Taiwanese nation is conceptualized as a harmonious, democratic and ...

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Anthony D. Smith (2013). *Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History*. Polity. pp. 105–110.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Humphrey, Michael. 2004. [Lebanese identities: between cities, nations and trans-nations](http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_1_26/ai_n6145318). *Arab Studies Quarterly*, Winter 2004.

v t e Nationalism Development Anthem Border Colours Flag Epic God Homeland Identity Language Music Myth Religion Self-determination Sport Symbol Animal Emblem Flower Treasure By type African AI Anarchist Authoritarian Blind Bourgeois Business Welfare Civic Conservative Constitutional patriotism Corporate- Cyber- Ecological Economic Ethnic European Expansionist Palingenetic ultranationalism Feminist Homo- Integral Left-wing Communist Liberal Linguistic Mystic Neo-/New Pan- Queer Right-wing Racial Black White Religious Buddhist Christian Catholic Clerico- Mormon Christian Zionism Hindu Hindutva Islamic Zionism Resource Revolutionary Ethnocacerism National syndicalist Falangism Fascism List of fascist movements Romantic State Technological Territorial Terrorism Trans- Ultra- Japan Organizations List of nationalist organizations Nationalist Clubs Related concepts Anarchism and nationalism Anationalism Anti-nationalism Banal nationalism Cross-border region Cultural nationalism Diaspora politics Discrimination based on nationality Eliminationism Exceptionalism Gastronationalism Gender and nationalism Historiography and nationalism Internationalism Irredentism Jingoism Liberalism and nationalism Mercantilism Nationalism and archaeology Nation-building National indifference National question National revival Nation state Nationalism in antiquity Nationalism in the Middle Ages Nationalism studies Nativism Natural border Primordialism Plurinationalism Principle of nationalities [fr] Revanchism Sport and Nationalism State-building Wars of national liberation

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Types of nationalism](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_nationalism) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Types_of_nationalism?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.