# Tseax Cone

> Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Tseax_Cone
> Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Tseax_Cone.md
> Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseax_Cone
> Source revision: 1355614209
> License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)

Cinder cone in British Columbia, Canada

"Tseax" redirects here. For the river, see [Ksi Sii Aks](/source/Ksi_Sii_Aks).

Tseax Cone Tseax Cone with Melita Lake in the background Highest point Elevation 609 m (1,998 ft)[1] Coordinates 55°06′38″N 128°53′56″W / 55.11056°N 128.89889°W / 55.11056; -128.89889[2] Naming Etymology Tseax River (Ksi Sii Aks)[3] Native name Wil Ksi Bax̱hl Mihl (Nisga'a)[4] English translation Where the Fire Ran Out[5] Geography Tseax Cone Location in British Columbia Location in Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Park Country Canada[6] Province British Columbia[6] District Cassiar Land District[2] Protected area Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Provincial Park[7] Parent range Nass Ranges[8] Topo map NTS 103P2 Lava Lake[2] Geology Rock age Less than 800 years old[9] Mountain type Cinder cone[7] Rock type(s) Basanite and trachybasalt[6] Volcanic zone Northern Cordilleran Province[10] Last eruption 1690 ± 150 years[11]

**Tseax Cone** ([/ˈsiːæks/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English) [*SEE-aks*](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key)) is a small [volcano](/source/Volcano) in the [Nass Ranges](/source/Nass_Ranges) of the [Hazelton Mountains](/source/Hazelton_Mountains) in northwestern [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia), Canada. It has an [elevation](/source/Elevation) of 609 metres (1,998 feet) and lies within an east–west valley through which a [tributary](/source/Tributary) of the [Tseax River](/source/Tseax_River) flows. The volcano consists of two nested structures and was the source of four [lava](/source/Lava) flows that descended into neighbouring valleys. A [secondary eruptive centre](/source/Parasitic_cone) lies just north of Tseax Cone on the opposite side of [Melita Lake](/source/Melita_Lake). It probably formed simultaneously with Tseax Cone, but the timing of [volcanism](/source/Volcanism) at the two eruptive centres is not precisely known; both were formed by volcanic activity sometime in the last 800 years.

The exact timing of volcanism at Tseax Cone has been a subject of controversy because there are no direct written accounts; [radiocarbon dating](/source/Radiocarbon_dating) of plants killed by lava or [ejecta](/source/Ejecta) from the volcano has yielded ages as old as 625 ± 70 years to as young as 190 ± 15 years. There is also controversy over whether the volcano was formed during one or more distinct episodes of eruptive activity. The single eruptive episode hypothesis has been proposed by researchers as early as 1923 whereas a multi-eruption hypothesis was proposed in 1978. Most research suggests that Tseax Cone was formed during one episode of eruptive activity; new data supporting this hypothesis was reported in 2020.

Tseax Cone is the subject of legends told by the local [indigenous people](/source/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada). They describe the destruction of villages along the [Nass River](/source/Nass_River) by the volcano and the death of several people from inhaling [volcanic fumes](/source/Volcanic_gas), although other causes of death may have been involved. As many as 2,000 people are claimed to have been killed by an eruption from Tseax Cone; this would make it the deadliest geological disaster in Canada and the second-worst [natural disaster](/source/Natural_disaster) in Canadian history by death toll. Tseax Cone has therefore been described as the deadliest volcano in Canada. Renewed eruptions from the volcano could start [wildfires](/source/Wildfire) and block local streams with lava flows.

Tseax Cone lies within an [ecoregion](/source/Ecoregion) characterized by mountainous [terrain](/source/Terrain) and several streams. [Rainforests](/source/Rainforest) occur at the volcano, as well as numerous species of mammals. [Lichens](/source/Lichen) and [mosses](/source/Moss) cover most of the lava flows that have issued from Tseax Cone, although rainforests and waterbodies also obscure them. After at least 20 years of pleas for [protection](/source/Environmental_protection), the volcano and lava flows were established as [Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Provincial Park](/source/Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Provincial_Park) in 1992. Tseax Cone and its lava flows can be accessed via [provincial highways](/source/Provincial_highway) and backcountry roads.

## Names and etymology

Tseax Cone has been variously called *Aiyansh Volcano*, *Aiyansh River Volcano*, *Tseax River Cone* and *Tseax Volcano*.[12] *Aiyansh* comes from a [Nisga'a word](/source/Nisga'a_language) meaning 'leafing early' or 'early leaves', whereas *Tseax* comes from a Nisga'a word meaning 'new water'.[13] *Tseax* is possibly a reference to the disturbed drainage patterns of the [Tseax River](/source/Tseax_River) caused by a volcanic eruption from the cone.[14] The well-established [local name](/source/Local_name) for the volcano, *Tseax Cone*, became official on December 13, 1991, and was adopted on the [National Topographic System](/source/National_Topographic_System) map 103P/2.[2][8] To the local [Nisga'a people](/source/Nisga'a_people), Tseax Cone is known as *Wil Ksi Bax̱hl Mihl*; in their language, it means 'Where the Fire Ran Out', which is a reference to the volcanic eruption that sent lava spewing out of the volcano.[4][5]

## Geography

### Location and climate

Tseax Cone is about 60 kilometres (37 miles) north of [Terrace](/source/Terrace%2C_British_Columbia) near the Nisga'a villages of [Gitwinksihlkw](/source/Gitwinksihlkw) and [Gitlaxt'aamiks](/source/Gitlaxt'aamiks) in [Cassiar Land District](/source/Cassiar_Land_District) of northwestern [British Columbia](/source/British_Columbia), Canada.[4][15][16][17] It lies within a steep-sided, 5 km (3.1 mi) long, east–west valley penetrating the [Nass Ranges](/source/Nass_Ranges) of the [Hazelton Mountains](/source/Hazelton_Mountains).[8][18][19] Tseax Cone is situated at the outlet of [Melita Lake](/source/Melita_Lake), an expansion of [Crater Creek](/source/Crater_Creek) which flows west into the Tseax River.[2][20][21] Crater Creek gets its name from being in association with Tseax Cone which is located on the eastern side of the creek.[2][21] The Nass Mountains Ecosection is the main [ecosection](/source/Ecosection) at the cone.[22]

The area has a [climate](/source/Geography_of_British_Columbia#Climate) that is somewhat transitional between those of coastal and [continental](/source/Continental_climate) regimes. It is wetter than other areas in the Nass Ranges Ecoregion due to air entering from the [Pacific Coast](/source/British_Columbia_Coast). Much of this Pacific air enters via the [Skeena River](/source/Skeena_River) valley or flows over the [Kitimat Ranges](/source/Kitimat_Ranges), resulting in cloud cover and heavy rain.[22] Short periods of extreme cold temperatures and deep snow occasionally occur as a result of cold [Arctic](/source/Arctic) air invading from the north.[23]

### Plants and animals

Moss-covered lava in [Nass Valley](/source/Nass_Valley)

[Lichens](/source/Lichen) and [mosses](/source/Moss) cover large portions of lava flows originating from Tseax Cone.[24] They range in colour from green to yellow, reach thicknesses of a few centimetres and give the illusion that the lava flows are covered in fur.[24][25] Also present on the lava flows in very small quantities are grasses and smaller shrubs.[25] In the Tseax River valley, the lava flows have been almost completely covered by dense rainforest; [coastal western hemlock](/source/Biogeoclimatic_zones_of_British_Columbia#Coastal_Western_Hemlock_(CWH)) and [subalpine mountain hemlock](/source/Biogeoclimatic_zones_of_British_Columbia#Mountain_Hemlock_(MH)) form rainforests in the area.[26][27] [Wildlife](/source/Fauna_of_Canada) in the area includes [marmots](/source/Marmot), [goats](/source/Capra_(genus)), [bears](/source/Bear) and [moose](/source/Moose).[28]

Despite being covered by lichens, mosses and rainforests, the lava flows are easily recognizable from aerial and satellite imagery, as well as [field observations](/source/Field_observations).[24] However, this may change by the end of the 21st century as [lodgepole pine](/source/Lodgepole_pine) and [cottonwood](/source/Populus) forests continue to develop on the lava flows in an increasingly wetter and milder climate. The growth of these forests is bolstered by the deposition of [silt](/source/Silt) on the lava flows by local streams, providing soil for vegetation.[29]

## Geology and geomorphology

### Background

Tseax Cone is one of the southernmost volcanoes in the [Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province](/source/Northern_Cordilleran_Volcanic_Province).[10] This is a broad area of [shield volcanoes](/source/Shield_volcano), [lava domes](/source/Lava_dome), [cinder cones](/source/Cinder_cone) and [stratovolcanoes](/source/Stratovolcano) extending from northwestern British Columbia northwards through [Yukon](/source/Yukon) into easternmost [Alaska](/source/Alaska).[30] The dominant rocks comprising these volcanoes are [alkali basalts](/source/Alkali_basalt) and [hawaiites](/source/Hawaiite), but [nephelinite](/source/Nephelinite), [basanite](/source/Basanite) and [peralkaline](/source/Peralkaline)[a] [phonolite](/source/Phonolite), [trachyte](/source/Trachyte) and [comendite](/source/Comendite) are locally abundant. These rocks were deposited by volcanic eruptions from 20 million years ago to as recently as a few hundred years ago. Volcanism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province is thought to be due to [rifting](/source/Rift) of the [North American Cordillera](/source/North_American_Cordillera), driven by changes in relative [plate motion](/source/Plate_tectonics) between the [North American](/source/North_American_Plate) and [Pacific](/source/Pacific_Plate) plates.[32]

### Petrology

Tseax Cone from the southeast

Tseax Cone and its eruptive products are basanitic, [trachybasaltic](/source/Trachybasaltic) or [alkali](/source/Alkali) basaltic in composition.[33][34] They are rich in iron-titanium [oxides](/source/Redox) and were produced by a low degree of [partial melting](/source/Partial_melting) 55–62 km (34–39 mi) below the surface in the upper [crust](/source/Earth's_crust).[35] [Olivine](/source/Olivine), [plagioclase](/source/Plagioclase) and the iron-titanium oxides are in the form of [phenocrysts](/source/Phenocryst)[b] whereas [clinopyroxene](/source/Clinopyroxene) occurs as a [matrix](/source/Matrix_(geology)) mineral.[37] The lack of clinopyroxene phenocrysts in Tseax Cone lavas is a phenomenon commonly observed in other [mafic](/source/Mafic)[c] lavas throughout the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province.[39] Tseax Cone and its eruptive products rest [unconformably](/source/Unconformity) on [sedimentary rocks](/source/Sedimentary_rock) of the Bowser Lake Group, a [geological group](/source/Group_(stratigraphy)) of [Jurassic](/source/Jurassic) and [Cretaceous](/source/Cretaceous) age consisting of grey [sandstones](/source/Sandstone) and dark grey and black [conglomerates](/source/Conglomerate_(geology)), [siltstones](/source/Siltstone) and [mudstones](/source/Mudstone).[18]

Lava and [tephra](/source/Tephra) from Tseax Cone cover about 36 km2 (14 mi2) and have a total volume of around 0.5 km3 (0.12 mi3); the volume of this volcanic material is similar to that produced during [Mauna Loa](/source/Mauna_Loa)'s [1984 eruption](/source/1984_eruption_of_Mauna_Loa) and [Kīlauea](/source/K%C4%ABlauea)'s [fissure 8 eruption in 2018](/source/2018_lower_Puna_eruption).[40][41] The Tseax Cone lavas are thought to have been emplaced at high speed during a short period of time, which may have been partially due to eruption rate and [topography](/source/Topography). Their liquidus viscosities are comparable to [basalts](/source/Basalt) of [Mount Etna](/source/Mount_Etna) and the [Hawaiian Islands](/source/Hawaiian_Islands), as well as the [foidite](/source/Foidite) lavas of [Mount Nyiragongo](/source/Mount_Nyiragongo) and the [tephrite](/source/Tephrite) lavas of [Nyamuragira](/source/Nyamuragira).[42] It is possible that the lava erupted from Tseax Cone rose along the same [faults](/source/Fault_(geology)) as those at the [Lakelse Hot Springs](/source/Lakelse_Hot_Springs) south of Terrace, which are the hottest [geothermal springs](/source/Geothermal_spring) in Canada.[43]

### Structure

Tseax Cone has an [elevation](/source/Elevation) of 609 m (1,998 ft) and consists of two nested structures: a smaller inner cone and a larger external [spatter rampart](/source/Spatter_rampart).[1][44] The younger inner cone is 65–75 m (213–246 ft) high and 290 m (950 ft) in diameter, consisting mainly of black [ejecta](/source/Ejecta) such as [scoria](/source/Scoria), ballistics and [lapilli](/source/Lapilli).[7][33][44] It contains an approximately 33 m (108 ft) deep [volcanic crater](/source/Volcanic_crater) with a diameter of 80 m (260 ft).[44] The older external spatter rampart, which has also been described as a cone, is about 15–25 m (49–82 ft) high and 460 m (1,510 ft) in diameter.[33][44] It consists of spatter and scoria that ranges in colour from reddish to brownish and black to grey.[33] Each structure was formed by a different [style of volcanic activity](/source/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions); the spatter rampart was created by [Hawaiian](/source/Hawaiian_eruption)-style [lava fountaining](/source/Lava_fountain) whereas the inner cone was created by low-intensity [Strombolian](/source/Strombolian_eruption) explosions.[40] The entire structure of Tseax Cone has been variously described as a cinder cone, a [pyroclastic cone](/source/Pyroclastic_cone) or a [tephra cone](/source/Tephra_cone).[1][6][7]

About 470 m (1,540 ft) north of Tseax Cone and 150–200 m (490–660 ft) north of Melita Lake is a much smaller, unnamed asymmetrical [satellite cone](/source/Satellite_cone). It is about 20 m (66 ft) high, 50–55 m (164–180 ft) in diameter and heavily oxidized, containing a 4 m (13 ft) deep and 7 m (23 ft) in diameter summit crater. Extending southwest of the satellite cone is an eruptive [fissure](/source/Fissure_vent) consisting of three or four tephra mounds.[33][45] These mounds are a few metres high and are completely covered by black tephra. Red oxidized tephra beneath the black tephra was deposited by lava fountaining at the larger satellite cone.[33]

### Air-fall tephra layer

The inner cone was the source of an elongated tephra layer that extends 2.5 km (1.6 mi) to the northeast, suggesting a southwesterly wind at the time of eruption.[44] It contains millimetre-sized sandstones and siltstones derived from the underlying Bowser Lake Group, as well as fine-grained [metamorphic](/source/Metamorphic_rock) and [plutonic](/source/Plutonic_rock) rocks; these [clasts](/source/Clast) make up about 0.5% of the total volume of the tephra layer.[18][44] The tephra layer has an estimated volume of 2.5000000–3.4000000 m3 (88.28667–120.06987 ft3), suggesting that it was deposited by a [VEI](/source/Volcanic_Explosivity_Index)-2 eruption. The volume of this tephra deposit is the first to be calculated for a mafic eruption in Canada.[46]

### Lava flows

Tseax Cone was the source of four distinct lava flows, all of which were probably erupted over a timespan of weeks to a few months.[4][47] The first flow is the longest and most voluminous, accounting for about 84% of the total volume of lava erupted from Tseax Cone.[48] It travelled 31.6 km (19.6 mi) through Crater Creek and Tseax River valleys to the [Nass River](/source/Nass_River) where it forms a 3 km (1.9 mi) wide and 12 km (7.5 mi) long [lava plain](/source/Lava_plain) with an elevation of about 50 m (160 ft).[48][49] This lava flow was most likely voluminous enough to block the Nass River for a short period of time.[7] The second flow, representing about 13% of the total volume of lava, travelled 21.6 km (13.4 mi) through Crater Creek valley to near the mouth of the Tseax River valley.[48] Both of these lava flows are in the form of [pāhoehoe](/source/P%C4%81hoehoe)[d] and are poor in phenocrysts, having issued from the spatter rampart.[48][51] They are among the longest lava flows in the [Canadian Cordillera](/source/Canadian_Cordillera); lava flows more than 10 km (6.2 mi) long in this [cordillera](/source/Cordillera) are usually basaltic in composition.[52] The third flow accounts for less than 2% of the total volume of lava erupted from Tseax Cone, having travelled 7.2 km (4.5 mi) through Crater Creek valley to near Ross Lake in the Tseax River valley. The fourth flow is the shortest and least voluminous of the four lava flows; it represents about 1% of the total lava volume and travelled Crater Creek for 5.3 km (3.3 mi).[48] These latter two lava flows are in the form of [ʻaʻā](/source/%CA%BBa%CA%BB%C4%81)[e] and are rich in phenocrysts, having issued from the inner cone.[48][51]

A horizontal [lava tree mold](/source/Lava_tree_mold)

All four lava flows contain intact and collapsed [lava tubes](/source/Lava_tube), as well as [lava tree molds](/source/Lava_tree_mold).[28][45] At least four lava tubes are situated adjacent to and extend under Tseax Cone. They lie at an elevation of 590 m (1,940 ft) and were the subject of a [glaciological](/source/Glaciological) study in 1975. At the time of study, two of the four lava tubes were found to be ice-free most of the year. One of these tubes contained a small [braided stream](/source/Braided_stream) whereas the other tube was dry and did not contain any stream sediments. The lack of stream sediments in the latter lava tube indicated that it remained dry and did not contain permanent ice deposits.[54] Floors of ice were blocking the other two slightly higher tubes. As much as 20 centimetres (7.9 inches) of water was covering the ice in summer, indicating that unlike the other two lava tubes, they did not have exit points for water runoff at their lowermost levels. There was no evidence that the ice was [dissipating](/source/Dissipating) as in many other [ice caves](/source/Ice_cave) despite an approximate mean annual temperature of 5 degrees Celsius (41 degrees Fahrenheit). The [petrographic](/source/Petrographic) characteristics of the ice deposits were found to be similar to those in alpine caves such as [Eisriesenwelt Cave](/source/Eisriesenwelt_Cave) in [Austria](/source/Austria) and [Coulthard Cave](/source/Coulthard_Cave) in the [Canadian Rockies](/source/Canadian_Rockies).[55]

The eruption of the Tseax Cone lava flows had a radical impact on the landscape due to their sudden inundation of the Tseax River valley and the Nass River [floodplain](/source/Floodplain).[56] Their disruption of the existing [drainage system](/source/Drainage_system_(geomorphology)) resulted in the formation of new [channels](/source/Channel_(geography)) and [geomorphic](/source/Geomorphic) features such as [lava-dammed](/source/Lava_dam) lakes, [alluvial fan](/source/Alluvial_fan) blockages and an inversion of [topographic relief](/source/Topographic_relief).[57] The Tseax River was forced to abandon its alluvial channel in favour of [bedrock](/source/Bedrock) channels along the lava flows, although in some places one or more channels flow on the lava.[58] [Vetter Creek](/source/Vetter_Creek), a tributary of the Nass River, flows along the western side of the lava and then disappears under the lava-covered Nass River floodplain through a series of [sinkholes](/source/Sinkhole).[59][60] The lower portions of several alluvial fans are buried under the lava flows, including the Vetter fan which is among the largest.[61] Damming of Crater Creek and the Tseax River has resulted in Melita Lake and [Lava Lake](/source/Lava_Lake_(British_Columbia)) ponding behind the lava flows, although Lava Lake had already existed before the lava was erupted; it merely increased in depth.[48] Ross Lake overlies lava flows in the Tseax River valley north of Lava Lake.[62][63]

### Age controversy

The exact timing of [volcanism](/source/Volcanism) at Tseax Cone has been a subject of controversy because there are no direct written accounts.[64] Reports of the rich [oral history](/source/Oral_history) of the local Nisga'a people by [missionaries](/source/Missionaries) as early as the 1910s suggest that Tseax Cone was erupting around 1770.[65] However, the credibility of these reports has been disputed due to possible poor translation from Nisga'a to English. G. Hanson wrote in a 1923 Canada [Department of Mines](/source/Minister_of_Mines_(Canada)) report that 170-year-old trees were found growing on lava from Tseax Cone; this would indicate an eruption prior to 1753. In 1935, [Marius Barbeau](/source/Marius_Barbeau) concluded in the *[Canadian Geographical Journal](/source/Canadian_Geographical_Journal)* that the latest eruption at Tseax Cone occurred in the late 18th century.[45] In 1977, G. P. V. Akrigg and H. B. Akrigg speculated in *British Columbia Chronicle, 1847–1871: Gold & Colonists* that the Tseax Cone eruption was witnessed by naval officer [Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra](/source/Juan_Francisco_de_la_Bodega_y_Quadra) on August 24, 1775. However, this is extremely unlikely because Bodega y Quadra's [schooner](/source/Schooner), the *Sonora*, was anchored more than 280 km (170 mi) west of Tseax Cone across mountainous terrain.[66] Michael D. Higgins proposed in a 2008 *[Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research](/source/Journal_of_Volcanology_and_Geothermal_Research)* article that the [1700 Cascadia earthquake](/source/1700_Cascadia_earthquake) may have caused the latest Tseax Cone eruption by destabilizing a subterranean [magmatic](/source/Magmatic) system.[67]

Tseax Cone lava flow in Nass Valley

[Radiocarbon dating](/source/Radiocarbon_dating) of trees killed by lava from Tseax Cone has also given inconclusive results. A lava-encased cottonwood near the Nass River was reported by Sutherland Brown in 1969 and [Jack Souther](/source/Jack_Souther) in 1970 to have yielded a radiocarbon date of 220 ± 130 years. However, Lowdon *et al.* stated in a 1971 [Radiocarbon](/source/Radiocarbon_(journal)) article that this date was uncorrected and should in fact be 250 ± 130 years.[45] In 2001, M. C. Roberts and S. McCuaig reported in *[The Canadian Geographer](/source/The_Canadian_Geographer)* that a wood fragment of a lava-encased tree yielded a radiocarbon date of 220 ± 130 years; they gave a corrected date of 230 ± 50 years.[68] These two radiocarbon dates were recalibrated by Michael D. Higgins in 2008 using [calibration](/source/Calibration) software and reinterpreted the age of the Tseax Cone eruption at between 1668 and 1714.[9][69] Charred wood beneath tephra about 890 m (2,920 ft) northwest of Tseax Cone was reported by Williams-Jones *et al.* in 2020 to have yielded radiocarbon dates of 190 ± 15 years and 390 ± 15 years.[70] These dates suggest that Tseax Cone erupted between 1675 and 1778, which correlates with the oral history of the Nisga'a, as well as reports that claim an eruption took place during the 18th century.[71] A [Common Era](/source/Common_Era) date of 1690 ± 150 years is provided by the [Smithsonian Institution](/source/Smithsonian_Institution)'s [Global Volcanism Program](/source/Global_Volcanism_Program) for the last known eruption of Tseax Cone.[11] The timing of volcanism at Tseax Cone makes it one of the youngest volcanoes in Canada, as well as the site of one of the most recent volcanic eruptions in Canada.[1][72]

It has been generally agreed by researchers that the Tseax Cone lava flows were emplaced during a single eruption.[48][73] However, whether the volcano itself is the product of one or more distinct eruptive episodes has been a point of conjecture.[73][74] In 1923, G. Hanson suggested that Tseax Cone formed during a single eruption. The single eruption hypothesis was also proposed by Sutherland Brown in 1969, but postulated that the volcano was destroyed by explosions and then reformed. In 1978, Vilho Wuorinen provided evidence for Tseax Cone having formed by two distinct eruptive episodes.[75] This included a difference in surface erosion between the external spatter rampart and the inner tephra cone, as well as a difference in vegetation cover between the two structures.[76] A charred tree trunk found standing in the vertical wall of the spatter rampart also yielded a radiocarbon date of 625 ± 70 years.[9] Based on this evidence, Wuorinen proposed that the spatter rampart was formed by an initial period of activity around 1325.[9][73] This eruptive period was followed by 375 years of dormancy, during which the spatter rampart was smoothed by erosion.[73] A second eruptive episode around 1700 produced the inner tephra cone, the lava flows and the several smaller satellite cones in the area.[77]

In 2020, Williams-Jones *et al.* reported new [paleomagnetic](/source/Paleomagnetic) and [geochemical](/source/Geochemical) data supporting the hypothesis that the inner tephra cone, external spatter rampart, satellite cones, lava flows and tephra deposits were all formed during a single period of activity.[78] However, the charred tree trunk sampled by Wuorinen that yielded a radiocarbon date of 625 ± 70 years was not found during their extensive mapping of the area in 2016 and 2017.[79]

### Hazards

Nass Valley lava flow

The question of whether Tseax Cone formed during one or more distinct eruptive episodes has important implications for future activity and [hazard](/source/Volcanic_hazard) mitigation efforts.[6] Renewed activity from Tseax Cone is unlikely if the volcano is [monogenetic](/source/Monogenetic_volcanic_field); this is because monogenetic volcanoes are typically considered to erupt only once and to be short-lived.[80] If Tseax Cone is [polygenetic](/source/Polygenetic_volcanic_field), future activity could produce lava flows and potentially block local streams as happened previously.[7]

Damming of the Nass River by lava flows could negatively affect the salmon fisheries on this river. [Carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide) emissions from Tseax Cone could pose a threat to local inhabitants due to the gas's ability to replace oxygen in low-lying areas and poorly ventilated structures. Another potential hazard relating to future activity from Tseax Cone is the ignition of [wildfires](/source/Wildfire) by eruptions since the area contains vegetation.[7]

## Human history

### Indigenous peoples

Tseax Cone is a prominent figure in Nisga'a history and culture due to its association with a [natural disaster](/source/Natural_disaster).[66] According to Nisga'a legends, the Tseax Cone eruption caused the deaths of 2,000 people and the destruction of at least three villages on the banks of the Nass River.[6][7] This would make it the deadliest geological disaster in Canada and the second-worst natural disaster in Canadian history by death toll, exceeded only by the [1775 Newfoundland hurricane](/source/1775_Newfoundland_hurricane) which caused at least 4,100 fatalities.[6][81] Tseax Cone has therefore been described as the deadliest volcano in Canada.[42] The three Nisga'a villages destroyed by the Tseax Cone eruption have been named [Lax Ksiluux](/source/Lax_Ksiluux), Lax Ksiwihlgest and Wii Lax K'abit.[6][15] Early 19th-century Nisga'a accounts of the eruption were reported by [anthropologist](/source/Anthropologist) Marius Barbeau in 1935 as follows:

Detail of lava flow in Nass Valley

...the volcanic eruption soon after broke out. First there was smoke, like that coming out of a house, a big pillar of smoke. It was as if a house was burning on the mountain top. The people saw a big fire. The fire came down the side in their direction, but not as fast as forest fire. It moved down slowly, very slowly. It was strange and frightful. It was dangerous! There were fumes spreading ahead, and those who smelled them were smothered. They died and their body stiffened like rock. Frightened, the people of one tribe dug holes in the ground like underground lodges, and hid within, scared as they were of the mountain spirits. Likewise, the other tribe. That did not keep other people from dying of the fumes, mostly in the lower of the villages. As soon as the smoke dispersed some people ran away; a great many others stayed on. They did not suffer any more from the smoke. The fire then rolled down like a river, filled the lake, and for a time the water was a bed of flames. The stone was red and hot there for many days. As far as it went, all the way, it was flowing red. It started from the river where the people fished salmon, away up there, and ran down to the place where the canyon now is...[66]

The "poisonous smoke" mentioned in Barbeau's report may have been odourless carbon dioxide.[7] When the first lava flow from Tseax Cone entered the [Nass Valley](/source/Nass_Valley), it destroyed the three Nisga'a villages. Interaction of the lava flow with the Nass River may have produced dense clouds of vaporized water mixed with [volcanic gases](/source/Volcanic_gas) such as carbon dioxide and [hydrogen sulfide](/source/Hydrogen_sulfide). [Methane](/source/Methane) may have also been released from [wetlands](/source/Wetland) as the lava flow travelled over the Nass River floodplain.[82] While some of the Nisga'a may have escaped the lava flow by canoe to the far side of the Nass River, many of them were caught between the river and the advancing lava flow. The average discharge rate of the Nass River is strong enough to drown anyone attempting to escape by swimming during the summer months of June, August and September; Tseax Cone is suspected to have erupted during this time.[83] Another hypothesis is that as the lava flow entered the Nass River, it caused sudden waves and turbulence which swept away the Nisga'a paddling across the river.[84]

The Nisga'a also recall the disruption of the Tseax River, stating that "before the volcanic eruption, when our people lived here at Wii Lax K'ap, there was a stream close by where salmon spawned. The stream bed had white sand and they could easily spot the salmon going up stream. This stream was thus named Ksi Gimwits'ax. Years later [after the volcanic eruption] when this stream resurfaced, and though the Nisga'a knew it was the same tributary, it was renamed Ksi Sii Aks."[3] A [salamander](/source/Salamander) species that once inhabited the bay area of Gitwinksihlkw on the Nass River is said to have disappeared or became extinct following the eruption.[15]

### Provincial park

Pleas for protection of the Tseax Cone lava flows date back to at least 1972 when forestry operations had left tree stumps and debris on their surfaces.[85] Roads and trails had also been established on the lava flows by this time; their terrain is ideal for road construction due to their fragility. The lava was also being excavated from [borrow pits](/source/Borrow_pit) and hauled to be used on forest service roads.[25] It was not until 1992 when [Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Provincial Park](/source/Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Provincial_Park) was founded to preserve the volcanic landscape and to honour the 2,000 Nisga'a people who died during the Tseax Cone eruption.[7][28] This 17,717-hectare (43,780-acre) [protected area](/source/Protected_area) is noteworthy for being the first [provincial park in British Columbia](/source/List_of_British_Columbia_Provincial_Parks) to be managed by both [BC Parks](/source/BC_Parks) and a [First Nation](/source/First_Nations_in_Canada), as well as the first provincial park in British Columbia to combine indigenous culture and natural features.[28]

## Accessibility

The Tseax Cone lava flows are most easily accessed by travelling the [Nisga'a Highway](/source/Nisga'a_Highway) north of Terrace for 100 km (62 mi), the final 30 km (19 mi) of which is unpaved. An alternative route to the lava flows involves travelling the paved [Stewart–Cassiar Highway](/source/Stewart%E2%80%93Cassiar_Highway) north of [Kitwanga](/source/Kitwanga) for 78 km (48 mi) to the Cranberry River.[28] From there, the unpaved Nass Forest Service Road extends 86 km (53 mi) southwest to Gitlaxt'aamiks which lies on the northeastern edge of the lava flows.[12][28] Access to Tseax Cone is limited only to a 6 km (3.7 mi) long guided hiking tour from an access road 1.4 km (0.87 mi) north of the Lava Lake picnic site on the Nisga'a Highway.[28]

## See also

- [Volcanoes portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Volcanoes)
- [Mountains portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mountains)

- [List of disasters in Canada by death toll](/source/List_of_disasters_in_Canada_by_death_toll)

- [List of volcanic eruptions by death toll](/source/List_of_volcanic_eruptions_by_death_toll)

- [List of Northern Cordilleran volcanoes](/source/List_of_Northern_Cordilleran_volcanoes)

- [List of volcanoes in Canada](/source/List_of_volcanoes_in_Canada)

- [Volcanism of Western Canada](/source/Volcanism_of_Western_Canada)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** *Peralkaline rocks* are magmatic rocks that have a higher ratio of sodium and potassium to aluminum.[31]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** *Phenocrysts* are large, conspicuous crystals in magmatic rocks with [porphyritic](/source/Porphyritic) texture.[36]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** *Mafic* pertains to magmatic rocks that are relatively rich in [iron](/source/Iron) and [magnesium](/source/Magnesium), relative to [silicium](/source/Silicium).[38]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** *Pāhoehoe* is basaltic lava with a smooth, glassy, undulating and porous surface.[50]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** *ʻAʻā* is lava with a rough rubbly surface composed of broken blocks called clinkers.[53]

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeGeneral_Information_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeGeneral_Information_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeGeneral_Information_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeGeneral_Information_1-3) [Global Volcanism Program: Tseax River Cone](#CITEREFGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_Cone), General Information.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone_2-5) [BC Geographical Names: Tseax Cone](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Tseax_Cone).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Ksi_Sii_Aks_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Ksi_Sii_Aks_3-1) [BC Geographical Names: Ksi Sii Aks](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Ksi_Sii_Aks).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020363_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020363_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020363_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020363_4-3) [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 363.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPostmedia_Network2019_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPostmedia_Network2019_5-1) [Postmedia Network 2019](#CITEREFPostmedia_Network2019).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238_6-7) [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1238.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone_7-9) [Natural Resources Canada: Tseax Cone](#CITEREFNatural_Resources_Canada:_Tseax_Cone).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeographical_Names_Data_Base:_Tseax_Cone_8-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeographical_Names_Data_Base:_Tseax_Cone_8-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeographical_Names_Data_Base:_Tseax_Cone_8-2) [Geographical Names Data Base: Tseax Cone](#CITEREFGeographical_Names_Data_Base:_Tseax_Cone).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201242_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201242_9-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201242_9-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201242_9-3) [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1242.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlaymaker201752_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESlaymaker201752_10-1) [Slaymaker 2017](#CITEREFSlaymaker2017), p. 52.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeEruptive_History_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_ConeEruptive_History_11-1) [Global Volcanism Program: Tseax River Cone](#CITEREFGlobal_Volcanism_Program:_Tseax_River_Cone), Eruptive History.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201239_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201239_12-1) [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1239.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkriggAkrigg19973,_273_13-0)** [Akrigg & Akrigg 1997](#CITEREFAkriggAkrigg1997), pp. 3, 273.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAkriggAkrigg1997273_14-0)** [Akrigg & Akrigg 1997](#CITEREFAkriggAkrigg1997), p. 273.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Gitwinksihlkw_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Gitwinksihlkw_15-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Gitwinksihlkw_15-2) [BC Geographical Names: Gitwinksihlkw](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Gitwinksihlkw).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Cassiar_Land_District_16-0)** [BC Geographical Names: Cassiar Land District](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Cassiar_Land_District).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_New_Aiyansh_17-0)** [BC Geographical Names: New Aiyansh](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_New_Aiyansh).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020364_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020364_18-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020364_18-2) [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 364.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDenton1975662_19-0)** [Denton 1975](#CITEREFDenton1975), p. 662.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Melita_Lake_20-0)** [BC Geographical Names: Melita Lake](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Melita_Lake).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Crater_Creek_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Crater_Creek_21-1) [BC Geographical Names: Crater Creek](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Crater_Creek).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemarchi201136_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemarchi201136_22-1) [Demarchi 2011](#CITEREFDemarchi2011), p. 36.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemarchi201136,_37_23-0)** [Demarchi 2011](#CITEREFDemarchi2011), pp. 36, 37.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365,_367_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365,_367_24-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365,_367_24-2) [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), pp. 365, 367.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGentles1972252_25-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGentles1972252_25-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGentles1972252_25-2) [Gentles 1972](#CITEREFGentles1972), p. 252.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020364,_367_26-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), pp. 364, 367.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDemarchi201137_27-0)** [Demarchi 2011](#CITEREFDemarchi2011), p. 37.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]_28-6) [BC Parks: Anhluut'ukwsim Lax̱mihl Angwinga'asanakwhl Nisga'a \[a.k.a. Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Park\]](#CITEREFBC_Parks:_Anhluut'ukwsim_Lax̱mihl_Angwinga'asanakwhl_Nisga'a_[a.k.a._Nisga'a_Memorial_Lava_Bed_Park]).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGovernment_of_British_Columbia_29-0)** [Government of British Columbia](#CITEREFGovernment_of_British_Columbia).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwardsRussell20001280,_1281,_1283,_1284_30-0)** [Edwards & Russell 2000](#CITEREFEdwardsRussell2000), pp. 1280, 1281, 1283, 1284.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGraw_Hill2003253_31-0)** [McGraw Hill 2003](#CITEREFMcGraw_Hill2003), p. 253.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEdwardsRussell20001280_33-0)** [Edwards & Russell 2000](#CITEREFEdwardsRussell2000), p. 1280.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020365_34-5) [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 365.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001319_35-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), p. 319.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne202081,_82_36-0)** [Le Moigne 2020](#CITEREFLe_Moigne2020), pp. 81, 82.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGraw_Hill2003257_37-0)** [McGraw Hill 2003](#CITEREFMcGraw_Hill2003), p. 257.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones20227,_8_39-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones2022), pp. 7, 8.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPinti2011938_40-0)** [Pinti 2011](#CITEREFPinti2011), p. 938.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones202217_42-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones2022), p. 17.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne202085_43-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne202085_43-1) [Le Moigne 2020](#CITEREFLe_Moigne2020), p. 85.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020368_44-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 368.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones202215_45-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones202215_45-1) [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones2022), p. 15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurner_et_al.20079–11_46-0)** [Turner et al. 2007](#CITEREFTurner_et_al.2007), pp. 9–11.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20227_47-5) [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_Moigne_et_al.2022), p. 7.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241_48-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241_48-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241_48-3) [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1241.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOsman_et_al.20261_49-0)** [Osman et al. 2026](#CITEREFOsman_et_al.2026), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne_et_al.20221_50-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_Moigne_et_al.2022), p. 1.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020369_51-7) [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 369.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESymons19752622_52-0)** [Symons 1975](#CITEREFSymons1975), p. 2622.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGraw_Hill2003238_53-0)** [McGraw Hill 2003](#CITEREFMcGraw_Hill2003), p. 238.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne202088_55-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne202088_55-1) [Le Moigne 2020](#CITEREFLe_Moigne2020), p. 88.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStasiukHicksonMulder2003563_56-0)** [Stasiuk, Hickson & Mulder 2003](#CITEREFStasiukHicksonMulder2003), p. 563.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey2018_57-0)** [United States Geological Survey 2018](#CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2018).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1975399_59-0)** [Marshall 1975](#CITEREFMarshall1975), p. 399.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarshall1975400_60-0)** [Marshall 1975](#CITEREFMarshall1975), p. 400.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001320,_323_61-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), pp. 320, 323.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001320–323_62-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), pp. 320–323.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001322,_323_63-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), pp. 322, 323.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001323_64-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), p. 323.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Vetter_Creek_65-0)** [BC Geographical Names: Vetter Creek](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Vetter_Creek).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERobertsMcCuaig2001321_66-0)** [Roberts & McCuaig 2001](#CITEREFRobertsMcCuaig2001), p. 321.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020367_67-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2020](#CITEREFLe_MoigneWilliams-JonesRussellQuane2020), p. 367.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBC_Geographical_Names:_Ross_Lake_68-0)** [BC Geographical Names: Ross Lake](#CITEREFBC_Geographical_Names:_Ross_Lake).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241,_1250_69-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1241, 1250.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238,_1241_70-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1238, 1241.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201250_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201250_71-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201250_71-2) [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1250.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins2009149_72-0)** [Higgins 2009](#CITEREFHiggins2009), p. 149.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201241,_1242_73-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1241, 1242.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHiggins2009150,_151_74-0)** [Higgins 2009](#CITEREFHiggins2009), pp. 150, 151.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201239,_1242_75-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1239, 1242.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones20224_76-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones2022), p. 4.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones20222_77-0)** [Le Moigne et al. 2022](#CITEREFLe_MoigneVigourouxRussellWilliams-Jones2022), p. 2.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781037_78-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781037_78-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781037_78-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781037_78-3) [Wuorinen 1978](#CITEREFWuorinen1978), p. 1037.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201248_79-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1248.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781037,_1038_80-0)** [Wuorinen 1978](#CITEREFWuorinen1978), pp. 1037, 1038.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201242,_1243_81-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1242, 1243.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWuorinen19781038_82-0)** [Wuorinen 1978](#CITEREFWuorinen1978), p. 1038.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201238,_1247_83-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), pp. 1238, 1247.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams-Jones_et_al.20201244_84-0)** [Williams-Jones et al. 2020](#CITEREFWilliams-Jones_et_al.2020), p. 1244.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVargas-Arcila_et_al.20231_85-0)** [Vargas-Arcila et al. 2023](#CITEREFVargas-Arcila_et_al.2023), p. 1.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Geological_Survey2021_86-0)** [United States Geological Survey 2021](#CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2021).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne2020105_87-0)** [Le Moigne 2020](#CITEREFLe_Moigne2020), p. 105.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Moigne2020104_88-0)** [Le Moigne 2020](#CITEREFLe_Moigne2020), p. 104.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHickson_et_al.2007_89-0)** [Hickson et al. 2007](#CITEREFHickson_et_al.2007).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGentles1972251,_252_90-0)** [Gentles 1972](#CITEREFGentles1972), pp. 251, 252.

### Sources

- Akrigg, G. P. V.; Akrigg, Helen B. (1997). *British Columbia Place Names* (3rd ed.). [University of British Columbia Press](/source/University_of_British_Columbia_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-7748-0636-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7748-0636-2).

- ["Anhluut'ukwsim Lax̱mihl Angwinga'asanakwhl Nisga'a \[a.k.a. Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Park\]"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240804061301/https://bcparks.ca/anhluutukwsim-laxmihl-angwingaasanskwhl-nisgaa-park-aka-nisgaa-memorial-lava-bed-park/#park-overview-container). [BC Parks](/source/BC_Parks). Archived from [the original](https://bcparks.ca/anhluutukwsim-laxmihl-angwingaasanskwhl-nisgaa-park-aka-nisgaa-memorial-lava-bed-park/) on August 4, 2024.

- ["Cassiar Land District"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180627144631/http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/41229.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/41229.html) on June 27, 2018.

- ["Crater Creek"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211126194227/https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/37116.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/37116.html) on November 26, 2021.

- Demarchi, Dennis A. (2011). *An Introduction to the Ecoregions of British Columbia*. [Government of British Columbia](/source/Government_of_British_Columbia). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [613357103](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/613357103).

- Denton, George H. (1975). "Glaciers of the Interior Ranges of British Columbia". [Mountain Glaciers of the Northern Hemisphere](https://books.google.com/books?id=5TtRAAAAMAAJ) (Report). Vol. 1. [Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory](/source/Cold_Regions_Research_and_Engineering_Laboratory). pp. 655–670.

- *Dictionary of Geology and Mineralogy*. [McGraw Hill](/source/McGraw_Hill). 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-07-141044-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-141044-9).

- Edwards, Benjamin R.; Russell, James K. (2000). "Distribution, Nature, and Origin of Neogene–Quaternary Magmatism in the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province, Canada". *[Geological Society of America Bulletin](/source/Geological_Society_of_America_Bulletin)*. **112** (8). [Geological Society of America](/source/Geological_Society_of_America): 1280–1295. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2000GSAB..112.1280E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000GSAB..112.1280E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1130/0016-7606(2000)112<1280:dnaoon>2.0.co;2](https://doi.org/10.1130%2F0016-7606%282000%29112%3C1280%3Adnaoon%3E2.0.co%3B2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0016-7606](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7606).

- Gentles, T. (1972). ["Pleas for Protection of Aiyansh Lava Flow"](https://doi.org/10.29173%2Fbluejay3508). *The Blue Jay*. **30** (4). Saskatchewan Natural History Society. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.29173/bluejay3508](https://doi.org/10.29173%2Fbluejay3508). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0006-5099](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-5099).

- ["Gitwinksihlkw"](https://web.archive.org/web/20200218012814/http://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/39898.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/39898.html) on February 18, 2020.

- Hickson, C. J.; Spurgeon, T. C.; Cocking, R. B.; Russel, J. K.; Woodsworth, G. J.; Ulmi, M.; Rust, A. C. (2007). ["Tseax Volcano: A Deadly Basaltic Eruption in North-Western British Columbia, Canada"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230604050853/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2007CD/webprogram/Paper121306.html). [Geological Society of America](/source/Geological_Society_of_America). Archived from [the original](https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2007CD/webprogram/Paper121306.html) on June 4, 2023.

- Higgins, Michael D. (2009). "The Cascadia Megathrust Earthquake of 1700 May Have Rejuvenated an Isolated Basalt Volcano in Western Canada: Age and Petrographic Evidence". *[Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research](/source/Journal_of_Volcanology_and_Geothermal_Research)*. **179** (1). [Elsevier](/source/Elsevier): 149–156. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2009JVGR..179..149H](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JVGR..179..149H). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2008.10.016](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jvolgeores.2008.10.016). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0377-0273](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0377-0273).

- ["Ksi Sii Aks"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211127133124/https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/54016.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/54016.html) on November 27, 2021.

- ["Lava Beds and Other Reasons to Love Northern British Columbia"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210421144443/https://o.canada.com/travel/lava-beds-and-other-reasons-to-love-northern-british-columbia). *canada*. [Postmedia Network](/source/Postmedia_Network). November 6, 2019. Archived from [the original](https://o.canada.com/travel/lava-beds-and-other-reasons-to-love-northern-british-columbia) on April 21, 2021.

- Le Moigne, Yannick (2020). [*Investigating Canada's Deadliest Volcanic Eruption and Mitigating Future Hazards*](https://theses.hal.science/tel-03244605v1/document) (PhD thesis). [Simon Fraser University](/source/Simon_Fraser_University). Retrieved December 17, 2025.

- Le Moigne, Y.; Vigouroux, N.; Russell, J.K.; Williams-Jones, G. (2022). "Magmatic Origins and Storage Conditions for the Historic Eruption of Tseax Volcano, British Columbia, Canada". *[Chemical Geology](/source/Chemical_Geology)*. **588** 120648. [Elsevier](/source/Elsevier): 1–18. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022ChGeo.58820648L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022ChGeo.58820648L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.chemgeo.2021.120648](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2021.120648). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0009-2541](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2541).

- Le Moigne, Yannick; Williams-Jones, Glyn; Russell, Kelly; Quane, Steve (2020). ["Physical Volcanology of Tseax Volcano, British Columbia, Canada"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17445647.2020.1758809). *[Journal of Maps](/source/Journal_of_Maps)*. **16** (2). [Taylor & Francis](/source/Taylor_%26_Francis): 363–375. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020JMaps..16..363L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020JMaps..16..363L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/17445647.2020.1758809](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17445647.2020.1758809). [hdl](/source/Hdl_(identifier)):[10.1080/17445647.2020.1758809](https://hdl.handle.net/10.1080%2F17445647.2020.1758809). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1744-5647](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1744-5647). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [219495677](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219495677).

- Le Moigne, Yannick; Williams-Jones, Glyn; Vigouroux, Nathalie; Kelly Russell, James (2022). ["Chronology and Eruption Dynamics of the Historic∼1700 CE Eruption of Tseax Volcano, British Columbia, Canada"](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2022.910451). *[Frontiers in Earth Science](/source/Frontiers_in_Earth_Science)*. **10** 910451. [Frontiers Media](/source/Frontiers_Media): 1–20. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2022FrEaS..10.0451L](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022FrEaS..10.0451L). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3389/feart.2022.910451](https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffeart.2022.910451). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2296-6463](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2296-6463).

- Marshall, Peter (1975). ["Ice-Blocked Tubes in the Aiyansh Flow, British Columbia"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00040851.1975.12003851). *[Arctic and Alpine Research](/source/Arctic_and_Alpine_Research)*. **7** (4). [Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research](/source/Institute_of_Arctic_and_Alpine_Research): 399–400. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00040851.1975.12003851](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00040851.1975.12003851).

- ["Melita Lake"](https://web.archive.org/web/20211126195726/https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/36153.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/36153.html) on November 26, 2021.

- ["New Aiyansh"](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/36874.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Retrieved March 16, 2025.

- Osman, Sara; Jones, Thomas J.; McCartney, Kelly N.; Moigne, Yannick Le; Russell, James K.; Williams-Jones, Glyn (2026). ["The Volume of Explosive Products Erupted During the ~1700 CE Eruption of *Sii Aks* (Tseax), Canada"](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-026-01941-5). *[Bulletin of Volcanology](/source/Bulletin_of_Volcanology)*. **88** (18). [Springer Science+Business Media](/source/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media): 1–10. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00445-026-01941-5](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-026-01941-5). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0258-8900](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0258-8900). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [285074508](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:285074508).

- Pinti, Daniele (2011). "Mafic and Felsic". *Encyclopedia of Astrobiology*. [Springer Berlin Heidelberg](/source/Springer_Berlin_Heidelberg). p. 938. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/978-3-642-11274-4_1893](https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-11274-4_1893). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-642-11271-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-11271-3).

- ["Researchers Investigate how Vegetation is Changing at Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Park"](https://web.archive.org/web/20230608162340/https://engage.gov.bc.ca/bcparksblog/2019/11/14/fires-and-floods-at-nisgaa-memorial-lava-bed-park/). [Government of British Columbia](/source/Government_of_British_Columbia). November 14, 2019. Archived from [the original](https://engage.gov.bc.ca/bcparksblog/2019/11/14/fires-and-floods-at-nisgaa-memorial-lava-bed-park/) on June 8, 2023.

- Roberts, Michael C.; McCuaig, Shirley J. (2001). "Geomorphic Responses to the Sudden Blocking of a Fluvial System: Aiyansh Lava Flow, Northwest British Columbia". *[The Canadian Geographer](/source/The_Canadian_Geographer)*. **45** (2). [Canadian Association of Geographers](/source/Canadian_Association_of_Geographers): 319–323. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2001CGeog..45..319R](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001CGeog..45..319R). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1541-0064.2001.tb01492.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1541-0064.2001.tb01492.x). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0008-3658](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-3658).

- ["Ross Lake"](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/38278.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Retrieved February 6, 2025.

- Slaymaker, Olav (2017). *Landscapes and Landforms of Western Canada*. [Springer International Publishing](/source/Springer_International_Publishing). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-319-44593-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-44593-9).

- Stasiuk, Mark V.; [Hickson, Catherine J.](/source/Catherine_Hickson); Mulder, Taimi (2003). "The Vulnerability of Canada to Volcanic Hazards". In Etkin, David; [Haque, C. E.](/source/C._Emdad_Haque); Brooks, Gregory R. (eds.). *An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada*. [Kluwer Academic Publishers](/source/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers). pp. 563–589. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-4020-1179-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-1179-2).

- Symons, D. T. A. (1975). "Age and Flow Direction from Magnetic Measurements on the Historic Aiyansh Flow, British Columbia". *[Journal of Geophysical Research](/source/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research)*. **80** (17). [American Geophysical Union](/source/American_Geophysical_Union): 2622–2626. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1975JGR....80.2622S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JGR....80.2622S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1029/JB080i017p02622](https://doi.org/10.1029%2FJB080i017p02622). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0148-0227](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0148-0227).

- ["Tseax Cone"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241201154422/https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/40915.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Archived from [the original](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/40915.html) on December 1, 2024.

- ["Tseax Cone"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080111031918/http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/volcano_e.php?id=svb_tsx_107). *Catalogue of Canadian Volcanoes*. [Natural Resources Canada](/source/Natural_Resources_Canada). August 19, 2005. Archived from [the original](http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/volcano_e.php?id=svb_tsx_107) on January 11, 2008.

- ["Tseax Cone"](https://geonames.nrcan.gc.ca/search-place-names/unique?id=JDDHM). *[Geographical Names Data Base](/source/GeoBase_(geospatial_data)#Geographical_Names_Data_Base)*. [Natural Resources Canada](/source/Natural_Resources_Canada). Retrieved October 6, 2023.

- ["Tseax River Cone"](https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=320100). *[Global Volcanism Program](/source/Global_Volcanism_Program)*. [Smithsonian Institution](/source/Smithsonian_Institution). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20211029000000/https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=320100) from the original on October 29, 2021.

- Turner, Bob; Nelson, JoAnne; Franklin, Richard; Weary, Gordon; Walker, Tony; Hayward, Bonnie; McRae, Cathy (2007). ["GeoTour Guide for Terrace, B.C.: Our Land, Our Community"](https://web.archive.org/web/20240629165452/https://www.llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/PubDocs/bcdocs/410106/Terrace-GeoTour.pdf) (PDF). Geofile 2007–10. British Columbia Geological Survey. Archived from [the original](https://www.llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/PubDocs/bcdocs/410106/Terrace-GeoTour.pdf) (PDF) on June 29, 2024.

- ["USGS Volcano Hazards Program Glossary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20231127231846/https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/glossary.html). [United States Geological Survey](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey). 2018. Archived from [the original](https://volcanoes.usgs.gov/vsc/glossary.html) on November 27, 2023.

- Vargas-Arcila, Laura; Murcia, Hugo; Osorio-Ocampo, Susana; Sánchez-Torres, Laura; Botero-Gómez, Luis Alvaro; Bolaños, Gina (2023). ["Effusive and Evolved Monogenetic Volcanoes: Two Newly Identified (~800 ka) Cases Near Manizales City, Colombia"](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-023-01655-y). *[Bulletin of Volcanology](/source/Bulletin_of_Volcanology)*. **85** (42). [Springer Science+Business Media](/source/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media): 1–13. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2023BVol...85...42V](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023BVol...85...42V). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00445-023-01655-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-023-01655-y). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0258-8900](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0258-8900). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [259277907](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:259277907).

- ["Vetter Creek"](https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/38278.html). *[BC Geographical Names](/source/BC_Geographical_Names)*. Government of British Columbia – B.C. Geographical Names Office (BCGNO). Retrieved February 5, 2025.

- ["Volcano Watch — Volcanoes in Canada, eh?"](https://web.archive.org/web/20221103015731/http://www.usgs.gov/news/volcano-watch-volcanoes-canada-eh). [United States Geological Survey](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey). July 1, 2021. Archived from [the original](https://www.usgs.gov/news/volcano-watch-volcanoes-canada-eh) on November 3, 2022.

- Williams-Jones, Glyn; Barendregt, René W.; Russell, James K; Le Moigne, Yannick; Enkin, Randolph J.; Gallo, Rose (2020). "The Age of the Tseax Volcanic Eruption, British Columbia, Canada". *[Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences](/source/Canadian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences)*. **57** (10). [Canadian Science Publishing](/source/Canadian_Science_Publishing): 1238–1253. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2020CaJES..57.1238W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020CaJES..57.1238W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1139/cjes-2019-0240](https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fcjes-2019-0240). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1480-3313](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1480-3313). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [216209167](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216209167).

- Wuorinen, Vilho (1978). "Age of Aiyansh Volcano, British Columbia". *[Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences](/source/Canadian_Journal_of_Earth_Sciences)*. **15** (6). [NRC Research Press](/source/NRC_Research_Press): 1037–1038. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1978CaJES..15.1037W](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978CaJES..15.1037W). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1139/e78-111](https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fe78-111).

## External links

- Media related to [Tseax Cone](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tseax_Cone) at Wikimedia Commons

- ["Nisga'a Knowledge Helps Scientists Create First Detailed map of Tseax Volcano"](https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/tseax-volcano-map-1.5605111). [Canadian Broadcasting Corporation](/source/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation). June 9, 2020.

- ["Scientists produce extensive map of Tseax Volcano, Lava Flow"](https://www.terracestandard.com/news/scientists-produce-extensive-map-of-tseax-volcano-lava-flow/). Terrace Standard and Black Press Group. June 3, 2020.

- ["Ignis: a Parable of the Great Lava Plain in the Valley of "Eternal Bloom", Naas River, British Columbia"](https://www.canadiana.ca/view/oocihm.15537/9).

v t e Volcanoes of the Northern Cordilleran Volcanic Province Cinder cones Cache Hill Camp Hill Cinder Cliff Cinder Mountain Cocoa Crater Coffee Crater Cone Glacier Volcano Cracker Creek Cone Eve Cone Exile Hill Fort Selkirk Vent Gabrielse Cone Icefall Cone Ibex Mountain Iskut Canyon Cone Kana Cone Keda Cone Klastline Cone Mess Lake Cone Moraine Cone Ne Ch'e Ddhawa Nahta Cone Outcast Hill Prindle Volcano Ridge Cone Ruby Mountain Second Canyon Cone Sidas Cone Sleet Cone Snippaker Creek Cone Source Hill Storm Cone Thaw Hill The Saucer The Volcano Triplex Cones Tseax Cone Twin Cone Volcanic Creek Cone Volcano Mountain Walkout Creek Cone Watson Lake Cone Williams Cone Subglacial volcanoes Ash Mountain Chakatah Creek Peak Caribou Tuya Dark Mountain Dome Mountain Enid Creek Cone Isspah Butte Kawdy Mountain King Creek Cone Klinkit Creek Peak Klinkit Lake Peak Little Bear Mountain Little Eagle Cone Mathews Tuya Meehaz Mountain Mount Josephine Nuthinaw Mountain Pillow Ridge South Tuya Tennena Cone Tadekho Hill Toozaza Peak Tom MacKay Creek Cone Tsekone Ridge Tutsingale Mountain Tuya Butte Wetalth Ridge Lava domes Cartoona Peak Glacier Dome IGC Centre Nanook Dome Pharaoh Dome Sezill Volcano Sphinx Dome The Pyramid Triangle Dome Shield volcanoes Grizzly Butte Heart Peaks Level Mountain Maitland Volcano Spectrum Range Volcano Vent West Vent Volcanic fields Atlin Bell-Irving Desolation Fort Selkirk Mess Lake Snowshoe Tuya Stratovolcanoes Armadillo Peak Hoodoo Mountain Ice Peak Mount Edziza Volcanic plugs Castle Rock The Neck The Thumb

v t e Interior Mountains of Canada Mountain ranges Atna Atsutla Axelgold Babine Bait Beady Bornite Bulkley Butler Cariboo Heart Cassiar Chikamin Connelly Cormier Driftwood Eaglenest Espee Finlay Fishing Germansen Hazelton Heart Hogem Horseranch Howson Ingenika Kasalka Kechika Kispiox Klappan Lay Level Mountain McConnell Metsantan Mitchell Morice Nass O.K. Omineca Osilinka Oweegee Pattullo Rocher Déboulé Ruby Russel Samuel Black Sibola Sicintine Sifton Sikanni Sitlika Skeena Skree Slamgeesh Spectrum Stikine Strata Swannell Tahtsa Takla Tatlatui Telkwa Tenakihi Three Sisters Thudaka Tochquonyalla Tucha Tuya Vital Whitesail Wolverine Wrede Mountains Ash Cache Camp Caribou Cartoona Castle Rock Chikoida Cronin Dark Edziza Eve Exile Gabrielse Grizzly Gunanoot Howson Ice Icefall Isspah Kana Kawdy Keda Klastline Level Maitland Mathews Meehaz Meszah Moraine Nahlin Nahta Nanook Nuthinaw Outcast Pharaoh Pillow Ridge Sezill Shedin Shelagyote Sidas Sleet Source South Spatsizi Sphinx Storm Tadeda Tadekho Tennena Thomlinson Thudaka Toozaza Triangle Triplex Tseax Tsekone Tutsingale Tuya Twin Volcano West Wetalth Williams Yeda Provincial parks Atlin/Áa Tlein Téix'i Babine Lake Marine Babine Mountains Babine River Corridor Bear Glacier Bulkley Junction Call Lake Chase Denetiah Driftwood Canyon Dune Za Keyih Ed Bird – Estella Lakes Finlay-Russel Iskut River Hot Springs Kinaskan Lake Little Andrews Bay Marine Meziadin Lake Mount Blanchet Mount Edziza Nation Lakes Netalzul Meadows Nilkitkwa Lake Ningunsaw Nisga'a Memorial Lava Bed Rainbow Alley Ross Lake Rubyrock Lake Seeley Lake Seven Sisters Spatsizi Headwaters Spatsizi Plateau Sustut Swan Lake Kispiox River Tā Chʼilā Tatlatui Todagin South Slope Tuya Mountains Tweedsmuir North Tweedsmuir South Tyhee Lake Wistaria Geography portal Canada portal

---
Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Tseax Cone](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseax_Cone) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tseax_Cone?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.