# Turkification

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Not to be confused with [Turkeyification](/source/Turkeyification).

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Adoption of a Turkic culture by a non-Turkic population

**Turkification**, **Turkization**, or **Turkicization** ([Turkish](/source/Turkish_language): *Türkleştirme*) describes a shift whereby populations or places receive or adopt [Turkic](/source/Turkic_people) attributes such as culture, language, history, or ethnicity. However, often this term is more narrowly applied to mean specifically Turkish rather than merely Turkic, meaning that it refers more frequently to the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire)'s policies or the [Turkish nationalist](/source/Turkish_nationalist) policies of the [Republic of Turkey](/source/Republic_of_Turkey) toward [ethnic minorities in Turkey](/source/Ethnic_minorities_in_Turkey). As the Turkic states developed and grew, there were many instances of this cultural shift.

The earliest instance of Turkification took place in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia), when, by the 6th century AD, migration of Turkic tribes from [Inner Asia](/source/Inner_Asia) caused a [language shift](/source/Language_shift) among the [Iranian peoples](/source/Iranian_peoples) of the area.[1] By the 8th century AD, the Turkification of [Kashgar](/source/Kashgar) was completed by [Qarluq Turks](/source/Qarluq_Turks), who also [Islamized](/source/Islamization) the population.[2]

The Turkification of [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia) occurred in the time of the [Seljuk Empire](/source/Seljuk_Empire) and [Sultanate of Rum](/source/Sultanate_of_Rum), when Anatolia had been a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being [Hellenized](/source/Hellenization).[3][4][5]

## Etymology

Prior to the 20th century, Anatolian, [Balkan](/source/Balkan), [Caucasian](/source/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus), and [Middle Eastern](/source/Middle_Eastern) regions were said to undergo [Ottomanization](/source/Ottomanism). "Turkification" started being used interchangeably with "Ottomanization" after the rise of [Turkish nationalism](/source/Turkish_nationalism) in the 20th century.[6]

The term has been used in the [Greek language](/source/Greek_language) since the 1300s or late-Byzantine era as "εκτουρκισμός", or "τούρκεμα". It literally translates to "becoming a Turk". Apart from people, it may also refer to cities conquered by the Turks or churches converted to mosques. It is more frequently used in the verb form "τουρκεύω" (*to Turkify*, *to become Muslim or Turk*).[7][8][9]

## History

### Early examples of Turkification

By 750, the Turkification of Kashgar by the Qarluq Turks was underway. The Qarluqs were ancestors of the [Karakhanids](/source/Karakhanids), who also Islamized the population.[2] The [Iranian](/source/Khwarezmian_language) language of [Khwarezm](/source/Khwarezm), a [Central Asian](/source/Central_Asian) oasis region, eventually died out as a result of Turkification.[10]

#### Turkification of Central Asia

The current population of Central Asia is the result of the long and complex process that started at least 1,400 years ago. Today this region consists of mainly Turkic ethnic groups, barring [Persian-speaking](/source/Persian_language) [Tajiks](/source/Tajiks), although centuries ago its native inhabitants were [Iranian peoples](/source/Iranian_peoples).[1] Turkification of the [native Iranian population of Central Asia](/source/Greater_Iran)[note 1] began by the 6th century A.D. partly due to migration of Turkic tribes from Inner Asia. The process of Turkification of Central Asia, besides those parts that constitute the territory of present-day [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan) and parts of [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan) with a majority Tajik population, accelerated with the [Mongol conquest of Central Asia](/source/Mongol_conquest_of_Central_Asia).[note 2][11] [Mahmud al-Kashgari](/source/Mahmud_al-Kashgari) writes that the people who lived between Bukhara and Samarkand were Turkified [Sogdians](/source/Sogdian_people), whom he refers to as “Sogdak”.[12]

Tajiks are considered to be the only ethnic group to have survived the process of Turkification in Central Asia. Despite their clear Iranian ethnicity, some arguments attempt to denounce Tajiks' Iranian identity, and instead link them with the descendants of [Arabs](/source/Arabs) raised in [Iran](/source/Greater_Iran) or Turks who have lost their language under the influence of Persian civilization.[1]

#### Turkification of Azerbaijan

Turkification of the non-Turkic population derives from the Turkic settlements in the area now known as Azerbaijan, which began and accelerated during the [Seljuq](/source/Seljuq_Turks) period.[13] The migration of Oghuz Turks from present-day [Turkmenistan](/source/Turkmenistan), which is attested by linguistic similarity, remained high through the Mongol period, since the bulk of the [Ilkhanate](/source/Ilkhanate) troops were Turkic. By the [Safavid](/source/Safavid_dynasty) period, the Turkic nature of Azerbaijan increased with the influence of the [Qizilbash](/source/Qizilbash), an association of the [Turkmen](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym)) nomadic tribes that was the backbone of the Safavid Empire.[14]

According to [Soviet](/source/Soviet_people) scholars, the Turkification of Azerbaijan was largely completed during the Ilkhanate period. Turkish scholar Faruk Sumer notes three distinct periods in which Turkification took place: Seljuq, Mongol and Post-Mongol ([Qara Qoyunlu](/source/Qara_Qoyunlu), [Aq Qoyunlu](/source/Aq_Qoyunlu) and Safavid). In the first two, Oghuz Turkic tribes advanced or were driven to Anatolia and [Arran](/source/Arran_(Caucasus)). In the last period, the Turkic elements in Iran (Oghuz, with lesser admixtures of [Uyghur](/source/Uyghurs), [Qipchaq](/source/Kipchaks), Qarluq as well as Turkified Mongols) were joined now by Anatolian Turks migrating back to Iran. This marked the final stage of Turkification.[13]

### Turkification of Anatolia

Main article: [Turkic migration](/source/Turkic_migration)

Further information: [Mixobarbaroi](/source/Mixobarbaroi)

Illustration of the registration of Christian boys for the *devşirme*. Ottoman miniature painting, 1558.[15]

Anatolia was home to many different peoples in ancient times who were either indigenous peoples or settlers and invaders. These different people included the [Armenians](/source/Armenians), [Anatolian peoples](/source/Anatolian_peoples), [Persians](/source/Persia),[16] [Hurrians](/source/Hurrians), [Greeks](/source/Greeks), [Cimmerians](/source/Cimmerians), [Galatians](/source/Galatia), [Colchians](/source/Colchian), [Iberians](/source/Iberians_of_the_Caucasus), [Arabs](/source/Arabs), [Arameans](/source/Arameans), [Assyrians](/source/Assyrian_people), [Corduenes](/source/Corduene), and scores of others. During the Mycenaean and Classical periods of Greek history, Greeks colonised the Western, Northern and Southern Coasts of Anatolia. Over the course of many centuries a process of [Hellenization](/source/Hellenization) occurred throughout the interior Anatolia which was aided by the fact that Koine Greek was the *lingua franca* in political circles and also later became the primary liturgical language, and the similarity of some of the [native languages of Anatolia](/source/Anatolian_languages) to Greek (cf. [Phrygian](/source/Phrygian_language)). By the 5th century the native people of Asia Minor were entirely [Greek](/source/Greek_language) in their language and [Christian](/source/Christianity) in religion.[17] These Greek-speaking Christian inhabitants of Asia Minor are known as [Byzantine Greeks](/source/Byzantine_Greeks), although at the time they would have considered themselves to be Romans (Rhomaioi), and they formed the bulk of the [Byzantine Empire](/source/Byzantine_Empire)'s Greek-speaking population for one thousand years, from the 5th century until the fall of the Byzantine state in the 15th century. In the northeast along the Black Sea these peoples eventually formed their own state known as the [Empire of Trebizond](/source/Empire_of_Trebizond), which gave rise to the modern [Pontic Greek](/source/Pontic_Greeks) population. In the east, near the borderlands with the Persian Empire, other native languages remained, specifically [Armenian](/source/Armenian_language), [Assyrian Aramaic](/source/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic), and [Kurdish](/source/Kurdish_languages).[18] [Byzantine](/source/Byzantine) authorities routinely conducted large-scale population transfers in an effort to impose religious uniformity and quell rebellions. After the subordination of the [First Bulgarian Empire](/source/First_Bulgarian_Empire) in 1018, for instance, much of its army was resettled in [Eastern Anatolia](/source/Eastern_Anatolia). The Byzantines were particularly keen to assimilate the large Armenian population. To that end, in the eleventh century, the Armenian nobility were removed from their lands and resettled throughout western Anatolia with prominent families subsumed into the Byzantine nobility, leading to numerous Byzantine generals and emperors of Armenian extraction. These resettlements spread the Armenian-speaking community deep into Asia Minor, but an unintended consequence was the loss of local military leadership along the eastern Byzantine frontier, opening the path for the inroads of Turkish invaders.[19]

Beginning in the eleventh century, war between the Turks and Byzantines led to the deaths of many in Asia Minor, while others were enslaved and removed.[20] As areas became depopulated, Turkic nomads moved in with their herds.[21] However, despite the suffering of the local Christian populations at the hands of the Turks and in particular the [Turkoman](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym)) tribesmen, they were still an overwhelming majority of the population 50 years after the [Battle of Manzikert](/source/Battle_of_Manzikert).[22] The Turks seem to have been aware of their numerical inferiority during this time period as evidenced by the fact many Turkish rulers went to lengths to disarm their Christian subjects. There is also evidence that the Turks resorted to kidnapping Christian children and raising them as Turks, as attested by contemporary chronicler [Matthew of Edessa](/source/Matthew_of_Edessa).[23] Intermarriage between Turks and Greek, Armenian and Georgian natives of Anatolia was not unheard of, although the majority of these unions were between Turkish men and Christian women. The children of these unions, known as 'Mixovarvaroi', were raised as Turks and were of the Muslim faith (although there were some cases of Mixovarvaroi defecting to the Byzantines). It is likely that these unions played a role in the eventual diminishment of the Christian population in Anatolia and its transition from Greek/Christian to Turkish/Muslim.[24]

#### Number of pastoralists of Turkic origin in Anatolia

The number of nomads of Turkic origin that migrated to Anatolia is a matter of discussion. According to [Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi](/source/Ibn_Sa'id_al-Maghribi), there were 200,000 Turkmen tents in [Denizli](/source/Denizli) and its surrounding areas, 30,000 in [Bolu](/source/Bolu) and its surrounding areas, and 100,000 in [Kastamonu](/source/Kastamonu) and its surrounding areas.[25][26] According to a Latin source, at the end of the 12th century, there were 100,000 nomadic tents in the regions of [Denizli](/source/Denizli) and [Isparta](/source/Isparta).[27]

According to Ottoman tax archives, in modern-day Anatolia, in the provinces of [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia_Eyalet), [Karaman](/source/Karaman_Eyalet), [Dulkadir](/source/Dulkadir_Eyalet) and [Rûm](/source/R%C3%BBm_Eyalet), there were about 872,610 households in the 1520s and 1530s; 160,564 of those households were nomadic, and the remainder were sedentary. Of the four provinces, [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia_Eyalet) (which does not include the whole of geographic Anatolia but only its western and some of its northwestern parts) had the largest nomadic population with 77,268 households. Between 1570 and 1580, 220,217 households of the overall 1,360,474 households in the four provinces were nomadic, which means that at least 20% of Anatolia was still nomadic in the 16th century. The province of [Anatolia](/source/Anatolia_Eyalet), which had the largest nomadic population with 77,268 households, saw an increase of its nomadic population to 116,219 households in those years.[28]

#### Devshirme

Main article: [Devshirme](/source/Devshirme)

Devshirme (*devşirme*; literally "collecting" in [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language)), also known as the *blood tax*, was chiefly the annual practice by which the Ottoman Empire sent military to press second or third sons of their Christian subjects ([Rum millet](/source/Rum_millet)) in the villages of the Balkans into military training as [Janissaries](/source/Janissary).[29] They were then taught to speak [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language) and converted to [Islam](/source/Islam)[30] with the primary objective of selecting and training the ablest children of the Empire for military or civil service, mostly into the ranks of the Janissaries.[31] Started by [Murad I](/source/Murad_I) as a means to counteract the growing power of the Turkish nobility, the practice itself violated Islamic law.[32] By 1648, the practice drew to an end. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members who coveted its military and civilian posts, and in the early part of [Ahmet III](/source/Ahmet_III)'s reign, the practice was abolished.

### Late Ottoman era

The late Ottoman government sought to create "a core identity with a single Turkish religion, language, history, tradition, culture and set of customs", replacing earlier Ottoman traditions that had not sought to assimilate different religions or ethnic groups. The [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) had an ethnically diverse population that included Turks, Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Greeks, Persians, [Bulgarians](/source/Bulgarians), [Serbs](/source/Serbs), Armenians, Kurds, [Zazas](/source/Zazas), Circassians, Assyrians, Jews and Laz people. [Turkish nationalists](/source/Turkish_nationalist) claimed that only Turks were loyal to the state. Ideological support for Turkification was not widespread in the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire).[33]

One of its main supporters was sociologist and political activist [Ziya Gökalp](/source/Ziya_G%C3%B6kalp) who believed that a modern state must become homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, and national identity.[34] This conception of national identity was augmented by his belief in the primacy of Turkishness as a unifying virtue. As part of this belief, it was necessary to purge from the territories of the state those national groups who could threaten the integrity of a modern Turkish nation state.[35][36] The 18th article of the [Ottoman Constitution of 1876](/source/Ottoman_constitution_of_1876) declared Turkish the sole official language,[37] and that only Turkish speaking people could be employed in the government.[38]

After the [Young Turks](/source/Young_Turks) assumed power in 1909, the policy of Turkification received several new layers and it was sought to impose Turkish in the administration, the courts, and education in the areas where the Arabic-speaking population was the majority. Another aim was to loosen ties between the Empire's Turk and ethnically non-Turkish populations through efforts to purify the Turkish language of Arabic influences. In this nationalist vision of Turkish identity, language was supreme, and religion was relegated to a subordinate role. Arabs responded by asserting the superiority of [Arabic language](/source/Arabic_language), describing Turkish as a "mongrel" language that had borrowed heavily from the Persian and Arabic languages. Through the policy of Turkification, the Young Turk government suppressed the Arabic language. Turkish teachers were hired to replace Arabic teachers at schools. The Ottoman postal service was administrated in Turkish.[39]

Those who supported Turkification were accused of harming Islam. [Rashid Rida](/source/Rashid_Rida) was an advocate who supported Arabic against Turkish.[39] Even before the [Young Turk Revolution](/source/Young_Turk_Revolution) of 1908, the Syrian Reformer Tahrir al-Jazairi had convinced [Midhat Pasha](/source/Midhat_Pasha) to adopt Arabic as the official language of instruction at state schools. The language of instruction was only changed to Turkish in 1885 under Sultan [Abdul Hamid II](/source/Abdul_Hamid_II).[40] Though writers like [Ernest Dawn](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ernest_Dawn&action=edit&redlink=1) have noted that the foundations of [Second Constitutional Era](/source/Second_Constitutional_Era) "Arabism" predate 1908, the prevailing view still holds that Arab nationalism emerged as a response to the Ottoman Empire's Turkification policies.[41][42] One historian of [Arab nationalism](/source/Arab_nationalism) wrote that: "the Unionists introduced a grave provocation by opposing the Arab language and adopting a policy of Turkification", but not all scholars agree about the contribution of Turkification policies to Arab nationalism.[41]

European critics who accused the [CUP](/source/Committee_of_Union_and_Progress) of depriving non-Turks of their rights through Turkification saw Turk, Ottoman and Muslim as synonymous, and believed Young Turk "Ottomanism" posed a threat to [Ottoman Christians](/source/Christianity_in_the_Ottoman_Empire). The British ambassador [Gerard Lowther](/source/Sir_Gerard_Lowther%2C_1st_Baronet) said it was like "pounding non-Turkish elements in a Turkish mortar", while another contemporary European source complained that the CUP plan would reduce "the various races and regions of the empire to one dead level of Turkish uniformity." Rifa'at 'Ali Abou-El-Haj has written that "some Ottoman cultural elements and Islamic elements were abandoned in favor of Turkism, a more potent device based on ethnic identity and dependent on a language based nationalism".[41]

The [Young Turk](/source/Young_Turk) government launched a series of initiatives that included forced assimilation. [Uğur Üngör](/source/U%C4%9Fur_%C3%9Cng%C3%B6r) writes that "Muslim Kurds and Sephardi Jews were considered slightly more 'Turkifiable' than others", noting that many of these nationalist era "social engineering" policies perpetuated persecution "with little regard for proclaimed and real loyalties." These policies culminated in the [Armenian](/source/Armenian_genocide) and [Assyrian genocides](/source/Assyrian_genocide).[43]

During World War I, the Ottoman government established orphanages throughout the empire which included Armenian, Kurdish, and Turkish children. Armenian orphans were given Arabic and Turkish names.[44] In 1916 a Turkification campaign began in which whole [Kurdish tribes](/source/Kurdish_tribes) were to be resettled in areas where they were not to exceed more than 10% of the local population. [Talaat Pasha](/source/Talaat_Pasha) ordered that Kurds in the eastern areas be relocated in western areas. He also demanded information regarding if the Kurds Turkified in their new settlements and if they got along with their Turkish population.[45] Additionally, non-Kurdish immigrants from Greece, Albania, Bosnia and Bulgaria were to be settled in the Diyarbakır province, where the deported Kurds had lived before.[46] By October 1918, with the Ottoman army retreating from Lebanon, a Father Sarlout sent the Turkish and Kurdish orphans to Damascus, while keeping the Armenian orphans in Antoura. He began the process of reversing the Turkification process by having the Armenian orphans recall their original names.[47] It is believed by various scholars that at least two million Turks have at least one Armenian grandparent.[47]

Around 1.5 million Ottoman Greeks remained in the Ottoman Empire after losses of 550,000 during WWI. Almost all, 1,250,000, except for those in Constantinople, had fled before or were forced to go to Greece in 1923 in the population exchanges mandated by the League of Nations after the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).[48] The lingual Turkification of Greek-speakers in 19th-century Anatolia is well documented. According to [Speros Vryonis](/source/Speros_Vryonis) the [Karamanlides](/source/Karamanlides) are the result of partial Turkification that occurred earlier, during the Ottoman period.[24] Fewer than 300,000 Armenians remained of 1.2 million before the war; fewer than 100,000 of 400,000 Assyrians.

### Modern Turkey

This article is part of a series about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Personal Timeline Military career Death and state funeral Mausoleum 1st President of Turkey Reforms Abolition of the sultanate Abolition of the caliphate İzmir plot Secularism Educational reform Turkish language reform Westernization Industrialization Nation-building Turkification Citizen, speak Turkish! Sun Language Theory Turkish History Thesis Surname Law State Art and Sculpture Museum Kemalism "Peace at Home, Peace in the World" Republican People's Party La Turquie Kemaliste Historiography Nutuk Legacy Awards and honours Cult of personality Atatürk Centennial Atatürk International Peace Prize v t e

After the [Great Thessaloniki Fire of 1917](/source/Great_Thessaloniki_Fire_of_1917) displaced many of the [Salonikan Jews](/source/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Ottoman_Empire) and the [Burning of Smyrna](/source/Burning_of_Smyrna), the rebuilding of these places by the post-Ottoman Turkish and Greek nation-states devastated and erased the past of non-Turkish (and non-Hellenistic) habitation.[49] According to historian Talin Suciyan, for non-Muslims in the Republic of Turkey, Turkification resulted in "de-identification, in which a person loses all references to his or her own grandparents, socialisation, culture and history, but cannot fully become part of the society, culture, and politics of the imposed system". There continues to be state-organized discrimination, such as keeping files of citizens of non-Muslim descent.[50]

Ottoman Turkish classical music was banned from the school curriculum. Ottoman archival documents were sold to Bulgaria as recycled paper. Sunday was made the official rest day instead of Friday (the traditional rest day in the Muslim religion).[51]

Political elites in the early Republic were divided: the modernist agenda, which promoted radical transformation, erasing all vestiges of the Ottoman past, and moderate nationalists, who preferred a softer transition that retained some elements of Ottoman heritage.[52]

#### Ethnonational identity

When the modern [Republic of Turkey](/source/Turkey) was founded in 1923, nationalism and secularism were two of the founding principles.[53] [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/source/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk), the leader of the early years of the Republic, aimed to create a nation-state ([Turkish](/source/Turkish_language): *Ulus*) from the Turkish remnants of the Ottoman Empire. The [Turkish Ministry of National Education](/source/Turkish_Ministry_of_National_Education) in 2008 defines the "Turkish People" as "those who protect and promote the moral, spiritual, cultural and humanistic values of the Turkish Nation."[54] One of the goals of the establishment of the new Turkish state was to ensure "the domination of Turkish ethnic identity in every aspect of social life from the language that people speak in the streets to the language to be taught at schools, from the education to the industrial life, from the trade to the cadres of state officials, from the civil law to the settlement of citizens to particular regions."[55] In 2008, the then [Defense Minister of Turkey](/source/Defense_Minister_of_Turkey); [Vecdi Gönül](/source/Vecdi_G%C3%B6n%C3%BCl) remarked defending the actions of [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](/source/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk) regarding the Turkification of Anatolia: "Could Turkey be the same national country had the Greek community still lived in the Aegean or Armenians lived in many parts of Turkey?"[56]

The process of unification through Turkification continued within modern Turkey with such policies as:

- According to Art. 12 of the [Turkish Constitution of 1924](/source/Turkish_Constitution_of_1924), citizens who could not speak and read Turkish were not allowed to become members of parliament.[57]

- A law from December 1925 demanded that clothes worn by employees in all companies must be of Turkish production.[58]

- A [Report for Reform in the East](/source/1925_Report_for_Reform_in_the_East_(Turkey)) was released in September 1925 according to which non-Turkish languages shall be forbidden.[59][60]

- On 18 March 1926 a Civil Servants Law came into effect, which allowed only Turks to become civil servants and explicitly excluded Armenians and Greeks to become such.[61]

- On 28 May 1927 it was decided that business correspondence must be in Turkish language, and foreign assurance companies must employ Turks, except for the director and the deputy director.[58]

- The Law 1164 from September 1927 [62] enabled the creation of regional administrative areas called [Inspectorates-General](/source/Inspectorates-General_(Turkey)) ([Turkish](/source/Turkish_language): *Umumi Müfettişlikler**)*, where extensive policies of Turkification were applied.[63] The Inspectorates Generals existed until 1952.[64]

- [Citizen, speak Turkish!](/source/Citizen%2C_speak_Turkish!) (Turkish: *Vatandaş Türkçe konuş!*) – An initiative created by law students but sponsored by the Turkish government which aimed to put pressure on non-Turkish speakers to speak Turkish in public in the 1930s.[65][66][67] In some municipalities, fines were given to those speaking in any language other than Turkish.[68][69][70][71]

- The Law 2007 of 11 June 1932 reserved a wide number of professions like lawyer, construction worker, artisan, hairdresser, messenger, etc. to Turkish citizens and forbade foreigners also to open shops in rural areas. Most affected by the Law were the Greeks.[72][73]

- [1934 Resettlement Law](/source/1934_Turkish_Resettlement_Law) (also known as Law no. 2510) – A policy adopted by the Turkish government which set forth the basic principles of immigration.[74] The law was issued to impose a policy of forceful assimilation of non-Turkish minorities through a forced and collective resettlement.[75]

- [Surname Law](/source/Surname_Law_(Turkey)) – The surname law forbade certain surnames that contained connotations of foreign cultures, nations, tribes, and religions.[66][76][77][78] As a result, many ethnic Armenians, Greeks, and Kurds were forced to adopt last names of Turkish rendition.[77] Names ending with "yan, of, ef, viç, is, dis, poulos, aki, zade, shvili, madumu, veled, bin" (names that denote Armenian, Slavic, Greek, Albanian, Arabic, Georgian, Kurdish, and other origins) could not be registered, and they had to be replaced by "-oğlu."[79]

- From 1932 on, it was implemented by the [Diyanet](/source/Directorate_of_Religious_Affairs) that the [Adhan](/source/Adhan) and the [Salah](/source/Salah) shall be called in Turkish. Imams who delivered the Adhan in Arabic were prosecuted according to the article 526 of the Turkish Criminal Code for "being opposed to the command of officials maintaining public order and safety".[80] 1941 a new paragraph was added to Article 526 of the Turkish Criminal Code and from then on Imams who refused to deliver the Adhan in Turkish could be imprisoned for up to 3 months or be fined with between 10 and 300 Turkish Lira.[81] After the [Democrat Party](/source/Democrat_Party_(Turkey%2C_1946%E2%80%9361)) won the elections in 1950, on 17 June 1950 it was decided that the prayers could be given in Arabic again.[82]

- The conscription of the [20 Classes working battalions](/source/The_Twenty_Classes) in the years 1941–1942. Only non-Muslims, mainly Jews, Greeks and Armenians were conscripted to work under difficult conditions.[83][84]

- [Varlık Vergisi](/source/Varl%C4%B1k_Vergisi) ("Wealth tax" or "Capital tax") – A Turkish tax levied on the wealthy citizens of Turkey in 1942, with the stated aim of raising funds for the country's defense in case of an eventual entry into World War II. Those who suffered most severely were non-Muslims like the Jews, Greeks, Armenians, and Levantines, who controlled a large portion of the economy;[85] the Armenians were most heavily taxed.[86] According to Klaus Kreiser for President [Inönü](/source/%C4%B0smet_%C4%B0n%C3%B6n%C3%BC) the aim of the tax was to evict the foreigners who control the Turkish economy and move the economy to the Turks[87]

- Article 16 of the Population Law from 1972 prohibited to give newborns names that were contrary to the national culture.[88]

- [Animal name changes in Turkey](/source/Animal_name_changes_in_Turkey) – An initiative by the Turkish government to remove any reference to [Armenia](/source/Armenia) and [Kurdistan](/source/Kurdistan) in the [Latin](/source/Latin) names of animals.[89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96]

- [Confiscated Armenian properties in Turkey](/source/Confiscated_Armenian_properties_in_Turkey) – An initiative by the [Ottoman](/source/Ottoman_Empire) and [Turkish](/source/Turkey) governments which involved seizure of the assets, properties and land of the [Armenian community of Turkey](/source/Turkish_Armenians).[97] The policy is considered a nationalization and Turkification of the country's economy by eliminating ownership of non-Turkish minorities which in this case would be of the Armenian community.[98]

- [Geographical name changes in Turkey](/source/Geographical_name_changes_in_Turkey) – An initiative by the [Turkish government](/source/Turkish_government) to replace non-Turkish geographical and topographic names within the [Turkish Republic](/source/Turkey) or the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire), with [Turkish](/source/Turkish_language) names,[99][100][101] as part of a policy of Turkification.[102][103][104] The main proponent of the initiative has been a Turkish homogenization social-engineering campaign which aimed to assimilate or obliterate geographical or topographical names that were deemed foreign and divisive against Turkish unity. The names that were considered foreign were usually of Armenian, Greek, Laz, Slavic, Kurdish, Assyrian, or Arabic origin.[99][101][103][104][105] For example, words such as *Armenia* were banned in 1880 from use in the press, schoolbooks, and governmental establishments and was subsequently replaced with words like Anatolia or Kurdistan.[106][107][108][109][110] Assyrians have increased their protest regarding the forced Turkification of historically Aramaic-named cities and localities and they see this process as continuing the cultural genocide of their identity and history (as part of the wider erasure of Assyrian, Kurdish and Armenian cultures).[111][112][74]

- [Article 301 (Turkish Penal Code)](/source/Article_301_(Turkish_Penal_Code)) – An article of the [Turkish](/source/Turkey) [Penal Code](/source/Penal_Code) which makes it illegal to insult Turkey, the Turkish nation, or Turkish government institutions. It took effect on 1 June 2005, and was introduced as part of a package of penal-law reform in the process preceding the opening of negotiations for [Turkish membership](/source/Accession_of_Turkey_to_the_European_Union) of the [European Union](/source/European_Union) (EU), in order to bring Turkey up to the Union standards.[113][114]

- Turkification was also prevalent in the educational system of Turkey. Measures were adopted making Turkish classes mandatory in minority schools and making use of the Turkish language mandatory in economic institutions.[115]

## Imprecise meaning of *Türk*

The Ottoman elite identified themselves as [Ottomans](/source/Ottoman_Turks), not as Turks, because the term was associated mainly with [Turkmens](/source/Turkmens).[116][117][118] Ottomans, like [Central Asian](/source/Central_Asia) [Turkic peoples](/source/Turkic_peoples), firstly identified themselves via [tribal descent](/source/Tribe) and secondly viewed the various peoples under their [dynastic rule](/source/Dynastic_rule) ([devlet](/source/Dawla)) as part of a unique [civilization](/source/Civilization), while viewing other Turkic peoples as more alien; seeing as they claimed [Kayı](/source/Kay%C4%B1_(tribe)) ancestry through the [House of Osman](/source/House_of_osman), the modern notion of "Turk" as a uniquely inter-ethnic label would not be communicable.[119]

In the late 19th century, while "Turk" was still a pejorative for poor [Yörük](/source/Y%C3%B6r%C3%BCks)-[Turkoman](/source/Turkoman_(ethnonym)) farmers and pastoralists of ignoble origins, European ideas of nationalism were adopted by the Ottoman elite, and when it became clear that the local Turkish-speakers of Anatolia were the most loyal supporters of Ottoman rule, the term *Türk* took on a much more positive connotation.[120][121]

The imprecision of the appellation *Türk* can also be seen with other ethnic names, such as *Kürt* ("Kurd"), which is often applied by western Anatolians to anyone east of Adana, even those who speak only Turkish.[117]

Thus, the category *Türk*, like other ethnic categories popularly used in Turkey, does not have a uniform usage. In recent years, centrist Turkish politicians have attempted to redefine this category in a more multicultural way, emphasizing that a *Türk* is anyone who is a citizen of the Republic of Turkey.[122] After 1982, article 66 of the [Turkish Constitution](/source/Turkish_Constitution) defines a "*Turk*" as anyone who is "bound to the Turkish state through the bond of [citizenship](/source/Citizenship)".[123]

## Genetic testing

Main article: [Genetic studies on Turkish people](/source/Genetic_studies_on_Turkish_people)

The population of Asia Minor ([Anatolia](/source/Anatolia)) and [Balkans](/source/Balkans) including Greece was estimated at 10.7 million in 600 AD whereas Asia Minor was probably around 8 million during the High Middle Ages (950 to 1348 AD). The estimated population for Asia Minor around 1204 AD was 6 million, including 3 million in Seljuk territory.[124][*[better source needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Questionable_sources)*] Turkish genomic variation, along with several other [Western Asian](/source/Western_Asian) populations, looks most similar to genomic variation of [South European](/source/South_Europe) populations such as southern Italians.[125]

Data from ancient DNA – covering the [Paleolithic](/source/Paleolithic), the [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic), and the [Bronze Age](/source/Bronze_Age) periods – showed that Western Asian genomes, including Turkish ones, have been greatly influenced by early agricultural populations in the area; later population movements, such as those of Turkic speakers, also contributed.[125] The first and only (as of 2017) [whole genome sequencing](/source/Whole_genome_sequencing) study in Turkey was done in 2014.[125] Moreover, the genetic variation of various populations in Central Asia "has been poorly characterized"; Western Asian populations may also be "closely related to populations in the east".[125]

An earlier 2011 review had suggested that "small-scale, irregular punctuated migration events" caused changes in language and culture "among Anatolia's diverse autochthonous inhabitants," which explains Anatolian populations' profile today.[126]

## See also

- [1925 Report for Reform in the East](/source/1925_Report_for_Reform_in_the_East_(Turkey))

- [Arabization](/source/Arabization)

- [Cultural assimilation](/source/Cultural_assimilation)

- [Demographics of Turkey](/source/Demographics_of_Turkey)

- [Genetic history of Europe](/source/Genetic_history_of_Europe)

- [Genetic origins of the Turkish people](/source/Genetic_origins_of_the_Turkish_people)

- [Hellenisation](/source/Hellenisation)

- [History of Anatolia](/source/History_of_Anatolia)

- [Kurdification](/source/Kurdification)

- [Mongolization](/source/Mongolization)

- [Pan-Turkism](/source/Pan-Turkism)

- [Persianization](/source/Persianization)

- [Russification](/source/Russification)

- [Sun Language Theory](/source/Sun_Language_Theory)

- [Turkification and Islamification of Xinjiang](/source/Turkification_and_Islamification_of_Xinjiang)

- [Turkish History Thesis](/source/Turkish_History_Thesis)

- [Turkish settlers in Northern Cyprus](/source/Turkish_settlers_in_Northern_Cyprus)

- [Uzbekisation](/source/Uzbekisation)

- [Turco-Mongol tradition](/source/Turco-Mongol_tradition)

- [Turco-Persian tradition](/source/Turco-Persian_tradition)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Mainly the territories of the present-day [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan), [Turkmenistan](/source/Turkmenistan) and [Kyrgyzstan](/source/Kyrgyzstan)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Though Mongols were not Turks or Turkic-speaking people, their army consisted mostly of Turkic warriors by the end of the conquest of Central Asia

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-peimani_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-peimani_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-peimani_1-2) Peimani, Hooman (1998). *Regional Security and the Future of Central Asia*. Westport, CT: Praeger. p. 44. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-275-96021-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-96021-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-dickens_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-dickens_2-1) Dickens, Mark (2018-03-22). ["Kashgar"](http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2617). *The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-866277-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8). Retrieved 2018-07-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-The_Cambridge_history_of_Islam_3-0)** Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard, eds. (1977). "3". [*The Cambridge history of Islam*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C) (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. pp. 231–233. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0521291356](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521291356). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160901104613/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C) from the original on 2016-09-01. Retrieved 2016-09-22.:"Anatolia had been the homeland of many peoples, the scene of many civilizations, and had served them as a bridge between three continents" "After the battle of Manzikert, there were swift and sudden changes in the ethnic features of Anatolia. Because the great Turkish migration and colonization were neither studied nor understood, the process of Turkification in Anatolia remained an enigma, and some historians ascribed these changes to the annihilation or mass conversion to Islam of the local population. While there were indeed conversions and losses of population on both sides, the inaccuracy of such conjectures, which fail to take about of migration and ethnic changes, is shown even by a general picture of events as drawn above."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Davison, Roderic H. (2013). [*Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History, 1774-1923: The Impact of the West*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ). University of Texas Press. pp. 3–4. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0292758940](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0292758940). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180806173413/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQvUAAAAQBAJ) from the original on 2018-08-06. Retrieved 2016-09-22. So the Seljuk sultanate was a successor state ruling part of the medieval Greek empire, and within it the process of Turkification of a previously Hellenized Anatolian population continued. That population must already have been of very mixed ancestry, deriving from ancient Hittite, Phrygian, Cappadocian, and other civilizations as well as Roman and Greek.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Leonard, Thomas M. (2006). "Turkey". *Encyclopedia of the Developing World, Volume 3*. Routledge. p. 1576. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781579583880](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781579583880). Subsequently, hellenization of the elites transformed Anatolia into a largely Greek-speaking region

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Göl, Ayla (2015-11-01). [*Turkey facing east: Islam, modernity and foreign policy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pb0SDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT95). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-5261-0334-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5261-0334-5).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Vyzantios, Skarlatos D. (1856). [*Skarlatos D. Vyzantios,*Dictionnaire Grec-Français et Français-Grec*, Athens, 1856, p. 408 (French part), under term "TURBAN"*](https://books.google.com/books?id=00NDAAAAYAAJ&q=%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%89&pg=RA6-PA408). Retrieved 2014-05-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Thumb, Albert (1895). [*Thumb Albert, Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache, Trübner, 1895, p. 233*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0K5DAAAAIAAJ&q=%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%8D%CF%89). Trübner. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783112172148](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783112172148). Retrieved 2014-05-05. {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** [Emile Louis Jean Legrand, Chrestomathie grecque moderne, 1899, p. 479.](https://archive.org/details/chrestomathiegr00perngoog) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130718064512/http://archive.org/details/chrestomathiegr00perngoog) 2013-07-18 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) "τουρκεύω, rendre turc, se faire turc.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Dickens, Mark (2018-03-22). ["Khwarezmian (Chorasmian) language"](http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-5745). *The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity*. Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-866277-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8). Retrieved 2018-07-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Hooman Peimani, "Conflict and Security in Central Asia and the Caucasus", ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2009, p.144

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Mélikoff, Iréne (1996-09-01). ["From God of Heaven to king of men: Popular Islam among Turkic tribes from Central Asia to Anatolia"](https://doi.org/10.1080/09637499608431734). *Religion, State and Society*. **24** (2–3): 133–138. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/09637499608431734](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637499608431734). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0963-7494](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0963-7494).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-golden_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-golden_15-1) Golden, Peter B. (1992). [*An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples*](https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00gold). Otto Harrasowitz. pp. [385](https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi00gold/page/n395)–386. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-447-03274-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-03274-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Blow, David (2009). *Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend*. I.B. Taurus. p. 165. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-786-72953-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-786-72953-8). The primary court language remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istambul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the **Qizilbash Turkomans**

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Nasuh, Matrakçı (1588). ["Janissary Recruitment in the Balkans"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181203143244/http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm). *Süleymanname, Topkapı Sarayı Museum, Ms Hazine 1517*. Archived from [the original](http://warfare.netau.net/Ottoman/Suleymanname/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans.htm) on 2018-12-03. Retrieved 2019-08-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Raditsa, Leo (1983). "Iranians in Asia Minor". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). *The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 100–115. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1139054942](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139054942).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Swain, Simon; Adams, J. Maxwell; Janse, Mark (2002). *Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Word*. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–266. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-924506-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-924506-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Mitchell, Stephen. 1993. *Anatolia: land, men and gods in Asia Minor. Vol. 1, The Celts, and the impact of Roman rule.* Clarendon Press. pp.172–176.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Charanis, Peter (2009). "The Transfer of Population as a Policy in the Byzantine Empire". *Comparative Studies in Society and History*. **3** (2): 140–54. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0010417500012093](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0010417500012093). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [177624](https://www.jstor.org/stable/177624). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145091581](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145091581).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVryonis1971172_22-0)** [Vryonis 1971](#CITEREFVryonis1971), p. 172.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVryonis1971184–194_23-0)** [Vryonis 1971](#CITEREFVryonis1971), pp. 184–194.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Vryonis Jr, Speros (1971). *The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century*. California: Berkeley University Press. pp. 178–79.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Matthew of Edessa. *Chronicles*. pp. 199–209.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_26-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_26-1) Vryonis Jr, Speros (1971). *The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century*. California: Berkeley University Press. p. 176.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Thonemann, Peter (2011). [*Peter Thonemann, The Maeander Valley: A Historical Geography from Antiquity to Byzantium, p. 7*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NnGvHLvUYEoC&q=boli&pg=PA7). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781139499354](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139499354).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** Lindner, Rudi Paul (1983). [*Rudi Paul Lindner, Nomads and Ottomans in Medieval Anatolia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=6xsuDwAAQBAJ&q=30%2C000+turkmen+tents+in+bolu&pg=PT34). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781134897841](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134897841). Retrieved 2008-05-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** [*İlhan Şahin The Oghuz Turks of Anatolia, 2004 p. 5*](http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/29_1007-2465-1-PB.pdf) (PDF). 2004. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180729012956/http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/29_1007-2465-1-PB.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-07-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** [*İlhan Şahin The Oghuz Turks of Anatolia, 2004 p. 24*](http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/29_1007-2465-1-PB.pdf) (PDF). 2004. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180729012956/http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/29_1007-2465-1-PB.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-07-28.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Perry Anderson (1979). [*Lineages of the Absolutist State*](https://books.google.com/books?id=f7Wz4b4JTC8C&pg=PA366). Verso. pp. 366–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-86091-710-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86091-710-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150317093052/http://books.google.com/books?id=f7Wz4b4JTC8C&pg=PA366) from the original on 2015-03-17. Retrieved 2015-10-19.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Cyril Glassé, ed. (2008). *The New Encyclopedia of Islam*. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 129.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Başgöz, I.; Wilson, H. E. (1989). "The educational tradition of the Ottoman Empire and the development of the Turkish educational system of the republican era". *Turkish Review*. **3** (16): 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mikaberidze2011_34-0)** [Alexander Mikaberidze](/source/Alexander_Mikaberidze) (2011-07-22). [*Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia \[2 volumes\]: A Historical Encyclopedia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&pg=PA273). ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59884-337-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-337-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160617074501/https://books.google.com/books?id=jBBYD2J2oE4C&pg=PA273) from the original on 2016-06-17. Retrieved 2015-10-19. This effectively enslaved some of the sultan's own non-Islamic subjects and was therefore illegal under Islamic law, which stipulated that conquered non-Muslims should be demilitarized and protected

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Tas, Latif (2016-04-22). [*Legal Pluralism in Action: Dispute Resolution and the Kurdish Peace Committee*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YuIGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA43). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-10615-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-10615-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Akcam, Taner. *A Shameful Act*. 2006, page 88.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** Bloxham, Donals (2005). [*The great game of genocide*](https://archive.org/details/greatgameofgenoc00blox/page/150). Oxford University Press. p. 150. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-19-927356-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927356-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Levene, Mark (Winter 1998). ["Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923"](https://web.archive.org/web/20061003213503/http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/3/393). *Holocaust and Genocide Studies*. **12** (3): 393–433. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/hgs/12.3.393](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhgs%2F12.3.393). Archived from [the original](http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/3/393) on 2006-10-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Doganalp-Votzi, Heidemarie (2002). *Aspects of the political language in Turkey*. Istanbul: Isis Press. p. 64.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** ["Die Verfassung des Osmanischen Reichs (1876)"](http://www.verfassungen.eu/tr/verf76.htm). *www.verfassungen.eu*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20181106053310/http://www.verfassungen.eu/tr/verf76.htm) from the original on 2018-11-06. Retrieved 2019-01-19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-suleiman_41-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-suleiman_41-1) Suleiman, Yasir (2004-06-10). [*A War of Words: Language and Conflict in the Middle East*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Neu3q8Vt01sC&pg=PA18). Cambridge University Press. pp. 17–18. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-54656-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54656-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Çiçek, M. Talha (2015-12-14). *Syria in World War I: Politics, economy, and society*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-37126-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-37126-7).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-kayali_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-kayali_43-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-kayali_43-2) Kayali, Hasan (1997-09-03). [*Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NX2fICZGh80C). University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-91757-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-91757-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** Esposito, John L. (2003-01-01). ["Arab Nationalism"](http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-183). In John L. Esposito (ed.). [*The Oxford Dictionary of Islam*](https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-512558-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512558-0). Retrieved 2018-07-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-ungor_45-0)** [Üngör, Uğur Ümit](/source/U%C4%9Fur_%C3%9Cmit_%C3%9Cng%C3%B6r) (2008). ["Geographies of Nationalism and Violence: Rethinking Young Turk 'Social Engineering'"](http://ejts.revues.org/2583). *European Journal of Turkish Studies* (7). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4000/ejts.2583](https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fejts.2583). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130424051957/http://ejts.revues.org/2583) from the original on 2013-04-24. Retrieved 2013-03-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemirdjian201651_46-0)** [Demirdjian 2016](#CITEREFDemirdjian2016), p. 51.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Üngör, Umut. ["Young Turk social engineering: mass violence and the nation-state in eastern Turkey, 1913-1950"](https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf) (PDF). *University of Amsterdam*. pp. 217–220. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200411205919/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-11. Retrieved 2020-04-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Üngör, Umut. ["Young Turk social engineering: mass violence and the nation-state in eastern Turkey, 1913-1950"](https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf) (PDF). *University of Amsterdam*. pp. 226–227. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200411205919/https://pure.uva.nl/ws/files/867135/65687_13.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-11. Retrieved 2020-04-08.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemirdjian201653_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemirdjian201653_49-1) [Demirdjian 2016](#CITEREFDemirdjian2016), p. 53.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** Peoples on the Move, Pertti Ahonen, page 8, 2008

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Houston, Christopher (2020). [*Istanbul, City of the Fearless: Urban Activism. Coup D'etat, and Memory in Turkey*](https://books.google.com/books?id=-ynJDwAAQBAJ&dq=de+ottomanization&pg=PA57). Univ of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520343191](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520343191).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Suciyan, Talin (2015). *The Armenians in Modern Turkey: Post-Genocide Society, Politics and History*. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 88. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-85772-773-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-773-2).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Gul, Murat. *The Emergence of Modern Istanbul*. p. 76.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Gul, Murat. *The Emergence of Modern Istanbul*. p. 78.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Findley, Carter Vaughn (2010). *Turkey, Islam, nationalism, and modernity: a history, 1789–2007*. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-15260-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15260-9).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-TurkishNational_56-0)** Republic Of Turkey Ministry Of National Education. ["Turkish National Education System"](http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm). T.C. Government. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080207000723/http://www.meb.gov.tr/Stats/apk2001ing/Section_1/1Generalprincipals.htm) from the original on 2008-02-07. Retrieved 2008-02-20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Ayhan Aktar, "Cumhuriyet’in Đlk Yıllarında Uygulanan ‘Türklestirme’ Politikaları," in Varlık Vergisi ve 'Türklestirme' Politikaları,2nd ed. (Istanbul: Iletisim, 2000), 101.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Akyol, Mustafa (2008-11-20). ["The Turkification of Turkey"](https://www.hurriyet.com.tr/the-turkification-of-turkey-10397767). *www.hurriyet.com.tr* (in Turkish). Retrieved 2021-09-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** ["Verfassungsgesetz der Republik Türkei (1924)"](http://www.verfassungen.eu/tr/tuerkei24.htm). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180425130612/http://www.verfassungen.eu/tr/tuerkei24.htm) from the original on 2018-04-25. Retrieved 2018-12-23.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_60-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_60-1) Ağrı, Ülkü (2014). *Pogrom in Istanbul, 6./7. September 1955*. Berlin: Klaus Schwarz Verlag GmbH. p. 135. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783879974399](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783879974399).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** ["ÜMİT FIRAT yazdı: 27 Mayıs, Kürtler ve Şark Islahat Planı Kararnamesi"](https://www.bianet.org/bianet/siyaset/107183-27-mayis-kurtler-ve-sark-islahat-plani-kararnamesi). *Bianet - Bagimsiz Iletisim Agi*. Retrieved 2021-01-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Goner, Ozlem (2017-06-14). [*Turkish National Identity and Its Outsiders: Memories of State Violence in Dersim*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bv8nDwAAQBAJ&q=sark+islahat+raporu+and+the+kurds+s%C3%BCkr%C3%BC+kaya&pg=PA52). Taylor & Francis. p. 52. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-315-46296-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-46296-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayir2013122_63-0)** [Bayir 2013](#CITEREFBayir2013), p. 122.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** ["Üçüncü Umumi Müfettişliği'nin Kurulması ve III. Umumî Müfettiş Tahsin Uzer'in Bazı Önemli Faaliyetleri"](https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/20607). *Dergipark*. p. 2. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200411214425/https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/20607) from the original on 2020-04-11. Retrieved 2020-04-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayir2016139–141_65-0)** [Bayir 2016](#CITEREFBayir2016), pp. 139–141.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** Fleet, Kate; Kunt, I. Metin; Kasaba, Reşat; Faroqhi, Suraiya (2008-04-17). *The Cambridge History of Turkey*. Cambridge University Press. p. 343. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-62096-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62096-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKieser200645_67-0)** [Kieser 2006](#CITEREFKieser2006), p. 45.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Toktas2005p400_68-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Toktas2005p400_68-1) Toktas, Sule (2005). ["Citizenship and Minorities: A Historical Overview of Turkey's Jewish Minority"](https://www.academia.edu/761586). *Journal of Historical Sociology*. **18** (4): 394–429 [400]. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1467-6443.2005.00262.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-6443.2005.00262.x). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[11729/2016](https://hdl.handle.net/11729%2F2016). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [59138386](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59138386). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200503083439/https://www.academia.edu/761586/Citizenship_and_Minorities_A_Historical_Overview_of_Turkey_s_Jewish_Minority) from the original on 2020-05-03. Retrieved 2013-01-07.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Aslan, Senem (April 2007). ""Citizen, Speak Turkish!": A Nation in the Making". *Nationalism and Ethnic Politics*. **13** (2). Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group: 245–272. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/13537110701293500](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13537110701293500). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [144367148](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144367148).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Tormented_by_history:_nationalism_in_Greece_and_Turkey_70-0)** Sofos, Umut Özkırımlı & Spyros A. (2008). *Tormented by history: nationalism in Greece and Turkey*. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 167. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-70052-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-70052-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Otuzlarda_Türk_Milliyetçiliğinde_Irk,_Dil_ve_Etnisite_71-0)** Soner, Çağaptay (2006). *Otuzlarda Türk Milliyetçiliğinde Irk, Dil ve Etnisite* (in Turkish). Istanbul. pp. 25–26.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Cumhuriyet_yıllarında_Türkiye_Yahudleri_bir_türkleştirme_serüveni;_(1923–1945)_72-0)** Bali, Rifat N. (1999). *Cumhuriyet yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri bir türkleştirme serüveni; (1923–1945)* (in Turkish) (7. bs. ed.). İstanbul: İletişim. p. 604. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789754707632](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789754707632).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** İnce, Başak (2012-04-26). [*Citizenship and identity in Turkey: from Atatürk's republic to the present day*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Ydpiawe35DwC). London: I.B. Tauris. p. 61. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78076-026-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-026-1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131013031112/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ydpiawe35DwC&pg) from the original on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2013-01-08.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Bali, Rifat N. (2013). *Xenophobia and Protectionism - A Study of the 1932 Law Reserving Majority of Occupations in Turkey to Turkish Nationals*. Istanbul: Libra. pp. 31–33, 37. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9786054326723](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9786054326723).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Vryonis, Speros (2005). The Mechanism of Catastrophe: The Turkish Pogrom of September 6–7, 1955, and the Destruction of the Greek Community of Istanbul. New York: Greekworks.com, Inc. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-9747660-3-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9747660-3-8).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_76-1) Çağatay, Soner 2002 'Kemalist dönemde göç ve iskan politikaları: Türk kimliği üzerine bir çalışma' (Policies of migration and settlement in the Kemalist era: a study on Turkish identity), Toplum ve Bilim, no. 93, pp. 218-41.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJongerden2007[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2014]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(January_2014)">page&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_77-0)** [Jongerden 2007](#CITEREFJongerden2007), p. [*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*].

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Suny, Ronald Grigor; Goçek, Fatma Müge; Naimark, Norman M., eds. (2011-02-23). *A question of genocide: Armenians and Turks at the end of the Ottoman Empire*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-539374-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539374-3).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Basak_79-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Basak_79-1) İnce, Başak (2012-04-26). *Citizenship and identity in Turkey: from Atatürk's republic to the present day*. London: I.B. Tauris. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78076-026-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-026-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Aslan, Senem (2009-12-29). ["Incoherent State: The Controversy over Kurdish Naming in Turkey"](http://ejts.revues.org/index4142.html). *European Journal of Turkish Studies* (10). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4000/ejts.4142](https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fejts.4142). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20120726111611/http://ejts.revues.org/index4142.html) from the original on 2012-07-26. Retrieved 2013-01-16. the Surname Law was meant to foster a sense of Turkishness within society and prohibited surnames that were related to foreign ethnicities and nations

1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** Ekmekcioglu, Lerna (2010). *Improvising Turkishness: Being Armenian in post-Ottoman Istanbul (1918–1933)*. Ann Arbor. p. 169. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-124-04442-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-124-04442-2).{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAydar200659_82-0)** [Aydar 2006](#CITEREFAydar2006), p. 59.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAydar200660_83-0)** [Aydar 2006](#CITEREFAydar2006), p. 60.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAydar200661_84-0)** [Aydar 2006](#CITEREFAydar2006), p. 61.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Melkonyan, Ruben. ["On some problems of the Armenian national minority in Turkey"](http://www.noravank.am/upload/pdf/5.Ruben%20Melkonyan_02_2010.pdf) (PDF). *www.noravank.am*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20171112154659/http://noravank.am/upload/pdf/5.Ruben%20Melkonyan_02_2010.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2017-11-12. Retrieved 2018-12-30.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Rifat Bali, Model Citizens of the State: The Jews of Turkey during the Multi-Party Period, Lexington Books, 2012, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1611475376](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1611475376), p. 12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-dilek_87-0)** Güven, Dilek (2005-09-06). ["6-7 Eylül Olayları (1)"](http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=163380). *[Radikal](/source/Radikal)* (in Turkish). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150721205422/http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=163380) from the original on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2008-10-25. Nitekim 1942 yılında yürürlüğe giren Varlık Vergisi, Ermenilerin, Rumların ve Yahudilerin ekonomideki liderliğine son vermeyi hedeflemiştir...Seçim dönemleri CHP ve DP'nin Varlık Vergisi'nin geri ödeneceği yönündeki vaatleri ise seçim propagandasından ibarettir.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Smith, Thomas W. (August 29 – September 2, 2001). *Constructing A Human Rights Regime in Turkey: Dilemmas of Civic Nationalism and Civil Society*. p. 4. One of the darkest events in Turkish history was the Wealth Tax, levied discriminatory against non-Muslims in 1942, hobbling Armenians with the most punitive rates.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Kreiser, Klaus (2012), *Geschichte der Türkei, Von Atatürk bis zur Gegenwart* (in German), C.H. Beck, p. 73, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-406-64065-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-64065-0)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** Yeğen, Mesut (2011). Jongerden, Joost; Casier, Marlies (eds.). *Nationalisms and Politics in Turkey: Political Islam, Kemalism and the Kurdish Issue (Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern Politics)*. Routledge. p. 73. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415583459](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415583459).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-BBC_91-0)** ["Turkey renames 'divisive' animals"](http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4328285.stm). *BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation*. 2005-03-08. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130203014054/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4328285.stm) from the original on 2013-02-03. Retrieved 2013-01-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sari_Gelin_Case_92-0)** Gunaysu, Ayse (2009-03-04). ["Learnings from the Sari Gelin Case"](http://www.armenianweekly.com/2009/03/04/learnings-from-the-sari-gelin-case/). *Armenian Weekly*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131106234112/http://www.armenianweekly.com/2009/03/04/learnings-from-the-sari-gelin-case/) from the original on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-01-26.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Shahrzad_93-0)** Shahbazi, Shirana; Krebs, Manuel; Zolghadr, Tirdad (2005). [*Shahrzad: history*](https://books.google.com/books?id=8WBQAAAAMAAJ). JRP Ringier. p. 97. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9783905701500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783905701500). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160522105801/https://books.google.com/books?id=8WBQAAAAMAAJ&q) from the original on 2016-05-22. Retrieved 2013-01-26. Turkey Renames Armenian Animals

1. **[^](#cite_ref-94)** Grigoriadis, Ioannis N. (2009). *Trials of Europeanization : Turkish political culture and the European Union* (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-61215-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61215-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-95)** Morris, Chris (2006). [*The new Turkey : the quiet revolution on the edge of Europe*](https://archive.org/details/newturkeyquietre0000morr_l7s3) (Paperback ed.). London: Granta Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86207-865-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86207-865-9). "A species of red fox known as Vulpes Vulpes Kurdistanica will henceforth be plain Vulpes Vulpes, while a species of wild sheep called Ovis Armeniana has been renamed Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus. Foreign scientists, the Ministry noted."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** [Revue des deux mondes](/source/Revue_des_deux_mondes) 2006 "L'espèce de moutons appelée Ovis armeniana a été renommée Ovis orientalis anatolicus. De même, le chevreuil dit Capreolus caprelus armenius a été rebaptisé Capreolus caprelus capreolus. « Les noms de ces espèces animales auraient ..."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-97)** [La Recherche](/source/La_Recherche_(magazine)) Numéros 393 à 398 Société d'éditions scientifiques (Paris, France) – 2006 – Page 96 "Ovis Armeniana devient Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus, Capreolus Capreolus Armenius se transforme en Capreolus Caprelus Capreolus, et Vulpes Vulpes Kurdistanicum, le renard roux du Kurdistan, s'appelle désormais en Turquie Vulpes ..."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-98)** MacDonald, David B. (2008). [*Identity politics in the age of genocide: the Holocaust and historical representation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SBmGWaK-PfoC) (1. publ. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 261. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-43061-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-43061-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160603225127/https://books.google.com/books?id=SBmGWaK-PfoC) from the original on 2016-06-03. Retrieved 2013-01-26. "The Ovis Armeniana (wild sheep) is now the Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus, while the roe deer, formerly known as Capreolus Capreolus Armenus, has become Capreolus Cuprelus Capreolus. These previous names have disappeared thanks to ..."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Confiscation_and_Destruction:_The_Young_Turk_Seizure_of_Armenian_Property_99-0)** Ungor, Ugur; Polatel, Mehmet (2011). [*Confiscation and Destruction: The Young Turk Seizure of Armenian Property*](https://books.google.com/books?id=06K7KM4s-wgC). Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 224. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4411-3055-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-3055-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131009030447/http://books.google.com/books?id=06K7KM4s-wgC&dq) from the original on 2013-10-09. Retrieved 2012-12-22.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** ["Revisiting the Turkification of Confiscated Armenian Assets"](http://www.armenianweekly.com/2012/04/17/revisiting-the-turkification-of-confiscated-armenian-assets/). *Armenian Weekly*. 2012-04-17. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20121106025252/http://www.armenianweekly.com/2012/04/17/revisiting-the-turkification-of-confiscated-armenian-assets/) from the original on 2012-11-06. Retrieved 2013-03-24.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Nişanyan2010_101-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Nişanyan2010_101-1) Nişanyan, Sevan (2010). *Adını unutan ülke: Türkiye'de adı değiştirilen yerler sözlüğü* (in Turkish) (1. basım. ed.). İstanbul: Everest Yayınları. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-975-289-730-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-289-730-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** Halis, Mujgan (2011-07-30). ["Norşin'den Potamya'ya hayali coğrafyalarımız"](http://www.sabah.com.tr/Cumartesi/2011/07/30/norsinden-potamyaya-hayali-cografyalarimiz). *Sabah* (in Turkish). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140106040226/http://www.sabah.com.tr/Cumartesi/2011/07/30/norsinden-potamyaya-hayali-cografyalarimiz) from the original on 2014-01-06. Retrieved 2013-01-12.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Jongerden2012_103-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Jongerden2012_103-1) Jongerden, Joost; Verheij, Jelle, eds. (2012-08-03). *Social relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870–1915*. Leiden: Brill. p. 300. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-22518-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-22518-3).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** Sahakyan, Lusine (2010). [*Turkification of the Toponyms in the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey*](http://www.ararat-center.org/upload/files/Toponym_Lusine.pdf) (PDF). Montreal: Arod Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9699879-7-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9699879-7-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130526060554/http://www.ararat-center.org/upload/files/Toponym_Lusine.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2013-05-26. Retrieved 2013-03-24.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Simonian2007_105-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Simonian2007_105-1) Simonian, Hovann H., ed. (2007). [*The Hemshin: history, society and identity in the highlands of northeast Turkey*](https://web.archive.org/web/20130503043711/http://hemshin.org/books/TheHemshin-Full.pdf) (PDF) (Repr. ed.). London: Routledge. p. 161. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7007-0656-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0656-3). Archived from [the original](http://hemshin.org/books/TheHemshin-Full.pdf) (PDF) on 2013-05-03.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJongerden2007354_106-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJongerden2007354_106-1) [Jongerden 2007](#CITEREFJongerden2007), p. 354.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-107)** Korkut, Tolga (2009-05-14). ["Names of 12,211 Villages Were Changed in Turkey"](http://www.bianet.org/english/minorities/114491-names-of-12-211-villages-were-changed-in-turkey). *Bianet*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090720005719/http://bianet.org/english/minorities/114491-names-of-12-211-villages-were-changed-in-turkey) from the original on 2009-07-20. Retrieved 2013-01-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-108)** R. Sahakyan, ed. (1993). *Modern History of Armenia in the Works of Foreign Authors [Novaya istoriya Armenii v trudax sovremennix zarubezhnix avtorov* (in Russian). Yerevan. p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** Blundell, Nigel; Boar, Roger (1991). [*Crooks, crime and corruption*](https://archive.org/details/crookscrimecorru0000boar). New York: Dorset Press. p. [232](https://archive.org/details/crookscrimecorru0000boar/page/232). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-88029-615-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88029-615-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** Balakian, Peter (2009-10-13). [*The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response*](https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala_198). HarperCollins. p. [36](https://archive.org/details/burningtigrisarm00bala_198/page/n53). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-06-186017-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-186017-1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-111)** [*The World in arms : timeframe AD 1900–1925*](https://archive.org/details/worldinarmstimef00time) (U.S. ed.). Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books. 1989. p. [84](https://archive.org/details/worldinarmstimef00time/page/84). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8094-6470-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8094-6470-8).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-112)** K. Al-Rawi, Ahmed (2012). [*Media Practice in Iraq*](https://books.google.com/books?id=AhMoMFuO--gC&q=armenia+word+banned+abdul&pg=PA9). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-230-35452-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-35452-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220045/http://books.google.com/books?id=AhMoMFuO--gC&lpg=PA9&dq=armenia%20word%20banned%20abdul&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q=armenia%20word%20banned%20abdul&f=false) from the original on 2013-12-31. Retrieved 2013-01-16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-113)** ["Arameans call for reversal of place names"](https://web.archive.org/web/20150115080252/http://www.todayszaman.com/_arameans-call-for-reversal-of-place-names_175906.html). *TodaysZaman*. Archived from [the original](http://www.todayszaman.com/_arameans-call-for-reversal-of-place-names_175906.html) on 2015-01-15. Retrieved 2015-01-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-114)** Maria Kara. ["World Council of Arameans \[Syriacs\]"](http://www.wca-ngo.org/humanrightsfiles/the-tur-abdin-cases/373-request-to-reverse-turkification). *wca-ngo.org*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20150115085917/http://www.wca-ngo.org/humanrightsfiles/the-tur-abdin-cases/373-request-to-reverse-turkification) from the original on 2015-01-15. Retrieved 2015-01-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-115)** ["Turkey's new penal code touches raw nerves"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170625201939/http://www.euractiv.com/en/enlargement/turkey-new-penal-code-touches-raw-nerves/article-140266). *EurActiv*. 2005-06-02 [updated November 14, 2005]. Archived from [the original](http://www.euractiv.com/en/enlargement/turkey-new-penal-code-touches-raw-nerves/article-140266) on 2017-06-25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-116)** Leicht, Justus (2006-02-06). ["Turkey: Court drops prosecution of writer Orhan Pamuk"](http://www.wsws.org/articles/2006/feb2006/turk-f06.shtml). *World Socialist Web site*. [ICFI](/source/ICFI). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20080725062252/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2006/feb2006/turk-f06.shtml) from the original on 2008-07-25. Retrieved 2008-07-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** Kadioglu, Ayse Keyman (2011). *Utah Series in Turkish and Islamic Studies : Symbiotic Antagonisms : Competing Nationalisms in Turkey*. Salt Lake City, UT: University of Utah Press. p. 40. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-60781-979-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60781-979-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKushner1997219_118-0)** [Kushner 1997](#CITEREFKushner1997), p. 219.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeeker1971322_119-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMeeker1971322_119-1) [Meeker 1971](#CITEREFMeeker1971), p. 322.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-120)** Ch. 3 (Shifting Social Boundaries and Identities in the Modern Middle East); Beyond Islam by Sami Zubaida (2010)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-121)** Ch. 5 (Nationalism Confronts Islam); Islamic Identity and Development by Ozay Mehmet (1991)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKushner1997220–221_122-0)** [Kushner 1997](#CITEREFKushner1997), pp. 220–221.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Çetin, Berfin Emre Çetin (2015). *The Paramilitary Hero on Turkish Television: A Case Study on Valley of the Wolves*. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 31. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1443875233](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1443875233).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKushner1997230_124-0)** [Kushner 1997](#CITEREFKushner1997), p. 230.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBayir2016144_125-0)** [Bayir 2016](#CITEREFBayir2016), p. 144.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-126)** Russell, J. C. (1958). "Late Ancient and Medieval Population". *Transactions of the American Philosophical Society*. **48** (3): 93–99. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/1005708](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1005708). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [1005708](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1005708).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_127-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_127-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_127-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Taskent_et_al_2017_127-3) Taskent RO, Gokcumen O (2017). "The Multiple Histories of Western Asia: Perspectives from Ancient and Modern Genomes". *Hum Biol*. **89** (2): 107–117. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.13110/humanbiology.89.2.01](https://doi.org/10.13110%2Fhumanbiology.89.2.01). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [29299965](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29299965). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [6871226](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6871226).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Schurr, Theodore G.; Yardumian, Aram (2011). "Who Are the Anatolian Turks?". *Anthropology & Archeology of Eurasia*. **50** (1): 6–42. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2753/AAE1061-1959500101](https://doi.org/10.2753%2FAAE1061-1959500101). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [142580885](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:142580885).

## Sources

- Aydar, Hidayet (2006). ["The issue of chanting the Adhan in languages other than Arabic and related social reactions against it in Turkey"](http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/10182). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190112195037/http://dergipark.gov.tr/download/article-file/10182) from the original on 2019-01-12. Retrieved 2019-02-26.

- Bayir, Derya (2013). *Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law*. Surrey, England: Ashgate Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-409-42007-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-409-42007-1).

- Bayir, Derya (2016). *Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-317-09579-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-09579-8).

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- Meeker, Michael E. (1971). "The Black Sea Turks: Some Aspects of Their Ethnic and Cultural Background". *International Journal of Middle East Studies*. **2** (4): 318–45. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S002074380000129X](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS002074380000129X). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [162721](https://www.jstor.org/stable/162721). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [162611158](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162611158).

- Vryonis, Speros (1971). *The decline of medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the process of Islamization from the eleventh through the fifteenth century*. University of California Press.

v t e Turkish nationalism Ideology 16 Great Turkic Empires Atatürk personality cult Idealism (Turkey) Islamokemalism İttihadism Kemalism Misak-ı Millî Nine Lights Doctrine Pan-Turkism Racism in Turkey Sun Language Theory Taksim Turanism Turkish Cypriot nationalism Turkish-Islamic synthesis Turkification Ulusalcılık Organizations 9 September Front Association for Defence of National Rights Alperen Hearths Atsız Youth Black Gang Counter-Guerrilla Deep State Grey Wolves Kuva-yi Milliye Ottoman Hearths Turkish Revenge Brigade Turkish Hearths Turkish Resistance Organisation TurkHackTeam Sultan Murad Division Youth Union of Turkey Wind Unit Political parties Young Ottomans Young Turks Committee of Union and Progress Republican People's Party (1923–1944) Nation Party (1948) Republican Villagers Nation Party Nation Party (1962) Nationalist Movement Party Nation Party (1992) Great Unity Party Bright Turkey Party Independent Turkey Party Homeland Party People's Ascent Party Nationalist and Conservative Party Rights and Equality Party National Party Good Party People Ahmet Rıza Ziya Gökalp Kara Kemal Talaat Pasha Enver Pasha Kâzım Karabekir Ali Suavi Ömer Seyfettin Noman Chelebidjikhan Mehmet Emin Yurdakul Yusuf Akçura Ali bey Huseynzade Ahmet Ağaoğlu Zeki Velidi Togan Rıza Nur Papa Eftim I Nihal Atsız Nejdet Sançar Mustafa Kemal Atatürk Peyami Safa Mahmut Esat Bozkurt Alparslan Türkeş Abulfaz Elchibey Muhsin Yazıcıoğlu Namık Kemal Gün Sazak Attilâ İlhan Kemal Kerinçsiz Meral Akşener Yusuf Halaçoğlu Ümit Özdağ Sinan Oğan Historical events Tanzimat Macedonian Struggle Adana massacre Hamidian massacres 1913 Ottoman coup d'état Greek genocide Armenian genocide Assyrian genocide Deportations of Kurds Kurdish Turkization in Turkey Kurdish villages depopulated by Turkey Turkish War of Independence Elza Niego affair Zilan massacre 1934 Thrace pogroms Dersim massacre Racism-Turanism trials Istanbul pogrom Battle of Tillyria 1957 arson attack at Tahtakale Sivas massacre Expulsion of Greeks from Istanbul Turkish invasion of Cyprus Beyazıt massacre Political violence in Turkey Maraş massacre Assassination of Kemal Türkler 1995 Azerbaijani coup d'état attempt Zirve Publishing House murders Gezi Park protests Assassination of Hrant Dink Alfortville Armenian Genocide Memorial bombings 2005 Istanbul pogrom exhibition assault Murder of Deniz Poyraz Policies Atatürk's reforms Turkish History Thesis Place name changes Öztürkçe Language reform Animal name changes 1934 Resettlement Law Varlık Vergisi The Twenty Classes Citizen, speak Turkish! Confiscation of Armenian property Surname Law Denial of Kurds by Turkey Article 301 How happy is the one who says I am a Turk Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation Armenian genocide denial Şehitler ölmez vatan bölünmez! Related topics Demographics of Turkey Arabs in Turkey

v t e Turkic topics Languages Afshar Altai Northern Southern Äynu Azerbaijani Bashkir Bulgar Chagatai Chulym Chuvash Crimean Tatar Cuman Dolgan Fuyü Gïrgïs Gagauz Ili Turki Karachay-Balkar Karaim Karakalpak Karamanli Turkish Kazakh Khakas Khalaj Khazar Khorasani Turkic Kipchak Krymchak Kumyk Kipchak languages Kyrgyz Nogai Old Turkic Ottoman Turkish Pecheneg Qashqai Sakha/Yakut Salar Shor Siberian Tatar Tatar Telengit Tofa Turkish Turkmen Tuvan Urum Uyghur Uzbek Western Yugur Alphabets Old Turkic Common Turkic Cyrillic Old Uyghur Persian Peoples Afshars Altaians Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars Azerbaijanis in Iran, Armenia, Georgia1 Balkars Bashkirs Chulyms Chuvash Crimean Karaites Crimean Tatars Dolgans Gagauz Karachays Karakalpaks Kazakhs in China1 Khakas Khalaj Khorasani Turks Krymchaks Kyrgyz in China1 Kumyks Naimans Nogais Qarai Turks Qashqai Salar Shors Siberian Tatars Baraba Tatars Chat Tatars Kalmak Tatars Eushta Tatars Zabolotnie Tatars Tyumen-Tura Tatars Tobol Tatars Kurdak-Sargat Tatars Tara Tatars Tatars Astrakhan, Chinese, Finnish, Lipka, Kryashens, Mishar, Nağaybäk, Volga Tofalar Turkmens Afghan, Iranian1 Turkish in Abkhazia, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Crete, Cyprus, Dodecanese, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Kosovo, Lebanon, Libya, North Macedonia, Meskhetia (Ahiska), Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Syria, Tunisia, Western Thrace, Yemen1 Tuvans Uyghurs Uzbeks in Afghanistan1 Yakuts (Sakha) Yugurs Extinct Turkic groups Bulaqs Bulgars Cumans Dughlats Göktürks Karluks Khazars Kimek Kipchaks K'o-sa Oghuz Turks Shatuo Türgesh Uzes Politics Grey Wolves Kemalism Burkhanism Jadid Pan-Turkism Turkesism Turanism (Hungarian) Origins Turkestan Mongolia History Timeline of the Göktürks Timeline 500–1300 Migration Turkification Nomadic empire Turco-Mongol Tian Shan / Altai Mountains Otuken Oğuz Locations Sovereign states Azerbaijan Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Northern Cyprus2 Turkey Turkmenistan Uzbekistan Autonomous areas Altai Republic Bashkortostan Chuvashia Crimea Gagauzia Jagoldai Kabardino-Balkaria Karachay-Cherkessia Karakalpakstan Khakassia Nakhchivan Sakha Tatarstan Tuva Xinjiang Studies Old Turkic script Proto-Turkic language Turkology Religions Turkic mythology Tengrism Shamanism Aiyy Faith Tibetan Buddhism Islam Alevism Batiniyya Bayramiye Bektashi Order Burkhanism Christianity Hurufism Khalwati order Malamatiyya Qadiri Qalandariyya Rifaʽi* Safaviyya Zahediyeh Vattisen Yaly Traditional sports Kyz kuu Jereed Kokpar Jigit Chovgan Organizations Organization of Turkic States International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY) Parliamentary Assembly (TURKPA) Turkic Academy Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status (TAKM) World Turks Qurultai 1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas. 2State with limited international recognition.

v t e Turkey History Ancient and Middle Ages Prehistory of Anatolia Classical Anatolia Byzantine Anatolia Seljuks and Beyliks Seljuk Empire Battle of Manzikert Sultanate of Rum Anatolian beyliks Ottoman Empire Rise Interregnum Classical Age Conquest of Constantinople Qizilbash Transformation Sultanate of Women Köprülü era Ottoman Old Regime Tulip era Decline and modernization Nizam-i Cedid Tanzimat First Constitutional Era Dissolution Second Constitutional Era Raid on the Sublime Porte Entry into WW1 Partition Turkish Republic War of Independence Turkish National Movement Ankara Government Proclamation of the republic Abolition of the Sultanate Abolition of the Caliphate Anthem Emblems Flag Atatürk's reforms Language reform Secularism One-party period Multi-party period Overviews Constitutional Ottoman Economic Ottoman Military Ottoman Topics Turkic migration Oghuz Turks Turkification Ancient peoples of Anatolia History of Anatolia Thrace Geography Regions (west to east) Marmara region Aegean region Mediterranean region Black Sea region Central Anatolia region Eastern Anatolia region Southeastern Anatolia region Topics Climate Climate change Earthquakes East Anatolian Fault North Anatolian Fault Environmental issues Air pollution Waste management Fauna Flora Geology Lakes Mountains National parks Rivers Turkish Riviera Wildlife Government Branches Legislative Executive Cabinet Judicial Constitutional Court Court of Cassation Court of Jurisdictional Disputes Council of State Politics Censorship Elections Parliamentary elections Presidential elections Electoral system Political parties Referendums Topics Administrative divisions Foreign relations Intelligence Services Ministry of the Interior National Police Gendarmerie The constitutional system Turkish Armed Forces Air Force Land Navy Economy Automotive Banking and finance Construction Currency Defense Energy Coal Gas Oil Renewables Free trade agreements Science and technology Telecommunications Tourism World Heritage Sites Intangible Cultural Heritage Transportation Aviation Turkish Airlines Railways Demographics Turkish people Minorities Kurds Languages Turkish language Religion Islam in Turkey Cities and towns Istanbul Ankara İzmir Immigration Migrant crisis Life expectancy Society Education Universities Health care Human rights LGBTQ rights Internet regulation Individuals Law enforcement Crime Corruption Terrorism Marriage Poverty Women in Turkey Culture Architecture Seljuk Ottoman Art Illumination Literature Cinema Folk dance Music Miniature Opera and ballet Painting Theater Carpet Cuisine Ottoman Wine Festivals Folklore Media Newspapers Radio stations TV TV series Video games Names Postage stamps Pottery Public holidays Sports Football Oil wrestling Olympic appearances Portal Category Commons WikiProject Outline

v t e Cultural assimilation Creolisation Indigenisation Africa Africanisation Swahilisation Wolofisation Zairianisation Americas and Oceania Americanisation immigrants names Native Americans Araucanisation Canadianisation Chilenisation Colombianisation Hawaiianisation Mexicanisation Asia and Middle East Arabisation Berbers Blacks Azerbaijanisation surnames Talysh Indianisation placenames Indonesation Israelisation names Japanisation Japanification Javanisation Kazakhisation Koreanisation Kurdification Malayisation Mongolisation Pakistanisation Pashtunisation Northern Afghanistan Persianisation societies Rajputisation Saffronisation Sanskritisation Sinhalisation Sinicisation Manchus Tibet Vietnam Talibanisation Taiwanisation Tamilisation Thaification Turkification placenames surnames Turkmenisation Uzbekisation Vietnamisation Westernisation Europe Albanisation Anglicisation Belarusisation soft Bosniakisation Bulgarisation Celticisation Croatisation Czechisation Dutchification Estonianisation Europeanisation Westernisation Finnicisation Francisation Africa Brussels Gaelicisation Georgification Germanisation Hellenisation Hispanicisation or Castilianisation Italianisation Jewish assimilation Latvianisation Lithuanisation Lusitanisation Magyarisation or Hungarianisation Macedonianisation Montenegrinisation Norwegianisation Polonisation Romanianisation Romanisation or Latinisation names Russification Finland Serbianisation Slavicisation Slovakisation Sovietisation Swedification of Scania Ukrainisation Assimilation by religions Christianisation Hinduisation Islamisation Judaisation Assimilation by writings Cyrillisation Soviet Union Romanisation of the writings Soviet Union Opposite trends De-arabisation De-communisation De-stalinisation Dehellenization of Christianity De-nazification De-russification Korenizatsiia Latinisation Ukraine De-sinicisation Negation of the Diaspora Vergangenheitsbewältigung Related concepts Cultural genocide Cultural globalisation Cultural imperialism Dominant culture Forced assimilation Forced conversion Globalisation Identity politics Internal colonialism Jewish assimilation Language shift Melting pot Monoculturalism

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Turkification](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkification) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkification?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.