# Tower of Silence

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Zoroastrian excarnation structure

For other uses, see [Tower of Silence (disambiguation)](/source/Tower_of_Silence_(disambiguation)).

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Early 20th century drawing of the *dakhma* on Malabar Hill, Bombay (now Mumbai)

Part of a series on Zoroastrianism Primary topics Ahura Mazda Zarathustra Asha Vohu Manah Persia/Iran Faravahar Avestan Divine entities Amesha Spentas Yazatas Mithra Ahuras Daevas Fravashi Angra Mainyu Scripture and worship Zoroastrian literature Avesta Ashem Vohu Ahuna Vairya Yenghe hatam Airyaman ishya Fire Temples 101 Names of Ahura Mazda Adur Burzen-Mihr Adur Farnbag Adur Gushnasp Cypress of Kashmar Gathas Yasna Vendidad Visperad Yashts Khordeh Avesta The Rivayats Ab-Zohr Accounts and legends Dēnkard Bundahišn Book of Arda Viraf Book of Jamasp Story of Sanjan Chinvat Bridge Frashokereti History and culture Zurvanism Mazdakism Khurramites Gayomarthians Azarkeivanian Mithraism Calendar Festivals Initiation Kushti Sedreh Marriage Burial Adherents Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan China Sichuan India Parsis Iranis Iran Iraq Pakistan Russia United States Uzbekistan Persecution of Zoroastrians Related topics Zoroastrianism and slavery Criticism of Zoroastrianism Zoroastrian cosmology Religious influences on Zoroastrianism Religion portal v t e

Interior view of *dakhma*

A ***dakhma*** ([Persian](/source/Persian_language): دخمه), also known as a **Tower of Silence** ([Persian](/source/Persian_language): برجِ خاموشان), is a circular, raised structure built by [Zoroastrians](/source/Zoroastrians) for [excarnation](/source/Excarnation) (that is, the [exposure of human corpses](/source/Disposal_of_the_dead) to the [elements](/source/Weather) for [decomposition](/source/Decomposition)), in order to avoid contamination of the soil and other natural elements by the dead bodies.[1][2][3] [Carrion birds](/source/Scavenger), usually [vultures](/source/Vulture), and other scavengers, consume the flesh.[1][2] Skeletal remains are gathered into a central pit where further weathering and continued breakdown occurs.[1][2]

## Ritual exposure by Iranian peoples

Main articles: [Ancient Persia](/source/Ancient_Persia) and [Zoroastrians in Iran](/source/Zoroastrians_in_Iran)

Zoroastrian [ritual](/source/Ritual) [exposure of the dead](/source/Disposal_of_the_dead) is first attested in the mid-5th century BCE [*Histories*](/source/Histories_(Herodotus)) of [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus), an [Ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greece) [historian](/source/Historian) who observed the custom amongst [Iranian](/source/Iranian_peoples) expatriates in [Asia Minor](/source/Asia_Minor) (however, there is no mention of the use of towers, as this is first documented in the early 9th century CE).[1][2] In Herodotus' account (in *Histories* i.140), the Zoroastrian funerary rites are said to have been "secret"; however they were first performed after the body had been dragged around by a bird or dog. The corpse was then [embalmed](/source/Embalming#Religious_practices) with wax and laid in a trench.[4]

Writing on the culture of the [Persians](/source/Achaemenid_Empire), [Herodotus](/source/Herodotus) reports on the Persian burial customs performed by the [magi](/source/Magi), again, kept secret, according to his account. However, he writes that he knows they expose the body of male dead to dogs and birds of prey, then they cover the corpse in wax, and then it is buried.[5] The Achaemenid custom for the dead is recorded in the regions of [Bactria](/source/Bactria), [Sogdia](/source/Sogdia), and [Hyrcania](/source/Hyrcania), but not in Western Iran.[6][7]

The discovery of [ossuaries](/source/Ossuary) in both [Eastern](/source/Eastern_Iran) and [Western Iran](/source/Western_Iran) dating to the 5th and 4th centuries BCE indicate that bones were sometimes isolated, but separation occurring through ritual exposure cannot be assumed: burial mounds,[8] where the bodies were wrapped in wax, have also been discovered. The tombs of the [Achaemenid emperors](/source/Achaemenid_Empire) at [Naqsh-e Rustam](/source/Naqsh-e_Rustam) and [Pasargadae](/source/Pasargadae) likewise suggest non-exposure, at least until the bones could be collected. According to legend (incorporated by [Ferdowsi](/source/Ferdowsi) into his *[Shahnameh](/source/Shahnameh)*; lit. 'The Book of Kings'), [Zoroaster](/source/Zoroaster) himself is interred in a tomb at [Balkh](/source/Balkh) (in present-day [Afghanistan](/source/Afghanistan)).

The [Byzantine](/source/Byzantine_Empire) historian [Agathias](/source/Agathias) has described the Zoroastrian burial of the [Sasanian general](/source/Military_of_the_Sasanian_Empire) [Mihr-Mihroe](/source/Mihr-Mihroe): "the attendants of Mermeroes took up his body and removed it to a place outside the city and laid it there as it was, alone and uncovered according to their traditional custom, as refuse for dogs and horrible carrion".[6][9]

Towers are a much later invention and are first documented in the early 9th century CE.[10] The funerary ritual customs surrounding that practice appear to date to the [Sassanid era](/source/Sasanian_Empire) (3rd–7th CE). They are known in detail from the supplement to the *[Shayest ne Shayest](/source/Shayest_ne_Shayest)*, the two *[Rivayat](/source/Rivayat)* collections, and the two *Saddar*s.

One of the earliest literary descriptions of such a building appears in the late 9th-century [Epistles of Manushchihr](/source/Epistles_of_Manushchihr), where the technical term is *astodan*, 'ossuary'. Another term that appears in the 9th- to 10th-century texts of Zoroastrian tradition (the so-called "[Pahlavi books](/source/Pahlavi_books)") is *dakhmag*; in its earliest usage, it referred to any place for the dead.

## Rationale

The doctrinal rationale for exposure is to avoid contact with earth, water, or fire, all three of which are considered sacred in the Zoroastrian religion.[2][3]

Zoroastrian tradition considers human [cadavers](/source/Cadaver) and animal corpses (in addition to cut hair and nail parings) to be *[nasu](/source/Nasu_(Zoroastrianism))*, i.e. unclean, polluting.[1][2][3] Specifically, *Nasu* the corpse demon (*[daeva](/source/Daeva)*), is believed to rush into the body and contaminate everything it comes into contact with.[3][11] For this reason, the *[Vīdēvdād](/source/Videvdad)* (an ecclesiastical code whose title means, 'given against the demons') has rules for disposing of the dead as safely as possible.[1] Moreover, the *Vīdēvdād* requires that graves, and raised tombs as well, must be destroyed.[1][10]

To preclude the pollution of the sacred elements: earth (*[zām](/source/Zam)*), water (*[āpas](/source/Aban)*), and fire (*[ātar](/source/Atar)*), the bodies of the dead are placed at the top of towers and there exposed to the sun and to scavenging birds and [necrophagous](/source/Necrophagous) animals such as wild dogs.[1][2][3] Thus, as an early-20th-century Secretary of the Bombay Parsi community explained: "[putrefaction](/source/Putrefaction) with all its concomitant evils ... is most effectually prevented."[12]

## In current times

### Structure and process

Modern-day towers, which are fairly uniform in their construction, have an almost flat roof, with the perimeter being slightly higher than the centre. The roof is divided into three concentric rings: the bodies of men are arranged around the outer ring, women in the second ring, and children in the innermost ring. The ritual precinct may be entered only by a special class of [pallbearers](/source/Pallbearer), called *nusessalars*, from the [Avestan](/source/Avestan_language): *nasa a salar*, consisting of the word elements, *-salar* ('caretaker') and *nasa-* ('pollutants').

Once the bones have been bleached by the sun and wind, which can take as long as a year, they are collected in an [ossuary](/source/Ossuary) pit at the centre of the tower, where—assisted by [lime](/source/Lime_(material))—they gradually disintegrate, and the remaining material, along with rainwater run-off, seeps through multiple coal and sand filters before being eventually washed out to sea.[13][12]

The precipitous decline in the vulture population in India due to poisoning has led the Parsi community to explore alternatives to standard dakhmas.[14]

[Yazd Tower of Silence](/source/Yazd_Tower_of_Silence), Iran. The building is no longer in use.

An early 20th century photograph of an Iranian tower of silence

### Iran

The central pit of the (now-defunct) [Yazd Tower of Silence](/source/Yazd_Tower_of_Silence), Iran

In the Iranian Zoroastrian tradition, the towers were built atop hills or low mountains in locations distant from population centres. In the early 20th century, Iranian Zoroastrians gradually discontinued their use and began to favour burial or [cremation](/source/Cremation).[15]

The decision to change the system was accelerated by three considerations: the first problem arose with the establishment of the [Dar ul-Funun](/source/Dar_ul-Funun_(Persia)) medical school. Since Islam considers dissection of corpses as an unnecessary form of mutilation, thus forbidding it,[16] there were no corpses for study available through official channels. The towers were repeatedly broken into, much to the dismay of the Zoroastrian community.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] Secondly, while the towers had been built away from population centres, the growth of the towns led to the towers now being within city limits.[15] Finally, many of the Zoroastrians found the system outdated.[15] Following long negotiations between the *anjuman* societies of [Kerman](/source/Kerman), and [Tehran](/source/Tehran), the latter gained a majority and established a cemetery some 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from Tehran at Ghassr-e Firouzeh (Firouzeh's Palace). The graves were lined with rocks and plastered with cement to prevent direct contact with the earth. In Kerman, older orthodox Zoroastrians continued to maintain a tower for a few years after a cemetery was built. Yazdi Zoroastrians continued using the Tower of Silence until the city asked them to close it in 1974.[17]

### India

See also: [Indian vulture crisis](/source/Indian_vulture_crisis)

A late-19th-century engraving of a Zoroastrian Tower of Silence in [Mumbai](/source/Mumbai) (then Bombay)

Following the rapid expansion of the Indian cities, the squat buildings are today in or near population centres, but separated from the metropolitan bustle by gardens or forests. In [Parsi](/source/Parsi_people) Zoroastrian tradition, exposure of the dead is also considered to be an individual's final act of charity, providing the birds with what would otherwise be destroyed.

In the late 20th century and early 21st century, the [vulture population on the Indian subcontinent declined](/source/Indian_vulture_crisis) by over 97% as of 2008, primarily due to [diclofenac](/source/Diclofenac) poisoning of the birds following the introduction of that drug for livestock in the 1990s,[18][19] until banned for cattle by the [Government of India](/source/Government_of_India) in 2006. The few surviving birds are often unable to fully consume the bodies.[20] In 2001, Parsi communities in India were evaluating [captive breeding](/source/Captive_breeding) of vultures and the use of "solar concentrators" (which are essentially large mirrors) to accelerate decomposition.[21] Some have been forced to resort to burial, as the solar collectors work only in clear weather. Vultures used to dispose of a body in minutes, and no other method has proved fully effective.

The right to use the Towers of Silence is a much-debated issue among the Parsi community. The facilities are usually managed by the *anjumans*, the predominantly conservative local Zoroastrian associations. These usually consist of a nine-member board, including five priests. In accordance with Indian statutes, these associations have domestic authority over trust properties and have the right to grant or restrict entry and use, with the result that the associations frequently prohibit the use by the offspring of a "mixed marriage", that is, where one parent is a Parsi and the other is not.[22]

The towers remain in use as sacred locations for the Parsi community.[23] Organized tours can be taken to the site.[24] Non-members may not enter the towers;[25] in [Mumbai](/source/Mumbai), visitors are shown a model of a tower.[26]

## See also

- [Burial tree](/source/Burial_tree)

- [Disposal of human corpses](/source/Disposal_of_human_corpses) – Burial methods

- [Fire temple](/source/Fire_temple), Zoroastrian place of worship

- [Natural burial](/source/Natural_burial)

- [Seth Modi Hirji Vachha](/source/Seth_Modi_Hirji_Vachha), builder of the first Bombay (Mumbai) *dakhma* (1672)

- [Sky burial](/source/Sky_burial)

- *[Vāyu-Vāta](/source/Vayu-Vata)*, *air* (*vāyu*) as a sacred element and the Zoroastrian divinity of *wind*

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-Russell-2000_1-7) [Russell, James R.](/source/James_R._Russell) (1 January 2000). ["BURIAL iii. In Zoroastrianism"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/burial-iii). *[Encyclopædia Iranica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica)*. Vol. IV/6. [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Columbia University](/source/Columbia_University). pp. 561–563. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2330-4804](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2330-4804). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130517012152/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/burial-iii) from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-Huff-2004_2-6) Huff, Dietrich (2004). ["Archaeological Evidence of Zoroastrian Funerary Practices"](https://books.google.com/books?id=sNqmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA593). In [Stausberg, Michael](/source/Michael_Stausberg) (ed.). *Zoroastrian Rituals in Context*. Numen Book Series. Vol. 102. [Leiden](/source/Leiden): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 593–630. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789047412502_027](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789047412502_027). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-13131-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-13131-0). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0169-8834](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-8834). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2003055913](https://lccn.loc.gov/2003055913).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Malandra-2013_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Malandra-2013_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Malandra-2013_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Malandra-2013_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Malandra-2013_3-4) Malandra, W. W. (2013). ["Iran"](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1xbAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA122). In [Spaeth, Barbette Stanley](/source/Barbette_Spaeth) (ed.). *The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions*. [New York](/source/New_York_City): [Cambridge University Press](/source/Cambridge_University_Press). p. 122. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/CCO9781139047784.009](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCCO9781139047784.009). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-11396-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-11396-0). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2012049271](https://lccn.loc.gov/2012049271).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-stausberg_2004_4-0)** Stausberg, Michael (2004). "Bestattungsanlagen". *Die Religion Zarathushtras: Geschichte, Gegenwart, Rituale*. Vol. 3. Stuttgart: Verlag W. Kohlhammer. pp. 204–245. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3170171206](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3170171206).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Herodotus iii. Defining the Persians"](http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herodotus-iii). *Encyclopaedia Iranica* (online ed.). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190129214830/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/herodotus-iii) from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 24 January 2019.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-iranica-mihrmihroe_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-iranica-mihrmihroe_6-1) *[Encyclopaedia Iranica](/source/Encyclopaedia_Iranica)*, edited by Ehsan Yar-Shater, Routledge & Kegan Paul Volume 6, Parts 1–3, p. 281a.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Grenet_2000_7-0)** Grenet, Frantz (January 2000). ["BURIAL ii. Remnants of Burial Practices in Ancient Iran"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/burial-ii). *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. Vol. IV. pp. 559–561. Fasc. 5–6.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Falk, Harry (1989), "Soma I and II", *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies*, **52** (1): 77–90, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0041977x00023077](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x00023077), [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [146512196](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146512196)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Boyce_mihroe_9-0)** Boyce, Mary (October 31, 2011) [First published 15 December 1993]. ["CORPSE, disposal of, in Zoroastrianism"](https://iranicaonline.org/articles/corpse-disposal-of-in-zoroastrianism). *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. Vol. VI. pp. 279–286. Fasc. 3. Agathias described at second hand the disposal of the body of the Persian general Mihr-Mihrōē, who died in 555: 'Then the attendants of Mihr-Mihrōē took up his body and removed it to a place outside the city and laid it there as it was, alone and uncovered according to their traditional custom, as refuse for dogs and horrible carrion birds'

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Boyce_1975_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Boyce_1975_10-1) Boyce, Mary (1975). "The Zoroastrian Funeral Rites". *A history of Zoroastrianism: Early period*. Vol. 1. Leiden: Brill. pp. 156–165, 325–330. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004294004_014](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004294004_014). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004294004](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004294004).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Brodd, Jeffrey (2003). *World Religions*. Winona, MN, USA: Saint Mary's Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-88489-725-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88489-725-5).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-jjmodi_12-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-jjmodi_12-1) Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji (1928). [*The Funeral Ceremonies of the Parsees*](https://www.avesta.org/ritual/funeral.htm) (Monograph) (Fourth ed.). Anthropological Society of Bombay. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20050207235536/http://avesta.org/ritual/funeral.htm) from the original on 2005-02-07. Retrieved 2005-09-09. - Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji (2011) [Reprint of 2nd edition (1937), originally published by Jehangir B. Karani's Sons: Bombay]. Peterson, Joseph H. (ed.). [*The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees*](https://zoroastrians.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/religious-ceremonies-jj-modi.pdf) (PDF). Kasson, Minnesota, US: Avesta.org. pp. 55–58. - In the explanation quoted, Modi quotes from a "short description of the tower with a plan as given by Mr. Nusserwanjee Byrawjee, the late energetic Secretary of the public charity funds and properties of the Parsi community." (p. 57).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Sunavala, Nergish (28 October 2014). ["Defunct Tower of Silence lives on in the heart of an Andheri residential colony"](https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/defunct-tower-of-silence-lives-on-in-the-heart-of-an-andheri-residential-colony/articleshow/44954598.cms). *The Times of India*. Retrieved 1 May 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-guard_14-0)** Gulzeb, Sonia (2024-05-04). ["'Our culture is dying': vulture shortage threatens Zoroastrian burial rites"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/may/04/vulture-shortage-threatens-zoroastrian-burial-rites-india-iran-pakistan). Pakistan. *[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian)*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1756-3224](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1756-3224). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [60623878](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/60623878). Retrieved 2024-05-19.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Boyce_1979_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Boyce_1979_15-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Boyce_1979_15-2) Boyce, Mary (1979), Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, London: Routledge, pp. 221–222

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Aramesh, Kiarash (30 May 2009). ["The Ownership of Human Body: An Islamic Perspective"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3713940). *Journal of Medical Ethics and History of Medicine*. **2**: 4. [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3713940](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3713940). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23908718](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23908718).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Kestenberg Amighi, Janet (2022). *The Zoroastrians of Iran: A history of transformation and survival*. Mazda Press.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Tait, Malcolm (10 October 2004). ["India's vulture population is facing catastrophic collapse and with it the sacrosanct corporeal passing of the Parsi dead"](https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223031/http://www.theecologist.org/archive_detail.asp?content_id=325). *The Ecologist*. Archived from [the original](https://theecologist.org/2004/oct/01/fate-indias-vultures) on 27 September 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Adam, David (31 January 2006). ["Cattle drug blamed as India's vultures near extinction"](https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/jan/31/india.conservationandendangeredspecies). *The Guardian*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Swan, Gerry; Naidoo, Vinasan; Cuthbert, Richard; et al. (January 2006). ["Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351921). *PLOS Biology*. **4** (3): e66. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pbio.0040066](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040066). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1351921](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351921). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16435886](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16435886).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Srivastava, Sanjeev (18 July 2001), ["Parsis turn to solar power"](https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1443789.stm), *BBC News South Asia*, [archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20060630211902/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1443789.stm) from the original on 30 June 2006, retrieved 9 September 2005

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Palsetia, Jesse S. (2001). ["Epilogue: Identity and the Present-Day Parsis"](https://brill.com/view/book/9789004491274/back-1.xml). *The Parsis of India: Preservation of identity in Bombay city*. Leiden: Brill. pp. 320–337. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004491274](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004491274).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["My Visit To The Tower Of Silence Helped Me Come To Terms With Death"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210126054456/https://www.101india.com/people/my-visit-tower-silence-helped-me-come-terms-death). Archived from [the original](https://www.101india.com/people/my-visit-tower-silence-helped-me-come-terms-death) on 2021-01-26. Retrieved 2020-12-09.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["Citizen groups oppose heritage tour of Parsi Tower of Silence"](https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/citizen-groups-oppose-heritage-tour-of-parsi-tower-of-silence/story-FWgvfu1izNo6Wacu68Kd2M.html). *Hindustan Times*. New Delhi, India: HT Digital Streams Ltd. 10 December 2016.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** [Tower of Silence, Sky Burial and Birds of Prey](https://beyonder.travel/india/sky-burial-tower-of-silence-and-birds-of-prey/)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** ["Protests don't hinder heritage walk at Tower of Silence"](https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/protests-don-t-hinder-heritage-walk-at-tower-of-silence/story-LqQV2Trhft6pHEdO2MfGRN.html). *Hindustan Times*. 12 December 2016.

## Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Towers of Silence](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Towers_of_Silence).

Look up ***[tower of silence](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/tower_of_silence)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [*Vendidad* Fargard 5, Purity Laws](https://www.avesta.org/vendidad/vd5sbe.htm), as translated by [James Darmesteter](/source/James_Darmesteter)

- Wadia, Azmi (2002), "Evolution of the Towers of Silence and their Significance", in Godrej, Pheroza J.; Mistree, Firoza Punthakey (eds.), *A Zoroastrian Tapestry*, New York: Mapin - Excerpted in ["*A Zoroastrian Tapestry* (book extract)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20030107132954/http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/21/stories/2002072100130200.htm). *The Hindu - Sunday Magazine*. 21 July 2002. Archived from [the original](http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/mag/2002/07/21/stories/2002072100130200.htm) on 7 January 2003.

- Lucarelli, Fosco (February 9, 2012). ["Towers of Silence: Zoroastrian Architectures for the Ritual of Death"](https://web.archive.org/web/20161119174530/http://socks-studio.com/2012/02/09/towers-of-silence-zoroastrian-architectures-for-the-ritual-of-death/), *Socks-Studio*

- Kotwal, Firoze M.; Mistree, Khojeste P. (2002), "Protecting the Physical World", in Godrej, Pheroza J.; Mistree, Firoza Punthakey (eds.), *A Zoroastrian Tapestry*, New York: Mapin, pp. 337–365

- منصور خواجه پور [Khajepour, Mansour]; زینب رئوفی [Raoufi, Zeinab] (June 2018). "راهبردی نظری برای باززنده‌سازی دخمه‌های زرتشتیان در ایران (نمونۀ موردی : دخمۀ زرتشتیان کرمان)" [A Theoretical Approach to Restoration of Zoroastrians' Tower of Silence (Dakhma) in Iran (A Case study of tower of silence of Kerman)]. *ماهنامه علمی پژوهشی باغ نظر [Bagh-e-Nazar: The Scientific Journal of NAZAR research center for Art, Architecture & Urbanism]* (in Persian and English). **15** (61): 57–70. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.22034/bagh.2018.63865](https://doi.org/10.22034%2Fbagh.2018.63865).

- Harris, Gardiner (29 November 2012). ["Giving New Life to Vultures to Restore a Human Ritual of Death"](https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/30/world/asia/cultivating-vultures-to-restore-a-mumbai-ritual.html), *The New York Times*

- [Dunning, Brian](/source/Brian_Dunning_(author)) (August 14, 2012). ["Skeptoid #323: 8 Spooky Places, and Why They're Like That"](https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4323). *[Skeptoid](/source/Brian_Dunning_(author)#Skeptoid_podcasts)*. 1. Zoroastrian Towers of Silence

- [Boyce, Mary](/source/Mary_Boyce) (1979), *Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices*, London: Routledge, pp. 156–162

- Boyce, Mary (1996), ["Death among Zoroastrians"](https://web.archive.org/web/20071106095624/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v7f2/v7f263.html), *Encyclopædia Iranica*, vol. 7, Cosa Mesa: Mazda, archived from [the original](http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v7f2/v7f263.html) on 2007-11-06, retrieved 2007-08-15

Authority control databases International FAST National United States Israel Other Yale LUX

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