# Topographic map

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Medium to large scale map that shows a precise map of the terrain

For broader coverage of this topic, see [Terrain cartography](/source/Terrain_cartography).

Sergeant Chris D. Washington checking his Topographic map during a morning deer hunt in [Kilgore, Texas](/source/Kilgore%2C_Texas)

A topographic map of [Stowe, Vermont](/source/Stowe%2C_Vermont) with contour lines

Part of the same map in a perspective [shaded relief](/source/Shaded_relief) view illustrating how the contour lines follow the terrain

 Sheet #535 (2013 version; second digital edition) of MTN50 Spanish National Topographic map series, covering [Algete](/source/Algete) town (near [Madrid](/source/Madrid)) and its surroundings.

 Section of topographical map of [Nablus](/source/Nablus) area ([West Bank](/source/West_Bank)) with contour lines at 100-meter intervals. Heights are colour-coded.

In modern mapping, a **topographic map** or **topographic sheet** is a type of [map](/source/Map) characterized by large-[scale](/source/Scale_(map)) detail and quantitative representation of relief features, usually using [contour lines](/source/Contour_line) (connecting points of equal elevation), but historically using a [variety of methods](/source/Cartographic_relief_depiction). Traditional definitions require a topographic map to show both natural and artificial features.[1] A topographic survey is typically based upon a systematic observation and published as a [map series](/source/Map_series), made up of two or more map sheets that combine to form the whole map. A topographic map series uses a common specification that includes the range of cartographic symbols employed, as well as a standard geodetic framework that defines the [map projection](/source/Map_projection), [coordinate system](/source/Coordinate_system), [ellipsoid](/source/Ellipsoid) and [geodetic datum](/source/Geodetic_datum). Official topographic maps also adopt a national grid referencing system.

[Natural Resources Canada](/source/Natural_Resources_Canada) provides this description of topographic maps:[2]

These maps depict in detail ground relief (landforms and terrain), drainage (lakes and rivers), [forest cover](/source/Forest_cover), administrative areas, populated areas, transportation routes and facilities (including roads and railways), and other man-made features.

Other authors define topographic maps by contrasting them with another type of map; they are distinguished from smaller-scale "[chorographic](/source/Chorography) maps" that cover large regions,[3][4] "[planimetric](/source/Planimetrics) maps" that do not show elevations,[5] and "[thematic maps](/source/Thematic_map)" that focus on specific topics.[6]

However, in the vernacular and day to day world, the representation of relief (contours) is popularly held to define the genre, such that even small-scale maps showing relief are commonly (and erroneously, in the technical sense) called "topographic".[4]

The study or discipline of [topography](/source/Topography) is a much broader field of study, which takes into account all [natural](/source/Landform_feature) and human-made features of terrain. Maps were among the first artifacts to record observations about topography.[7]

## History

See also: [Topography § Etymology](/source/Topography#Etymology)

See also: [Cartography § History](/source/Cartography#History)

Topographic maps are based on topographical surveys. Performed at large scales, these surveys are called topographical in the old sense of [topography](/source/Topography_as_the_study_of_place), showing a variety of elevations and landforms.[8] This is in contrast to older [cadastral surveys](/source/Cadastral_survey), which primarily show property and governmental boundaries. The first multi-sheet topographic map series of an entire country, the *Carte géométrique de la France*, was completed in 1789.[9] The [Great Trigonometric Survey](/source/Great_Trigonometric_Survey) of India, started by the [East India Company](/source/East_India_Company) in 1802, then taken over by the [British Raj](/source/British_Raj) after 1857 was notable as a successful effort on a larger scale and for accurately determining heights of Himalayan peaks from viewpoints over one hundred miles distant.[10]

Global indexing system first developed for *International Map of the World*

Topographic surveys were prepared by the military to assist in planning for battle and for defensive emplacements (thus the name and history of the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom)'s [Ordnance Survey](/source/Ordnance_Survey)). As such, elevation information was of vital importance.[11]

As they evolved, topographic map series became a national resource in modern nations in planning infrastructure and resource exploitation. In the United States, the national map-making function which had been shared by both the [Army Corps of Engineers](/source/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers) and the [Department of the Interior](/source/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior) migrated to the newly created [United States Geological Survey](/source/United_States_Geological_Survey) in 1879, where it has remained since.[12][13]

1913 saw the beginning of the [International Map of the World](/source/International_Map_of_the_World) initiative, which set out to map all of Earth's significant land areas at a scale of 1:1 million, on about one thousand sheets, each covering four degrees latitude by six or more degrees longitude. Excluding borders, each sheet was 44 cm high and (depending on latitude) up to 66 cm wide. Although the project eventually foundered, it left an [indexing system](/source/International_Map_of_the_World#Map_Indexing_System) that remains in use.

By the 1980s, centralized printing of standardized topographic maps began to be superseded by databases of coordinates that could be used on computers by moderately skilled end users to view or print maps with arbitrary contents, coverage and scale. For example, the [federal government of the United States](/source/Federal_government_of_the_United_States)' *[TIGER](/source/TIGER)* initiative compiled interlinked databases of federal, state and local political [borders](/source/Border) and [census enumeration areas](/source/Census_tract), and of roadways, railroads, and water features with support for locating street addresses within street segments. TIGER was developed in the 1980s and used in the 1990 and subsequent [decennial censuses](/source/United_States_Census). [Digital elevation models](/source/Digital_elevation_model) (*DEM*) were also compiled, initially from topographic maps and stereographic interpretation of aerial photographs and then from [satellite photography and radar data](/source/Remote_sensing). Since all these were government projects funded with taxes and not classified for national security reasons, the datasets were in the [public domain](/source/Public_domain) and freely usable without fees or licensing.

TIGER and DEM datasets greatly facilitated [geographic information systems](/source/Geographic_information_system) and made the [Global Positioning System](/source/Global_Positioning_System) much more useful by providing context around locations given by the technology as coordinates. Initial applications were mostly professionalized forms such as innovative [surveying instruments](/source/Surveying#Equipment) and agency-level GIS systems tended by experts. By the mid-1990s, increasingly [user-friendly](/source/Usability) resources such as [online mapping](/source/Web_mapping) in two and three dimensions, integration of GPS with [mobile phones](/source/Mobile_phone) and [automotive navigation systems](/source/Automotive_navigation_system) appeared. As of 2011, the future of standardized, centrally printed topographical maps is left somewhat in doubt.[14][15]

## Uses

[Curvimeter](/source/Curvimeter) used to measure a distance on a topographic map

Topographic maps have many multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic [planning](/source/Planning) or large-scale [architecture](/source/Architecture); [Earth sciences](/source/Earth_sciences) and many other [geographic](/source/Geography) disciplines; [mining](/source/Mining) and other Earth-based endeavours; [civil engineering](/source/Civil_engineering) and recreational uses such as [hiking](/source/Hiking) and [orienteering](/source/Orienteering).

It takes practice and skill to read and interpret a topographic map. This includes not only how to identify map features, but also how to interpret contour lines to infer landforms like cliffs, ridges, draws, etc. Training in map reading is often given in orienteering, scouting, and the military.[16]

## Conventions

Further information: [contour lines § Elevation and depth](/source/Contour_lines#Elevation_and_depth)

The various features shown on the map are represented by conventional signs or symbols. For example, colors can be used to indicate a classification of roads. These signs are usually explained in the margin of the map, or on a separately published characteristic sheet.[17][18][19]

Topographic maps are also commonly called *contour maps* or *topo maps*. In the United States, where the primary national series is organized by a strict 7.5-minute grid, they are often called or *[quads](/source/Quadrangle_(geography))* or quadrangles.

Topographic maps conventionally show [topography](/source/Topography), or land contours, by means of [contour lines](/source/Contour_line). Contour lines are [curves](/source/Curve) that connect contiguous points of the same [altitude](/source/Altitude) ([isohypse](/source/Isohypse)). In other words, every point on the marked line of 100 m [elevation](/source/Elevation) is 100 m above mean sea level.

These maps usually show not only the contours, but also any significant [streams](/source/Stream) or other bodies of [water](/source/Water), [forest](/source/Forest) cover, built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest such as what direction those streams are flowing.

Most topographic maps were prepared using [photogrammetric](/source/Photogrammetry) interpretation of [aerial photography](/source/Aerial_photography) using a [stereoplotter](/source/Stereoplotter). Modern mapping also employs [lidar](/source/Lidar) and other [Remote sensing](/source/Remote_sensing) techniques. Older topographic maps were prepared using traditional [surveying](/source/Surveying) instruments.

The cartographic style (content and appearance) of topographic maps is highly variable between national mapping organizations. Aesthetic traditions and conventions persist in topographic map symbology, particularly amongst European countries at medium map scales.[20]

## Publishers of national topographic map series

See also: [National mapping agency](/source/National_mapping_agency) and [Map series](/source/Map_series)

Although virtually the entire terrestrial surface of Earth has been mapped at scale 1:1,000,000, medium and large-scale mapping has been accomplished intensively in some countries and much less in others.[21] Several commercial vendors supply international topographic map series.

According to 2007/2/EC [European directive](/source/Directive_(European_Union)), national mapping agencies of [European Union](/source/European_Union) countries must have publicly available services for searching, viewing and downloading their official map series.[22] Topographic maps produced by some of them are available under a [free license](/source/Free_license) that allows re-use, such as a [Creative Commons](/source/Creative_Commons_license) license.[23]

## See also

- [Aeronautical chart](/source/Aeronautical_chart)

- [Bathymetric chart](/source/Bathymetric_chart)

- [Cadastral map](/source/Cadastral_map)

- [Thematic map](/source/Thematic_map)

- [Hypsometric tints](/source/Hypsometric_tints)

- [International Map of the World](/source/International_Map_of_the_World)

- [(List of) national mapping agencies](/source/National_mapping_agency#List_of_national_mapping_agencies)

- [Nautical chart](/source/Nautical_chart)

- [Raised-relief map](/source/Raised-relief_map)

- [Stereoplotter](/source/Stereoplotter)

- [Topo (climbing)](/source/Topo_(climbing))

- [TopoFusion](/source/TopoFusion)

- [Topographic profile](/source/Topographic_profile)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Kent, Alexander (1 July 2009). ["Topographic Maps: Methodological Approaches for Analyzing Cartographic Style"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233462562). *Journal of Map & Geography Libraries*. **5** (2): 131–156. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/15420350903001187](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15420350903001187). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [128466975](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128466975). Retrieved 13 June 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Government of Canada (8 April 2016). ["National Topographic System Maps"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160515060238/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9767). *Earth Sciences – Geography*. Natural Resources Canada. Archived from [the original](http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/earth-sciences/geography/topographic-information/maps/9767) on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 16 May 2016. yes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** P. D. A. Harvey, *The History of Topographical Maps: Symbols, Pictures and Surveys*, Thames and Hudson, 1980, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-500-24105-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-24105-8), p. 9. "By a topographical map, we mean a large-scale map, one that sets out to convey the shape and pattern of landscape, showing a tiny portion of the earth's surface as it lies within one's own direct experience, and quite distinct from the small-scale maps that show us the features of whole provinces, nations and continents."

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-AAT_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-AAT_4-1) [Art & Architecture Thesaurus](/source/Art_%26_Architecture_Thesaurus) entry for [topographic maps](http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=topographic+maps&logic=AND&note=&english=N&prev_page=1&subjectid=300028361) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110607112443/http://www.getty.edu/vow/AATFullDisplay?find=topographic+maps&logic=AND&note=&english=N&prev_page=1&subjectid=300028361) 7 June 2011 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Committee on Nomenclature of the American Society of Photogrammetry, "Definitions of terms used in photogrammetric surveying and mapping: preliminary report", *Photogrammetric Engineering*, 8, 247–283, 1942. "Topographic Map. A map that presents the horizontal and vertical positions of the features represented; distinguished from a planimetric map by the addition of relief in measurable form." This definition is used in many glossaries of map terminology.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** M.-J. Kraak and F. Ormeling, *Cartography: Visualization of Spatial Data*, Longman, 1996, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-582-25953-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-25953-3), p. 44. "Traditionally, the main division of maps is into topographic and thematic maps. Topographic maps supply a general image of the earth's surface: roads, rivers, buildings, often the nature of the vegetation, the relief and the names of the various mapped objects."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Kent, A.J.; Hopfstock, A. (November 2018). ["Topographic Mapping: Past, Present and Future"](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00087041.2018.1576973). *The Cartographic Journal*. **55** (4): 305–308. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00087041.2018.1576973](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00087041.2018.1576973).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** The range of information is indicated by the title of a map produced in 1766: *A Topographical Map of Hartfordshire from an Actual Survey in which is Express'd all the Roads, Lanes, Churches, Noblemen and Gentlemen's Seats, and every Thing remarkable in the County*, by Andrew Dury and John Andrews, reprinted by Hertfordshire Publications in 1980. This showed the relief by using [hachures](/source/Hachures).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Library of Congress, [Geography and Maps: General Collections](https://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgen.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170916032347/http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmillgen.html) 16 September 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Dickey, Parke A (October 1985). ["Who discovered Mount Everest?"](https://books.google.com/books?id=VnLjkpL4CyoC). *Eos*. **66** (41): 54–59. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1985EOSTr..66..697D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985EOSTr..66..697D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1029/EO066i041p00697](https://doi.org/10.1029%2FEO066i041p00697). Retrieved 26 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Peter Barber, *The Map Book*, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-297-84372-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-297-84372-9), pp. 232, 250.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["Organizing the U.S. Geological Survey"](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/organize.htm). *The United States Geological Survey: 1879–1989*. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. 10 April 2000. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070702030549/http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/organize.htm) from the original on 2 July 2007. Retrieved 19 June 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["The Four Great Surveys of the West"](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/surveys.htm). *The United States Geological Survey: 1879–1989*. U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior. 10 April 2000. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20070610033043/http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/surveys.htm) from the original on 10 June 2007. Retrieved 19 June 2007.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Ramirez, J. Raul. ["Maps for the Future: A Discussion"](https://web.archive.org/web/20111122231944/http://www.cfm.ohio-state.edu/people/personal/Documents/Maps%20for%20the%20Future-A%20Discussion.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](http://www.cfm.ohio-state.edu/people/personal/Documents/Maps%20for%20the%20Future-A%20Discussion.pdf) (PDF) on 22 November 2011. Retrieved 1 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Hurst, Paul (1 September 2010), [*Will we be lost without paper maps in the digital age?*](https://web.archive.org/web/20111002235623/http://dagda.shef.ac.uk/dissertations/2009-10/External/PHurst_090125672_Hurst_Dissertation.pdf) (PDF) (M.S. thesis), U.K.: University of Sheffield, pp. 1–18, archived from [the original](http://dagda.shef.ac.uk/dissertations/2009-10/External/PHurst_090125672_Hurst_Dissertation.pdf) (PDF) on 2 October 2011, retrieved 1 July 2011

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** [*Map Reading and Land Navigation*](https://irp.fas.org/doddir/army/fm3-25-26.pdf) (PDF). Field Manual No. 3-25.26. Washington, DC: US Department of the Army. January 2005 – via Intelligence Resource Program.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** ["OS Explorer Map / 1:25 000 Scale Colour Raster"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121101163741/http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/docs/legends/25k-raster-legend.pdf) (PDF). *Ordnance Survey*. July 2012. Archived from [the original](http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/docs/legends/25k-raster-legend.pdf) (PDF) on 1 November 2012.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** ["symbolsen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110726110548/http://www.swisstopo.admin.ch/internet/swisstopo/en/home/products/accessories/brochures.parsys.000120.DownloadFile.tmp/symbolsen.pdf) (PDF). *Swisstopo*. Archived from [the original](http://www.swisstopo.admin.ch/internet/swisstopo/en/home/products/accessories/brochures.parsys.000120.DownloadFile.tmp/symbolsen.pdf) (PDF) on 26 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** ["Topographic Map Symbols"](https://web.archive.org/web/20080910173405/http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/topomapsymbols.pdf) (PDF). United States Geological Survey. Archived from [the original](https://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/symbols/topomapsymbols.pdf) (PDF) on 10 September 2008.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Kent, Alexander J.; Vujakovic, Peter (August 2009). "Stylistic Diversity in European State 1 : 50 000 Topographic Maps". *The Cartographic Journal*. **46** (3): 179–213. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1179/000870409x12488753453453](https://doi.org/10.1179%2F000870409x12488753453453). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0008-7041](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0008-7041). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [129681695](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129681695).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Pickles, John. [*Cartography, Digital Transitions, and Questions of History*](https://web.archive.org/web/20111123000016/http://icaci.org/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC1999/Print%20PDF/ICA01.pdf) (PDF). International Cartographic Association, 1999. Ottawa. p. 17. Archived from [the original](http://icaci.org/documents/ICC_proceedings/ICC1999/Print%20PDF/ICA01.pdf) (PDF) on 23 November 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["L_2007108EN.01000101.xml"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220119034253/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32007L0002&from=EN). 19 January 2022. Archived from [the original](http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32007L0002&from=EN) on 19 January 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["Spanish IGN products license (in Spanish)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20220506084419/https://www.ign.es/resources/licencia/Condiciones_licenciaUso_IGN.pdf) (PDF). Archived from [the original](https://www.ign.es/resources/licencia/Condiciones_licenciaUso_IGN.pdf) (PDF) on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2022.

## External links

- USGS Topographic maps are downloadable as pdf files [from a searchable map](https://web.archive.org/web/20130601175947/http://store.usgs.gov/b2c_usgs/usgs/maplocator/%28ctype%3DareaDetails%26xcm%3Dr3standardpitrex_prd%26carea%3D%24ROOT%26layout%3D6_1_61_48%26uiarea%3D2%29/.do) or [by a search if the map name is known](https://web.archive.org/web/20161208203017/https://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=262:1:0).

- [How a Topographic Map is Manufactured, History, and Other Information](http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Topographic-Map.html)

- [The International Cartographic Association (ICA) Commission on Topographic Mapping](https://topo.icaci.org)

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Topographic map](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographic_map) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topographic_map?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.