# The Chimeras
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{{short description|Series of sonnets by Gérard de Nerval}}
{{italic title}}
'''''The Chimeras''''' ({{langx|fr|Les Chimères}}) is a sequence of [sonnet](/source/sonnet)s by the French writer [Gérard de Nerval](/source/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval), made up of eight individual poems and a total of twelve sonnets. The poems are: "El Desdichado", "Myrtho", "Horus", "Anteros", "[Delphica](/source/Delphica)", "Artemis", "Christ at Gethsemane" (I–V) and "Golden Verses". They were published in the book ''[Les Filles du feu](/source/Les_Filles_du_feu)'' in January 1854.
==Background==
[[File:Félix Nadar 1820-1910 portraits Gérard de Nerval.jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of Nerval by [Nadar](/source/Nadar)]]
The writer [Gérard de Nerval](/source/G%C3%A9rard_de_Nerval) (1808–1855) had mental health problems and his doctor Émile Blanche had recommended him to continue writing as a form of therapy.{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=229}} The poems of ''The Chimeras'' may express his struggle with a particularly difficult period; Nerval spent time in psychiatric hospitals in 1840–1841, 1851, 1853 and 1854. In 1853 he temporarily lost the ability to speak and write, and his identity.{{sfn|Gordon|1990|pp=99–100}} His illness made him identify with figures from myths and legends, and in the interplay with these characters in his poems he attempted to create a self.{{sfn|Gordon|1990|p=87}} Regarding the obscurity of his ''Chimera'' poems, Nerval wrote that they "would lose their charm by being explained, if that thing was possible".{{sfn|Gordon|1990|p=86|ps=: "perdraient de leur charme à être expliqués, si la chose était possible"}}
==Poems==
*'''"El Desdichado"''' The first-person narrator introduces himself as the Prince of [Aquitaine](/source/Duchy_of_Aquitaine) and claims to have crossed the [Acheron](/source/Acheron)–one of the rivers of the [Greek underworld](/source/Greek_underworld)–twice.{{sfn|Gordon|1990|p=87}}
*'''"Myrtho"''' The poem praises [Myrtho](/source/Myrto_(mythology)), the personification of the [myrtle](/source/Myrtaceae), a plant that was sacred to [Venus](/source/Venus_(mythology)). In the plays of [Plautus](/source/Plautus) it is associated with female sexual desire.{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=245}}
*'''"Horus"''' The story of [Kneph](/source/Geb), [Isis](/source/Isis) and [Osiris](/source/Osiris) from [Egyptian mythology](/source/Egyptian_mythology) is used to convey a message about spiritual growth. The poem suggests a parallel to [Vulcan](/source/Vulcan_(mythology)), Venus and [Mars](/source/Mars_(mythology)) from [Roman mythology](/source/Roman_mythology).{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=249}}
*'''"Anteros"''' ({{langx|fr|Antéros}}). [Anteros](/source/Anteros), the brother of [Eros](/source/Eros) and god of unrequited love, addresses the philosopher [Iamblichus](/source/Iamblichus) about the nature of torment and rage. He claims ancestry from [Antaeus](/source/Antaeus), identifies [Satan](/source/Satan) with [Baal](/source/Baal) or [Dagon](/source/Dagon) and denounces [Jehovah](/source/Jehovah).{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=247}}
*'''"[Delphica](/source/Delphica)"''' ({{langx|fr|Delfica}}). Inspired by Nerval's Italian journey and [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](/source/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe)'s poem "Kennst du das Land", the poem expresses its author's belief that [paganism](/source/paganism) will resurge in an enlightened form which will subsume the Christian ethos.{{sfn|Appelbaum|2004|p=97}}
*'''"Artemis"''' ({{langx|fr|Artémis}}). Evokes the goddess [Artemis](/source/Artemis) through a deck of [Tarot](/source/Tarot) cards, identifying her with [the queen](/source/The_Empress_(Tarot_card)).{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=250}}
*'''"Christ in the Olive Grove"''' ({{langx|fr|Le Christ aux Oliviers}}) (I–V). Five sonnets about [Jesus](/source/Jesus) on the [Mount of Olives](/source/Mount_of_Olives) in Jerusalem, adapted from the [New Testament](/source/New_Testament)'s [Matt.](/source/Gospel_of_Matthew) 24–26, [Mark](/source/Gospel_of_Mark) 13–14, [Luke](/source/Gospel_of_Luke) 19, 21 and [John](/source/Gospel_of_John) 8, 13.{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=229}} The portrayal, which focuses on the return of spirit to the world after the [death of God](/source/God_is_dead), is inspired by [Jean Paul](/source/Jean_Paul)'s reading of the gospels in the novel ''[Siebenkäs](/source/Siebenk%C3%A4s)'' (1796–97) and [Germaine de Staël](/source/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl)'s reading of Jean Paul in ''[On Germany](/source/On_Germany)'' (1813).{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=230}}
*'''"Golden Verses"''' ({{langx|fr|Vers dorés}}). The poem is inspired by [Pythagoreanism](/source/Pythagoreanism) and the idea of a [universal soul](/source/Anima_mundi), as interpreted by [Jean-Baptiste-Claude Delisle de Sales](/source/Jean-Baptiste-Claude_Delisle_de_Sales) in the book ''De la philosophie de la nature'' (1777).{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=242}}
Some French editions have an ''Autres Chimères'' section containing nine additional sonnets, namely "La Tête de l'Armée", "A Madame [Ida Dumas](/source/Alexandre_Dumas)", "A Madame Aguado", "A [Hélène de Mecklenburg](/source/Duchess_Helene_of_Mecklenburg-Schwerin)", "A Madame Sand", an alternate version of "Myrto", "A Louise d'Or. Reine", "A J Colonna" and "Érythréa".[{{Cite web | title=Archived copy | url=http://promeneur-libre.raindrop.jp/litterature/pdf_fr/NERVAL__Autres_Chimeres.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920084408/http://promeneur-libre.raindrop.jp/litterature/pdf_fr/NERVAL__Autres_Chimeres.pdf | archive-date=2021-09-20}}]
==Publication and translations==
The eight poems were published in their final form in January 1854, when they were included at the end of Nerval's short story collection ''[Les Filles du feu](/source/Les_Filles_du_feu)''.{{sfn|Brix|1997|p=157}} Several of them had appeared before in the magazine ''[L'Artiste](/source/L'Artiste)''. "Le Christ aux Oliviers" was published there on 31 March 1844, "Vers dorés" (as "Pensée antique", "ancient thought") on 16 March 1845 and "Delfica" (as "Vers dorée") on 28 December 1845.{{sfn|Burwick|1996|pp=242, 244}} "El Desdichado" was published in ''Le Mousquetaire'' on 10 December 1853.{{sfn|Gordon|1990|p=100}}
In 1957, Geoffrey Wagner published ''Selected Writings of Gerard de Nerval'' (Grove Press, New York), the last section of which was a selection of Nerval's poetry which included the ''Chimera'' poems, though not "Le Christ aux Oliviers".[{{Cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001015051?type%5B%5D=all&lookfor%5B%5D=de%20nerval%20grove%20wagner&ft=|title = Selected writings|series = Selected works. English. 1957|year = 1957|publisher = Grove Press}}] In 1958, Brian Hill translated the complete series along with a number of other Nerval poems under the title ''Fortune's Fool, 35 poems'' (R. Hart-Davis, London).[{{Cite book|url=https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/001003850|title = Fortune's fool, thirty-five poems|year = 1959|publisher = R. Hart-Davis}}] Also in 1958, Anchor Books published ''An Anthology of French Poetry from Nerval to Valéry in English Translation'', which contains ''Chimera'' poems translated by [Richmond Lattimore](/source/Richmond_Lattimore) ("El Desdichado" and "Delphica"), Joseph Bennett ("Myrtho"), [Barbara Howes](/source/Barbara_Howes) ("Horus", "Anteros" and "Artemis") and Daisy Aldan ("Golden Verses").{{sfn|Flores|2000|pp=iv–v}} [Andrew Hoyem](/source/Andrew_Hoyem) interpreted the eight poems as ''Chimeras: Transfigurations of "les Chimères" by Gérard de Nerval'', published in 1966.{{sfn|Yee|2004|p=798}} Another English translation by an American, the poet [Robin Blaser](/source/Robin_Blaser_(poet)), had been published in 1965 in the magazine ''Open Space'';{{sfn|Mossin|2010|p=103}} Blaser's colleague [Robert Duncan](/source/Robert_Duncan_(poet)) reacted negatively to this version, calling it "irresponsible" and a "perversion", and published his own translation in 1967 in the journal ''Audit''.{{sfn|Mossin|2010|pp=103–104}} The Northern Irish poet [Derek Mahon](/source/Derek_Mahon) has made a free interpretation and adaptation of the poems, published in 1982 as ''The Chimeras''.{{sfn|Burton|2005|p=35}} Later translations include one by Peter Jay published in 1984 with essays by [Richard Holmes](/source/Richard_Holmes_(biographer)) and Jay,{{sfn|Burwick|1996|p=290}} one by William Stone published in a bilingual edition in 1999,{{sfn|Yee|2004|p=798}} and one by Henry Weinfield published in 2005 with [monotypes](/source/Monotyping) by the artist Douglas Kinsey.{{sfn|University of Notre Dame}} In 2023, Richard Robinson published the original 8 plus 'The Armed Head' in ''Sylvie & The Chimeras'', Portland, OR: Sunny Lou Publishing, 2023. {{ISBN|978-1-95539-240-2}}
==Legacy==
The twelve sonnets of ''The Chimeras'' are Nerval's most famous poems. With their focus on the beauty of words, and lasting resistance to critical interpretation, they can be seen as precursors to [Symbolism](/source/Symbolism_(movement)) and the poetry of [Stéphane Mallarmé](/source/St%C3%A9phane_Mallarm%C3%A9).{{sfn|Yee|2004|p=798}}
A phrase from ''El Desdichado'' (le prince d'Aquitaine à la tour abolie") is quoted by [T.S. Eliot](/source/T._S._Eliot) near the end of ''[The Waste Land](/source/The_Waste_Land)''.[{{Cite web |date=2020-01-08 |title=The Waste Land |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/47311/the-waste-land |access-date=2026-05-10 |website=The Poetry Foundation}}]
==See also==
* [Chimera (mythology)](/source/Chimera_(mythology))
* [Grotesque (architecture)](/source/Grotesque_(architecture))
==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}
===Sources===
*{{cite book |last=Appelbaum |first=Stanley |year=2004 |orig-year=1969 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUOerKe29zkC&pg=RA1-PA96 |title=Introduction to French Poetry |location=New York |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-26711-3 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Brix |first=Michel |year=1997 |title=Modernité des ''Chimères'' |journal=Littératures |volume=37 |language=French |issue=37 |pages=157–167 |doi=10.3406/litts.1997.1753 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Burton |first=Brian |year=2005 |title=Disconsolate labours : Derek Mahon and Nerval |journal=Études irlandaises |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=35–49 |doi=10.3406/irlan.2005.3015 }}
*{{cite book |last=Burwick |first=Frederick |year=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M39-oYlJce0C&pg=PA229 |title=Poetic Madness and the Romantic Imagination |location=University Park, Pennsylvania |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |isbn=0-271-01488-1 }}
*{{cite book |editor-last=Flores |editor-first=Angel |year=2000 |orig-year=1958 |title=The Anchor Anthology of French Poetry from Nerval to Valéry in English Translation |location=New York |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=0-385-49888-8 }}
*{{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Rae Beth |year=1990 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ek22GiZQ6AEC&pg=PA86 |chapter=The lyric persona: Nerval's 'El Desdichado' |editor-last=Prendergast |editor-first=Christopher |title=Nineteenth-Century French Poetry: Introductions to Close Reading |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=86–102 |isbn=0-521-34541-3 }}
*{{cite book |last=Mossin |first=Andrew |year=2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EVLFAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 |title=Male Subjectivity and Poetic Form in "New American" Poetry |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-61732-2 }}
*{{cite web |author=[University of Notre Dame](/source/University_of_Notre_Dame) |url=https://pls.nd.edu/faculty-and-staff/henry-weinfield/ |title=Faculty and Staff: Henry Weinfield |accessdate=7 June 2020 |archive-date=7 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607092452/https://pls.nd.edu/faculty-and-staff/henry-weinfield/ |url-status=dead }}
*{{cite book |last=Yee |first=Jennifer |year=2004 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgS2nYRIuUEC&pg=PA798 |chapter=Nerval, Gérard de |editor-last=Murray |editor-first=Christopher John |title=Encyclopedia of the Romantic Era, 1760–1850 |volume=2 |location=New York |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |pages=797–798 |isbn=1-57958-422-5 }}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last=Jourde |first=Pierre |year=1997 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdX-MCuvqmAC&pg=PA89 |chapter=''Les Chimères'' : la voix du neutre |editor-last=Guyaux |editor-first=André |title=Nerval: actes du colloque de la Sorbonne du 15 novembre 1997 |language=French |location=Paris |publisher=Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne |pages=89–110 |isbn=2-84050-100-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Marchal |first=Bertrand |year=1997 |chapter=Les Chimères de Nerval |editor-last=Guyaux |editor-first=André |title=Nerval: actes du colloque de la Sorbonne du 15 novembre 1997 |language=French |location=Paris |publisher=Presses de l'Université de Paris-Sorbonne |pages=117–128 |isbn=2-84050-100-7 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mees |first=Martin |year=2016 |url=https://www.academia.edu/30812696 |title=Une mélancolie romantique. Concept de création et création de concept dans ''Les Chimères'' de Nerval |journal=Les Chantiers de la Création |language=French |volume=9 |issue=9 |doi=10.4000/lcc.1204 |ref=none|doi-access=free |hdl=2078.3/178323 |hdl-access=free }}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
* {{Wikisourcelang-inline|fr|Les Chimères}}
{{Gérard de Nerval}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chimeras}}
Category:1854 poems
Category:French poems
Category:Works by Gérard de Nerval
Category:Classical mythology in popular culture
Category:Sonnets
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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [The Chimeras](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chimeras) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Chimeras?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.