# Turbocharger

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Exhaust-powered forced-induction device for engines

"Turbo" redirects here. For other uses, see [Turbo (disambiguation)](/source/Turbo_(disambiguation)).

A turbocharger (item 10) on a piston engine

In an [internal combustion engine](/source/Internal_combustion_engine), a **turbocharger** (also known as a **turbo** or a **turbosupercharger**) is a [forced induction](/source/Forced_induction) device that compresses the intake air, forcing more air into the engine in order to produce more power for a given [displacement](/source/Engine_displacement).[1][2]

Turbochargers are distinguished from [superchargers](/source/Supercharger) in that a turbocharger is powered by the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases, whereas a supercharger is mechanically powered, usually by a belt from the engine's [crankshaft](/source/Crankshaft).[3] However, up until the mid-20th century, a turbocharger was called a "turbosupercharger" and was considered a type of supercharger.[4]

## History

Prior to the invention of the turbocharger, [forced induction](/source/Forced_induction) was only possible using mechanically-powered [superchargers](/source/Supercharger). Use of superchargers began in 1878, when several supercharged [two-stroke](/source/Two-stroke) gas engines were built using a design by Scottish engineer [Dugald Clerk](/source/Dugald_Clerk).[5] Then in 1885, [Gottlieb Daimler](/source/Gottlieb_Daimler) patented the technique of using a gear-driven pump to force air into an [internal combustion engine](/source/Internal_combustion_engine).[6]

The 1905 patent by [Alfred Büchi](/source/Alfred_B%C3%BCchi), a Swiss engineer working at [Sulzer](/source/Sulzer_(manufacturer)) is often considered the birth of the turbocharger.[7][8][9] This patent was for a compound [radial engine](/source/Radial_engine) with an exhaust-driven axial flow [turbine](/source/Turbine) and compressor mounted on a common shaft.[10][11] The first prototype was finished in 1915 with the aim of overcoming the power loss experienced by aircraft engines due to the decreased density of air at high altitudes.[12][13] However, the prototype was not reliable and did not reach production.[12] Another early patent for turbochargers was applied for in 1916 by French steam turbine inventor [Auguste Rateau](/source/Auguste_Rateau), for their intended use on the Renault engines used by French fighter planes.[10][14] Separately, testing in 1917 by the [National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics](/source/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics) (NACA) and [Sanford Alexander Moss](/source/Sanford_Alexander_Moss) showed that a turbocharger could enable an engine to avoid any power loss (compared with the power produced at sea level) at an altitude of up to 4,250 m (13,944 ft) above sea level.[10] The testing was conducted at [Pikes Peak](/source/Pikes_Peak) in the United States using the [Liberty L-12](/source/Liberty_L-12) aircraft engine.[14]

The first commercial application of a turbocharger was in June 1924 when the first heavy duty turbocharger, model VT402, was delivered from the Baden works of [Brown, Boveri & Cie](/source/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie), under the supervision of Alfred Büchi, to SLM, [Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works](/source/Swiss_Locomotive_and_Machine_Works) in Winterthur.[15] This was followed very closely in 1925, when Alfred Büchi successfully installed turbochargers on ten-cylinder diesel engines, increasing the power output from 1,300 to 1,860 kilowatts (1,750 to 2,500 hp).[16][17][18] This engine was used by the German Ministry of Transport for two large passenger ships called the *Preussen* and [*Hansestadt Danzig*](/source/German_minelayer_Hansestadt_Danzig). The design was licensed to several manufacturers and turbochargers began to be used in marine, railcar and large stationary applications.[13]

Turbochargers were used on several aircraft engines during World War II, beginning with the [Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress](/source/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress) in 1938, which used turbochargers produced by General Electric.[10][19] Other early turbocharged airplanes included the [Consolidated B-24 Liberator](/source/Consolidated_B-24_Liberator), [Lockheed P-38 Lightning](/source/Lockheed_P-38_Lightning), [Republic P-47 Thunderbolt](/source/Republic_P-47_Thunderbolt) and experimental variants of the [Focke-Wulf Fw 190](/source/Focke-Wulf_Fw_190).

The first practical application for trucks was realized by Swiss truck manufacturing company [Saurer](/source/Saurer) in the 1930s. BXD and BZD engines were manufactured with optional turbocharging from 1931 onwards.[20] The Swiss industry played a pioneering role with turbocharging engines as witnessed by Sulzer, Saurer and [Brown, Boveri & Cie](/source/Brown%2C_Boveri_%26_Cie).[21][22]

Automobile manufacturers began research into turbocharged engines during the 1950s; however, the problems of "turbo lag" and the bulky size of the turbocharger were not able to be solved at the time.[8][13] The first turbocharged cars were the short-lived [Chevrolet Corvair Monza](/source/Chevrolet_Corvair#First_generation_(1960–1964)) and the [Oldsmobile Jetfire](/source/Oldsmobile_Jetfire), both introduced in 1962.[23][24]

The turbo found early success in motorsports. The [1968 Indianapolis 500](/source/1968_Indianapolis_500) was the first recorded and large scale race to be won using a turbocharged engine, with turbos continuing to hold the title for the track in future years. [Porsche](/source/Porsche) had pioneered turbos in mass production engines, like the engines deriving from the 1963 [Porsche 911](/source/Porsche_911). The air-cooled flat six engine, similar to the earlier Chevrolet Corvair's engine, was later turbocharged in 1973. The [Porsche 935](/source/Porsche_935) and [Porsche 936](/source/Porsche_936) won both types of Sportcars World Championships in 1976, as well as winning the [24 Hours of Le Mans](/source/24_Hours_of_Le_Mans), proving their reliability. In [Formula One](/source/Formula_One), the first race victories happened using turbos in the late 1970s, due to turbos excelling at giving small displacement engines power. It had also won the first F1 World Championship in 1983, with a [BMW M10](/source/BMW_M10)-based 4-cylinder engine that dates back to 1961.

Turbodiesel passenger cars entered the global market in the 1970s, with the [Mercedes 300 D](/source/Mercedes-Benz_300). Greater adoption of turbocharging in passenger cars began in the 1980s, as a way to increase the performance of smaller [displacement](/source/Engine_displacement) engines.[10]

## Design

Turbocharger components

Like other forced induction devices, a [compressor](/source/Centrifugal_compressor) in the turbocharger pressurises the intake air before it enters the [inlet manifold](/source/Inlet_manifold).[25] In the case of a turbocharger, the compressor is powered by the kinetic energy of the engine's exhaust gases, which is extracted by the turbocharger's [turbine](/source/Turbine).[26][27]

The main components of the turbocharger are:

- Turbine – usually a [radial turbine](/source/Radial_turbine) design

- Compressor – usually a [centrifugal compressor](/source/Centrifugal_compressor)

- Center housing hub rotating assembly

### Turbine

Turbine section of a [Garrett](/source/Garrett_Motion) GT30 with the turbine housing removed

The [turbine](/source/Turbine) section (also called the "hot side" or "exhaust side" of the turbo) is where the rotational force is produced, in order to power the compressor (via a rotating [shaft](/source/Shaft_(mechanical_engineering)) through the center of a turbo). After the exhaust has spun the turbine, it continues into the exhaust piping and out of the vehicle.

The turbine uses a series of blades to convert kinetic energy from the flow of exhaust gases to mechanical energy of a rotating shaft (which is used to power the compressor section). The turbine housings direct the gas flow through the turbine section, and the turbine itself can spin at speeds of up to 250,000 rpm.[28][29] Some turbocharger designs are available with multiple turbine housing options, allowing a housing to be selected to best suit the engine's characteristics and the performance requirements.

A turbocharger's performance is closely tied to its size,[30] and the relative sizes of the turbine wheel and the compressor wheel. Large turbines typically require higher exhaust gas flow rates, therefore increasing turbo lag and increasing the boost threshold. Small turbines can produce boost quickly and at lower flow rates, since it has lower rotational inertia, but can be a limiting factor in the peak power produced by the engine.[31][32] Various technologies, as described in the following sections, are often aimed at combining the benefits of both small turbines and large turbines.

Large diesel engines often use a single-stage [axial inflow turbine](/source/Axial_turbine) instead of a radial turbine.[33]

#### Twin-scroll

A twin-scroll turbocharger uses two separate exhaust gas inlets, to make use of the pulses in the flow of the exhaust gasses from each cylinder.[34] In a standard (single-scroll) turbocharger, the exhaust gas from all cylinders is combined and enters the turbocharger via a single intake, which causes the gas pulses from each cylinder to interfere with each other. For a twin-scroll turbocharger, the cylinders are split into two groups in order to maximize the pulses. The exhaust manifold keeps the gases from these two groups of cylinders separated, then they travel through two separate spiral chambers ("scrolls") before entering the turbine housing via two separate nozzles. The [scavenging](/source/Scavenging_(engine)) effect of these gas pulses recovers more energy from the exhaust gases, minimizes parasitic back losses and improves responsiveness at low engine speeds.[35][36]

Another common feature of twin-scroll turbochargers is that the two nozzles are different sizes: the smaller nozzle is installed at a steeper angle and is used for low-rpm response, while the larger nozzle is less angled and optimised for times when high outputs are required.[37]

		- Cutaway view showing the two scrolls of a [Mitsubishi](/source/Mitsubishi_Motors) twin-scroll (the larger scroll is illuminated in red)

		- Transparent exhaust manifold and turbo scrolls on a [Hyundai Gamma engine](/source/Hyundai_Gamma_engine), showing the paired cylinders (1 & 4 and 2 & 3)

#### Variable-geometry

Cutaway view of a [Porsche](/source/Porsche) variable-geometry turbocharger

Main article: [Variable-geometry turbocharger](/source/Variable-geometry_turbocharger)

Variable-geometry turbochargers (also known as *variable-nozzle turbochargers*) are used to alter the effective [aspect ratio](/source/Aspect_ratio) of the turbocharger as operating conditions change. This is done with the use of adjustable vanes located inside the turbine housing between the inlet and turbine, which affect flow of gases towards the turbine. Some variable-geometry turbochargers use a rotary [electric actuator](/source/Actuator#Electric) to open and close the vanes,[38] while others use a [pneumatic actuator](/source/Pneumatic_actuator).

If the turbine's aspect ratio is too large, the turbo will fail to create boost at low speeds; if the aspect ratio is too small, the turbo will choke the engine at high speeds, leading to high exhaust manifold pressures, high pumping losses, and ultimately lower power output. By altering the geometry of the turbine housing as the engine accelerates, the turbo's aspect ratio can be maintained at its optimum. Because of this, variable-geometry turbochargers often have reduced lag, a lower boost threshold, and greater efficiency at higher engine speeds.[30][31] The benefit of variable-geometry turbochargers is that the optimum aspect ratio at low engine speeds is very different from that at high engine speeds.

#### Electrically-assisted turbochargers

An [electrically-assisted turbocharger](/source/Electrically-assisted_turbocharger) combines a traditional exhaust-powered turbine with an electric motor, in order to reduce turbo lag. Recent advancements in electric turbocharger technology,[*[when?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items)*] such as mild hybrid integration,[39] have enabled turbochargers to start spooling before exhaust gases provide adequate pressure. This can further reduce turbo lag[40] and improve engine efficiency, especially during low-speed driving and frequent stop-and-go conditions seen in urban areas. This differs from an [electric supercharger](/source/Electric_supercharger), which solely uses an electric motor to power the compressor.

### Compressor

Compressor section of a [Garrett](/source/Garrett_Motion) GT30 with the compressor housing removed

The [compressor](/source/Centrifugal_compressor) draws in outside air through the engine's intake system, pressurises it, then feeds it into the [combustion chambers](/source/Combustion_chamber) (via the [inlet manifold](/source/Inlet_manifold)). The compressor section of the turbocharger consists of an impeller, a diffuser, and a volute housing. The operating characteristics of a compressor are described by the [compressor map](/source/Compressor_map).

#### Ported shroud

Some turbochargers use a "ported shroud", whereby a ring of holes or circular grooves allows air to bleed around the compressor blades. Ported shroud designs can have greater resistance to compressor surge and can improve the efficiency of the compressor wheel.[41][42]

### Center hub rotating assembly

The center housing rotating assembly (CHRA) houses the shaft that connects the turbine to the compressor. A lighter shaft can help reduce turbo lag.[43] The CHRA also contains a bearing to allow this shaft to rotate at high speeds with minimal friction.

Some CHRAs are water-cooled and have pipes for the engine's coolant to flow through. One reason for water cooling is to protect the turbocharger's lubricating oil from overheating.

## Supporting components

Schematic of a typical turbo petrol engine

The simplest type of turbocharger is the *free floating* turbocharger.[44] This system would be able to achieve maximum boost at maximum engine revs and full throttle, however additional components are needed to produce an engine that is driveable in a range of load and rpm conditions.[44]

Additional components that are commonly used in conjunction with turbochargers are:

- [Intercooler](/source/Intercooler) - a radiator used to cool the intake air after it has been pressurised by the turbocharger[45]

- [Water injection](/source/Water_injection_(engine)) - spraying water into the combustion chamber, in order to cool the intake air[46]

- [Wastegate](/source/Wastegate) - many turbochargers are capable of producing boost pressures in some circumstances that are higher than the engine can safely withstand, therefore a wastegate is often used to limit the amount of exhaust gases that enter the turbine

- [Blowoff valve](/source/Blowoff_valve) - to prevent compressor stall when the throttle is closed

## Turbo lag and boost threshold

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**Turbo lag** refers to the delay that occurs between pressing the throttle and the turbocharger spooling up to provide boost pressure, assuming the engine rpm is within the turbocharger's operating range.[47][48][49] This delay is due to the increasing exhaust gas flow (after the throttle is suddenly opened) taking time to spin up the turbine to speeds where boost is produced.[50] The effect of turbo lag is reduced [throttle response](/source/Throttle_response), in the form of a delay in the power delivery.[51] Superchargers do not suffer from turbo lag because the compressor mechanism is driven directly by the engine.[49]

Methods to reduce turbo lag include:[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- Lowering the rotational inertia of the turbocharger by using lower radius parts and ceramic and other lighter materials[52][53]

- Changing the turbine's *[aspect ratio](/source/Aspect_ratio) (A/R ratio)*

- Increasing upper-deck air pressure (compressor discharge) and improving wastegate response

- Reducing bearing frictional losses, e.g., using a [foil bearing](/source/Foil_bearing) rather than a conventional oil bearing

- Using [variable-nozzle](/source/Variable-geometry_turbocharger) or [twin-scroll](#Twin-scroll) turbochargers

- Decreasing the volume of the upper-deck piping[53]

- Using multiple turbochargers sequentially or in parallel

- Using an [antilag system](/source/Antilag_system)

- Using a turbocharger spool valve to increase exhaust gas flow speed to the (twin-scroll) turbine

- Using a [butterfly valve](/source/Butterfly_valve) to force exhaust gas through a smaller passage in the turbo inlet

- Electric turbochargers[54] and [hybrid turbochargers](/source/Hybrid_turbocharger).

A similar phenomenon that is often mistaken for turbo lag is the **boost threshold**. This is where the engine speed (rpm) is below the operating range of the turbocharger system, therefore the engine is unable to produce significant boost. At low rpms, the exhaust gas flow rate is unable to spin the turbine sufficiently.

The boost threshold causes delays in the power delivery at low rpm (since the unboosted engine must accelerate the vehicle to increase the rpm above the boost threshold), while turbo lag causes delay in the power delivery at higher rpm.

## Use of several turbochargers

Main article: [Twin-turbo](/source/Twin-turbo)

Some engines use several turbochargers, usually to reduce turbo lag, increase the range of rpm where boost is produced, or simplify the layout of the intake/exhaust system. The most common arrangement is twin turbochargers, however triple-turbo or quad-turbo arrangements have been occasionally used in production cars.

## Comparison with supercharging

Main article: [Supercharger § Comparison with turbocharging](/source/Supercharger#Comparison_with_turbocharging)

The key difference between a turbocharger and a supercharger is that a supercharger is mechanically driven by the engine (often through a belt connected to the [crankshaft](/source/Crankshaft)) whereas a turbocharger is powered by the kinetic energy of the engine's [exhaust gas](/source/Exhaust_gas).[55] A turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, increasing pumping losses.[55]

Supercharged engines are common in applications where throttle response is a key concern, and supercharged engines are less likely to [heat soak](/source/Exhaust_heat_management) the intake air.

### Twincharging

Main article: [Twincharger](/source/Twincharger)

A combination of an exhaust-driven turbocharger and an engine-driven supercharger can mitigate the weaknesses of both.[56] This technique is called *twincharging*.

## Applications

A medium-sized six-cylinder marine diesel-engine, with turbocharger and exhaust in the foreground

Turbochargers have been used in the following applications:

- [Petrol-powered car engines](/source/Turbocharged_petrol_engine)

- [Diesel-powered car and van engines](/source/Turbo-diesel)

- [Motorcycle engines](/source/Forced_induction_in_motorcycles) (quite rarely)

- Diesel-powered [truck engines](/source/Truck#Engines_and_motors), beginning with a [Saurer](/source/Saurer) truck in 1938[57]

- [Bus](/source/Bus) and [coach](/source/Coach_(bus)) diesel engines

- [Aircraft piston engines](/source/Aircraft_engine#Reciprocating_(piston)_engines)

- [Marine engines](/source/Marine_engine)

- [Locomotive](/source/Prime_mover_(locomotive)) and [diesel multiple unit](/source/Diesel_multiple_unit) engines for trains

- [Stationary/industrial engines](/source/Stationary_engine)

In 2017, 27% of vehicles sold in the US were turbocharged.[58] In Europe 67% of all vehicles were turbocharged in 2014.[59] Historically, more than 90% of turbochargers were diesel, however, adoption in petrol engines is increasing.[60] The companies which manufacture the most turbochargers in Europe and the U.S. are [Garrett Motion](/source/Garrett_Motion) (formerly Honeywell), [BorgWarner](/source/BorgWarner) and [Mitsubishi Turbocharger](/source/Mitsubishi_Heavy_Industries).[2][61][62]

## Safety

Turbocharger failures and resultant high exhaust temperatures are among the causes of car fires.[63]

Failure of the seals will cause oil to leak into the exhaust system causing blue-gray smoke or a [runaway diesel](/source/Runaway_diesel).

## See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Turbochargers](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Turbochargers).

- [Boost gauge](/source/Boost_gauge)

- [Engine downsizing](/source/Engine_downsizing)

- [Exhaust pulse pressure charging](/source/Exhaust_pulse_pressure_charging)

- [Hot vee turbocharged engine](/source/Hot_vee_turbocharged_engine)

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-eight_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-eight_30-1) Veltman, Thomas (24 October 2010). ["Variable-Geometry Turbochargers"](http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2010/ph240/veltman1/). Coursework for Physics 240. Retrieved 17 April 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-one_31-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-one_31-1) Tan, Paul (16 August 2006). ["How does Variable Turbine Geometry work?"](http://paultan.org/2006/08/16/how-does-variable-turbine-geometry-work/). PaulTan.com. Retrieved 17 April 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-two_32-0)** A National Maritime Academy Presentation. [Variable Turbine Geometry](https://www.scribd.com/doc/17453088/How-Does-Variable-Turbine-Geometry-Work).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Schobeiri, Meinhard T. (2012), Schobeiri, Meinhard T. (ed.), ["Introduction, Turbomachinery, Applications, Types"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-24675-3_1), *Turbomachinery Flow Physics and Dynamic Performance*, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 3–14, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-642-24675-3_1](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-24675-3_1), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-642-24675-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-24675-3), retrieved 13 December 2024{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** ["A Look At Twin Scroll Turbo System Design - Divide And Conquer?"](https://www.motortrend.com/how-to/modp-0906-twin-scroll-turbo-system-design/). *www.MotorTrend.com*. 20 May 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Pratte, David. ["Twin Scroll Turbo System Design"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120814060206/http://www.modified.com/tech/modp-0906-twin-scroll-turbo-system-design/). Modified Magazine. Archived from [the original](http://www.modified.com/tech/modp-0906-twin-scroll-turbo-system-design/) on 14 August 2012. Retrieved 28 September 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-37)** ["BorgWarner's Twin Scroll Turbocharger Delivers Power and Response for Premium Manufacturers - BorgWarner"](https://www.borgwarner.com/newsroom/press-releases/2020/02/18/borgwarner-s-twin-scroll-turbocharger-delivers-power-and-response-for-premium-manufacturers). *www.borgwarner.com*. Retrieved 16 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** Hartman, Jeff (2007). [*Turbocharging Performance Handbook*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SvG0gq4DxecC&pg=PA95). MotorBooks International. p. 95. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-61059-231-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61059-231-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** ["What is an electric turbocharger?"](https://www.turbocharger.mtee.eu/what-is-an-electric-turbocharger/). *Mitsubishi Turbocharger*. 4 July 2018. Retrieved 10 December 2024.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Truett, Richard, and Jens Meiners. “Electric Turbocharger Eliminates Lag, Valeo Says.” Automotive News, vol. 88, no. 6632, p. 34.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** ["Ported Shroud Conversions"](https://www.turbodynamics.co.uk/services/turbo-upgrades/ported-shroud-conversion/). *www.turbodynamics.co.uk*. Retrieved 18 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** ["GTW3684R"](https://www.garrettmotion.com/racing-and-performance/performance-catalog/turbo/gtw3684r/). *www.GarrettMotion.com*. Retrieved 18 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** Nice, Karim. ["How Turbochargers Work"](http://auto.howstuffworks.com/turbo3.htm). Auto.howstuffworks.com. Retrieved 2 August 2010.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-thirteen_44-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-thirteen_44-1) ["How Turbocharged Piston Engines Work"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160628205047/http://www.turbokart.com/turbochargedengines.htm). TurboKart.com. Archived from [the original](http://www.turbokart.com/turbochargedengines.htm) on 28 June 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2012.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** Gearhart, Mark (22 July 2011). ["Get Schooled: Water Methanol Injection 101"](https://www.dragzine.com/tech-stories/engine/get-schooled-water-methanol-injection-101/). *Dragzine*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** ["What Is Turbo Lag? And How Do You Get Rid Of It?"](https://www.motortrend.com/how-to/what-is-turbo-lag-how-do-you-get-rid-of-it/). *www.MotorTrend.com*. 7 March 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** ["Turbo Lag. Reasons For Turbocharger Lag. How To Fix Turbo Lag"](https://carbuzz.com/car-advice/what-is-turbo-lag). *www.CarBuzz.com*. 25 September 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Uthoff_Yakimow_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Uthoff_Yakimow_49-1) Uthoff, Loren H.; Yakimow, John W. (20 January 1987). ["Supercharger versus Turbocharger in Vehicle Applications"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44470753). *[SAE Technical Paper](/source/SAE_International)*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4271/870704](https://doi.org/10.4271%2F870704) – via JSTOR. The supercharger is preferred due to its superior low speed boost response which results in duplication of the power characteristics of a large naturally aspirated engine. Turbocharger lag continues to be a major driveability problem inherent with a turbine system that must be accelerated to high speed before boost can be produced.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-50)** ["What is turbo lag?"](http://www.enginebasics.com/Advanced%20Engine%20Tuning/Turbo%20Lag.html). *www.enginebasics.com*. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** ["5 Ways To Reduce Turbo Lag"](https://www.carthrottle.com/post/how-can-you-reduce-turbo-lag/). *www.CarThrottle.com*. 19 July 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** Bhinder, F. S. (1 February 1984). ["Some Unresolved Problems in the Design of Turbochargers"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44468004). *[SAE Technical Paper](/source/SAE_International)*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4271/840018](https://doi.org/10.4271%2F840018) – via JSTOR. In order to reduce lag, which depends largely on the moment of inertia of the rotating assembly, the diameters of the rotating components have been steadily reduced.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Watson_53-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Watson_53-1) Watson, N. (1 February 1979). ["Turbochargers for the 1980s-Current Trends and Future Prospects"](https://www.jstor.org/stable/44633864). *[SAE Technical Paper](/source/SAE_International)*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.4271/790063](https://doi.org/10.4271%2F790063) – via JSTOR. Certainly small inlet and exhaust manifold volume is required, together with low turbocharger inertia, high turbomachine efficiency at very low pressure ratios, little valve overlap and well designed boost control and fuel systems. The low rotating inertia of a Ceramic turbine may be the answer.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-parkhurst_54-0)** Parkhurst, Terry (10 November 2006). ["Turbochargers: an interview with Garrett's Martin Verschoor"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171121110212/http://www.acarplace.com/cars/turbochargers.html). Allpar. Archived from [the original](http://www.acarplace.com/cars/turbochargers.html) on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2006.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-auto.howstuffworks.com_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-auto.howstuffworks.com_55-1) ["What is the difference between a turbocharger and a supercharger on a car's engine?"](http://auto.howstuffworks.com/question122.htm). *HowStuffWorks*. 1 April 2000. Retrieved 1 June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** ["How to twincharge an engine"](http://www.torquecars.com/tuning/twincharging.php). Torquecars.com. 29 March 2012. Retrieved 1 June 2012.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-bloomberg.com_61-0)** Kitamura, Makiko (24 July 2008). ["IHI Aims to Double Turbocharger Sales by 2013 on Europe Demand"](https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aYKNPOS_J37k). Bloomberg. Retrieved 1 June 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-just-auto.com_62-0)** CLEPA CEO Lars Holmqvist is retiring (18 November 2002). ["Turbochargers - European growth driven by spread to small cars"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120428193025/http://www.just-auto.com/analysis/turbochargers-european-growth-driven-by-spread-to-small-cars_id86995.aspx). Just-auto.com. Archived from [the original](https://www.just-auto.com/analysis/turbochargers-european-growth-driven-by-spread-to-small-cars_id86995.aspx) on 28 April 2012. Retrieved 1 June 2012.

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Turbocharger](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbocharger?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.