# Sun Yat-sen

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Chinese revolutionary and statesman (1866–1925)

"Sun Wen" and "Dr. Sun Yat-sen" redirect here. For the footballer, see [Sun Wen (footballer)](/source/Sun_Wen_(footballer)). For the film, see [*Dr. Sun Yat-sen* (film)](/source/Dr._Sun_Yat-sen_(film)).

In this [Chinese name](/source/Chinese_name), the [family name](/source/Chinese_surname) is *[Sun](/source/Sun_(surname))*.

Father of the Nation[a] Forerunner of the Revolution Sun Yat-sen 孫逸仙 Sun in 1922 1st Provisional President of the Republic of China In office 1 January 1912 – 10 March 1912 Vice President Li Yuanhong Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Yuan Shikai Premier of the Kuomintang In office 10 October 1919 – 12 March 1925 Preceded by Office established Succeeded by Zhang Renjie (as Chairman) Personal details Born Sun Te-ming (1866-11-12)12 November 1866 Cuiheng, Guangdong, China Died 12 March 1925(1925-03-12) (aged 58) Beijing, China Resting place Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum Party Kuomintang Other political affiliations Tongmenghui Revive China Society Spouses Lu Muzhen ​ ​ (m. 1885; div. 1915)​ Kaoru Otsuki ​ ​ (m. 1905; a. 1906)​ Soong Ching-ling ​ (m. 1915)​ Domestic partners Chen Cuifen (concubine, 1892–1925) Haru Asada (concubine, 1897–1902) Children 4, including Sun Fo Parent Madame Yang (mother) Education Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese (MD) Profession Physician statesman Signature (Chinese) Signature Military service Branch/service Republic of China Army Years of service 1917–1925 Rank Dayuanshuai Battles/wars 1911 Revolution Second Revolution Constitutional Protection Movement Guangdong–Guangxi War Warlord Era Sun Yat-sen's voice On the Three Principles of the People Recorded in Guangzhou on 30 May 1924 Common name in English Traditional Chinese 孫逸仙 Simplified Chinese 孙逸仙 Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Yìxiān Jyutping Syun1 Jat6-sin1 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Yìxiān Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄣ ㄧˋ ㄒㄧㄢ Wade–Giles Sun1 Yi4-hsien1 Tongyong Pinyin Sun Yì-sian IPA [swə́n î.ɕjɛ́n] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Syūn Yaht-sīn Jyutping Syun1 Jat6-sin1 Hong Kong Romanisation Suen Yat-sin IPA [syn˥ jɐt̚˨ sin˥] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Sun E̍k-sian Common name in Chinese Traditional Chinese 孫中山 Simplified Chinese 孙中山 Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Zhōngshān Jyutping Syun1 Zung1-saan1 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Zhōngshān Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄣ ㄓㄨㄥ ㄕㄢ Wade–Giles Sun1 Chung1-shan1 Tongyong Pinyin Sun Jhong-shan IPA [swə́n ʈʂʊ́ŋ.ʂán] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Syūn Jūng sāan Jyutping Syun1 Zung1-saan1 IPA [syn˥ tsʊŋ˥ san˥] Southern Min Hokkien POJ Sun Tiong-san Courtesy name Traditional Chinese 孫載之 Simplified Chinese 孙载之 Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Zàizhī Jyutping Syun1 Zoi3-zi1 Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Sūn Zàizhī Bopomofo ㄙㄨㄣ ㄗㄞˋ ㄓ Wade–Giles Sun1 Tsai4-chih1 Tongyong Pinyin Sun Zài-jhih IPA [swə́n tsâɪ.ʈʂɻ̩́] Yue: Cantonese Yale Romanization Syūn Joi-jī Jyutping Syun1 Zoi3-zi1 IPA [syn˥ tsɔj˧ tsi˥]

**Sun Yat-sen**[b] ([/ˈsʊn ˌjɑːt ˈsɛn/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English);[1] 12 November 1866 – 12 March 1925) was a Chinese physician, revolutionary and political philosopher who founded the [Republic of China](/source/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)) (ROC) and the [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang) (KMT). Sun is credited with leading the [1911 Revolution](/source/1911_Revolution) and overthrowing the [Qing dynasty](/source/Qing_dynasty). He served as the first president of the [Provisional Government of the Republic of China](/source/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)) (1912) and as the inaugural [premier of the Kuomintang](/source/Premier_of_the_Kuomintang).[2]

Born to a poor peasant family in [Guangdong](/source/Guangdong), Sun was educated in [Hawaii](/source/Hawaii) before graduating from the [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/source/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese) in 1892. In 1894 he submitted a petition to reform the Qing government to [Li Hongzhang](/source/Li_Hongzhang), which was rejected. Sun subsequently went into exile and led anti-[Qing](/source/Qing_dynasty) movements overseas, founding the [Revive China Society](/source/Revive_China_Society), the [Tongmenghui](/source/Tongmenghui), and the *[People's News](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%8A%A5)*.

Following the [1911 Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution), Sun proclaimed the establishment of the [Republic of China](/source/Republic_of_China) but relinquished the presidency to [Beiyang Army](/source/Beiyang_Army) leader [Yuan Shikai](/source/Yuan_Shikai) in exchange for securing the [Qing court](/source/Qing_dynasty)'s abdication. After the assassination of [Song Jiaoren](/source/Song_Jiaoren) in 1913, widely attributed to Yuan, Sun led a failed [Second Revolution](/source/Second_Revolution_(China)) against him, after which Sun fled to Japan. In 1917, Sun established a [Constitutional Protection junta](/source/Constitutional_Protection_junta) in [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou), but before his planned [Northern Expedition](/source/Northern_Expedition) against the warlords, he was forced to resign due to infighting. Sun assumed the junta leadership in 1921, survived [Chen Jiongming](/source/Chen_Jiongming)'s revolt, and collaborated with [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) and the [Chinese Communist Party](/source/Chinese_Communist_Party) to form the [First United Front](/source/First_United_Front). In late 1924, he traveled north beyond his base in Guangdong to call for a national assembly and the abolition of [unequal treaties](/source/Unequal_treaties), continuing his struggle against the warlords [Duan Qirui](/source/Duan_Qirui) and [Zhang Zuolin](/source/Zhang_Zuolin). He died in [Beijing](/source/Beijing) in 1925.

Sun is revered by both the [Republic of China](/source/Republic_of_China), which designates him "Father of the Nation," and the [People's Republic of China](/source/People's_Republic_of_China), which honors him as the "Forerunner of the Revolution." Sun's flagship ideology, [Three Principles of the People](/source/Three_Principles_of_the_People), sought to modernize China through [nationalism](/source/Nationalism), [democracy](/source/Democracy), and the [people's livelihood](/source/Welfarism), within an ethnically harmonious conception of the [Chinese nation](/source/Zhonghua_minzu).[3]

## Names

Main article: [Names of Sun Yat-sen](/source/Names_of_Sun_Yat-sen)

 [Silver coin](/source/Silver_coin): 1 yuan – Sun Yat Sen, 1927

Sun's genealogical name was Sun Deming ([Cantonese](/source/Cantonese): *Syūn Dāk-mìhng*; 孫德明).[4][5] As a child, his [milk name](/source/Milk_name) was Tai Tseung (Cantonese: *Dai-jeuhng*; 帝象).[4] In school, a teacher gave him the name Sun Wen[6] (Cantonese: *Syūn Màhn*; 孫文), which was used by Sun for most of his life.

Sun's [courtesy name](/source/Courtesy_name) was Zaizhi ([Cantonese](/source/Cantonese): *Joi-jī*; 載之), and his [art name](/source/Art_name) was Rixin (*Yaht-sān*; 日新) before it was changed to Yixian (*Yaht-sān*; 逸仙) when he attended school in British Hong Kong.[7][8] The most common English form of his name derives from the Cantonese romanization of his art names, which differ in Mandarin pronunciation but are identical in Cantonese.

**Sun Zhongshan** (*Syūn Jūng-sāan*; 孫中山, also romanized *Chung Shan*), his best known name in the Chinese-speaking world, is derived from his [Japanese name](/source/Japanese_name) *Kikori Nakayama* (中山樵; *Nakayama Kikori*), the pseudonym given to him by [Tōten Miyazaki](/source/T%C5%8Dten_Miyazaki) when he was in hiding in Japan.[4]

His birthplace, originally known as Xiangshan, was renamed [Zhongshan](/source/Zhongshan) in his honour shortly after his death in 1925.

## Early years

### Birthplace and early life

Sun Deming was born on 12 November 1866 to Sun Dacheng and [Madame Yang](/source/Madame_Yang).[9] His birthplace was the village of [Cuiheng](/source/Cuiheng), [Xiangshan County](/source/Xiangshan_County%2C_Guangdong) (now [Zhongshan](/source/Zhongshan) City), Canton Province (now [Guangdong](/source/Guangdong)).[9] He was [Hakka](/source/Hakka)[10][11] and [Cantonese](/source/Cantonese_people). His father owned very little land and worked as a tailor in [Macau](/source/Portuguese_Macau) and as a journeyman and a porter.[12] After finishing primary education and meeting childhood friend [Lu Haodong](/source/Lu_Haodong),[4] he moved to [Honolulu](/source/Honolulu) in the [Kingdom of Hawaii](/source/Kingdom_of_Hawaii), where he lived a comfortable life of modest wealth supported by his elder brother [Sun Mei](/source/Sun_Mei).[13][14][15][16]

### Education

Sun Yat-sen (back row, fourth from right) and his family

Sun began his education at the age of 10,[4] and later attended secondary school in Hawaii.[17] In 1878, after receiving a few years of local schooling, a 13-year-old Sun went to live with his elder brother [Sun Mei](/source/Sun_Mei),[4] who would later make major contributions to overthrowing the [Qing dynasty](/source/Qing_dynasty), and who financed Sun's attendance of the [ʻIolani School](/source/%CA%BBIolani_School).[13][14][15][16] There, he studied English, [British history](/source/British_history), mathematics, science, and Christianity.[4] Sun was initially unable to speak English, but quickly acquired it, received a prize for academic achievement from King [Kalākaua](/source/Kal%C4%81kaua), and graduated in 1882.[18] He then attended [Oahu College](/source/Oahu_College) (now known as [Punahou School](/source/Punahou_School)) for one semester.[4][19] Sun Yat-sen learned American history and political ideas extensively during his schooling in Hawaii, particularly admiring figures like Abraham Lincoln and Alexander Hamilton, which profoundly shaped his vision for a democratic China, incorporating concepts of republicanism, self-rule, and economic development inspired by American models. He studied U.S. history and geography, absorbing revolutionary ideals from American schools that influenced his own revolutionary path for China. By 1883, Sun's interest in Christianity had become deeply worrisome for his brother, who, seeing his conversion as inevitable, sent Sun back to China.[4]

Upon returning to China, a 17-year-old Sun met with his childhood friend Lu Haodong at the Beiji Temple (北極殿) in Cuiheng,[4] where villagers engaged in traditional [folk healing](/source/Folk_healing) and worshipped an [effigy](/source/Effigy) of the [North Star God](/source/Ziwei_Emperor). Feeling contemptuous of these practices,[4] Sun and Lu incurred the wrath of their fellow villagers by breaking the wooden idol; as a result, Sun's parents felt compelled to dispatch him to Hong Kong.[4][20] In November 1883, Sun began attending the Diocesan Home and Orphanage on [Eastern Street](/source/Eastern_Street_(Hong_Kong)) (now the [Diocesan Boys' School](/source/Diocesan_Boys'_School)),[21][22] and from 15 April 1884 he attended The Government Central School on [Gough Street](/source/Gough_Street) (now [Queen's College](/source/Queen's_College%2C_Hong_Kong)), until graduating in 1886.[23][24]

In 1886, Sun studied medicine at the [Guangzhou Boji Hospital](/source/Guangzhou_Boji_Hospital) under the Christian missionary [John Glasgow Kerr](/source/John_Glasgow_Kerr).[4] According to his book *Kidnapped in London*, in 1887 Sun heard of the opening of the [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/source/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese) (the forerunner of the [University of Hong Kong](/source/University_of_Hong_Kong)).[25] He immediately sought to attend, and went on to obtain a license to practice medicine from the institution in 1892;[4][8] out of a class of twelve students, Sun was one of two who graduated.[26][27][28]

## Religious views and Christian baptism

Sun was a [Christian](/source/Christians). It has been argued, e.g. by D. Treadgold,[29] that Sun was not a real Christian; he just portrayed himself as such for political reasons. The evidence is that Sun did not visit the church often nor often celebrate [Christian festivals](/source/Christian_festivals) such as [Christmas](/source/Christmas) or [Easter](/source/Easter).[30]

Sun said in [San Francisco](/source/San_Francisco), "Our greatest hope is to make the Bible and Christian education, as we have known it, the means of conveying to our countrymen what blessings may be in the way of just laws."[30]

Sun was [baptized](/source/Baptism) in Hong Kong on 4 May 1884 by [Rev.](/source/The_Reverend) [Charles Robert Hager](/source/Charles_Robert_Hager),[31][32][33] an American missionary of the [Congregational Church of the United States](/source/Congregationalism_in_the_United_States) ([American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions](/source/American_Board_of_Commissioners_for_Foreign_Missions)), to his brother's disdain. The minister would also develop a friendship with Sun.[34][35] Sun attended To Tsai Church ([道濟會堂](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%88%E4%B8%80%E5%A0%82)), founded by the [London Missionary Society](/source/London_Missionary_Society) in 1888,[36] while he studied medicine in [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/source/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese). Sun pictured a revolution as similar to the salvation mission of the [Christian church](/source/Christian_church). His conversion to Christianity was related to his revolutionary ideals and push for advancement.[35]

## Becoming a revolutionary

### Four Bandits

Sun (second from left) and his friends the [Four Bandits](/source/Four_Bandits): [Yeung Hok-ling](/source/Yeung_Hok-ling) (left), [Chan Siu-bak](/source/Chan_Siu-bak) (middle), [Yau Lit](/source/Yau_Lit) (right), and Guan Jingliang (關景良, standing) at the [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/source/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese), circa 1888

During the Qing-dynasty rebellion around 1888, Sun was in Hong Kong with a group of revolutionary thinkers, nicknamed the [Four Bandits](/source/Four_Bandits), at the [Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese](/source/Hong_Kong_College_of_Medicine_for_Chinese).[37]

### From Furen Literary Society to Revive China Society

In 1891, Sun met revolutionary friends in Hong Kong including [Yeung Ku-wan](/source/Yeung_Ku-wan) who was the leader and founder of the [Furen Literary Society](/source/Furen_Literary_Society).[38] The group was spreading the idea of overthrowing the Qing. In 1894, Sun wrote an 8,000-character petition to Qing [Viceroy](/source/Viceroy_of_Zhili) [Li Hongzhang](/source/Li_Hongzhang) presenting his ideas for modernizing China.[39][40][41] He traveled to [Tianjin](/source/Tianjin) to personally present the petition to Li but was not granted an audience.[42] After that experience, Sun turned irrevocably toward revolution. He left China for Hawaii and founded the [Revive China Society](/source/Revive_China_Society), which was committed to revolutionizing China's prosperity. It was the first Chinese nationalist revolutionary society.[43] Members were drawn mainly from Chinese expatriates, especially from the lower social classes. The same month in 1894, the Furen Literary Society was merged with the Hong Kong chapter of the Revive China Society.[38] Thereafter, Sun became the secretary of the newly merged Revive China Society, which Yeung Ku-wan headed as president.[44] They disguised their activities in Hong Kong under the running of a business under the name "Kuen Hang Club"[45]: 90 (乾亨行). Sun had members swear an oath to "Expel the Tartar barbarians, restore China."[46]: 23

### Heaven and Earth Society and overseas travels to seek financial support

A "Heaven and Earth Society" sect known as [Tiandihui](/source/Tiandihui) had been around for a long time.[47] The group has also been referred to as the "three cooperating organizations", as well as the [triads](/source/Triad_society).[47] Sun mainly used the group to leverage his overseas travels to gain further financial and resource support for his revolution.[47]

### First Sino-Japanese War

In 1895, China suffered a serious defeat during the [First Sino-Japanese War](/source/First_Sino-Japanese_War). There were two types of responses. One group of intellectuals contended that the [Manchu](/source/Manchu) Qing government could restore its legitimacy by successfully modernizing.[48] Stressing that overthrowing the Manchu would result in chaos and would lead to China being carved up by imperialists, intellectuals like [Kang Youwei](/source/Kang_Youwei) and [Liang Qichao](/source/Liang_Qichao) supported responding with initiatives like the [Hundred Days' Reform](/source/Hundred_Days'_Reform).[48] In another faction, Sun Yat-sen and others like [Zou Rong](/source/Zou_Rong) wanted a revolution to replace the dynastic system with a modern [nation-state](/source/Nation-state) in the form of a [republic](/source/Republic).[48] The Hundred Days' reform turned out to be a failure by 1898.[49]

## First uprising and exile

### First Guangzhou Uprising

Plaque in [London](/source/London) marking the site of a house at 4 Warwick Court, WC1, in which Sun Yat-sen lived in exile. Text: "Father of the [Chinese Republic](/source/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)), lived in a house on this site while a political exile from his country".

Letter from Sun Yat-sen to [James Cantlie](/source/James_Cantlie) announcing to him that he has assumed the Presidency of the Provisional Republican Government of China, dated 21 January 1912

In the second year of the establishment of the [Revive China Society](/source/Revive_China_Society), on 26 October 1895, the group planned and launched the [First Guangzhou uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#First_Guangzhou_Uprising) against the Qing in [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou).[40] [Yeung Ku-wan](/source/Yeung_Ku-wan) directed the uprising starting from Hong Kong.[44] However, plans were leaked out, and more than 70 members, including [Lu Haodong](/source/Lu_Haodong), were captured by the Qing government. The uprising was a failure. Sun received financial support mostly from his brother, who sold most of his 12,000 acres of ranch and cattle in Hawaii.[13] Additionally, members of his family and relatives of Sun would take refuge at the home of his brother Sun Mei at Kamaole in [Kula](/source/Kula%2C_Hawaii), [Maui](/source/Maui).[13][14][15][16][50]

### Exile in the United Kingdom

While in exile in [London](/source/London) in 1896, Sun raised money for his revolutionary party and to support uprisings in China. While the events leading up to it are unclear, Sun Yat-sen was detained at the [Chinese Legation in London](/source/Embassy_of_China%2C_London), where the Chinese secret service planned to smuggle him back to China to execute him for his revolutionary actions.[51] He was released after 12 days by the efforts of [James Cantlie](/source/James_Cantlie), *[The Globe](/source/The_Globe_(London_newspaper))*, *[The Times](/source/The_Times)*, and the [Foreign Office](/source/Foreign_Office), which left Sun a hero in the United Kingdom.[c] James Cantlie, Sun's former teacher at the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese, maintained a lifelong friendship with Sun and later wrote an early biography of him[53] Sun wrote a book in 1897 about his detention, "Kidnapped in London."[25]

The bronze plaque of Sun is currently mounted on an outside wall of the building of "City Junior School" at 4 Gray's Inn Place.

### Exile in Japan

Sun traveled by way of [Canada](/source/Canada) to [Japan](/source/Empire_of_Japan) to begin his exile there. He arrived in [Yokohama](/source/Yokohama) on 16 August 1897 and met with the Japanese philosopher [Tōten Miyazaki](/source/T%C5%8Dten_Miyazaki). Most Japanese who actively worked with Sun were motivated by a [pan-Asian](/source/Pan-Asian) opposition to [Western imperialism](/source/Western_imperialism_in_Asia).[54] In Japan, Sun also met [Mariano Ponce](/source/Mariano_Ponce), a diplomat of the [First Philippine Republic](/source/First_Philippine_Republic).[55]

During the [Philippine Revolution](/source/Philippine_Revolution) and the [Philippine–American War](/source/Philippine%E2%80%93American_War), Sun helped Ponce procure weapons that had been salvaged from the [Imperial Japanese Army](/source/Imperial_Japanese_Army) and ship the weapons to the Philippines. By helping the Philippine Republic, Sun hoped that the Filipinos would retain their independence so that he could be sheltered in the country in staging another Chinese revolution. However, as the war ended in July 1902, the United States emerged victorious from a bitter three-year war against the Republic. Therefore, Sun did not have the opportunity to ally with the Philippines in his revolution in China.[56]

In 1897, through an introduction by Tōten, Sun Yat-sen met [Tōyama Mitsuru](/source/T%C5%8Dyama_Mitsuru) of the political organization [Genyosha](/source/Genyosha). Through Tōyama, he received financial support for his activities and living expenses in Tokyo from [Hiraoka Kotarō](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hiraoka_Kotar%C5%8D&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B9%B3%E5%B2%A1%E6%B5%A9%E5%A4%AA%E9%83%8E)]. Additionally, his residence, a 2,000-square-meter (22,000 sq ft) mansion in Waseda-Tsurumaki-cho, was arranged by [Inukai Tsuyoshi](/source/Inukai_Tsuyoshi).

In 1899, the [Boxer Rebellion](/source/Boxer_Rebellion) occurred.[57] The following year, Sun Yat-sen attempted another uprising in Huizhou, but it ended in failure. In 1902, despite already having a wife in China, he married the [Japanese](/source/Japanese_people) teenage girl [Kaoru Otsuki](/source/Kaoru_Otsuki).[58] Furthermore, he kept [Asada Haru](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asada_Haru&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%85%E7%94%B0%E6%98%A5)] as a mistress and frequently had her accompany him.

## From failed uprisings to revolution

### Huizhou Uprising

On 22 October 1900, Sun ordered the launch of the [Huizhou Uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Huizhou_Uprising) to attack [Huizhou](/source/Huizhou) and provincial authorities in Guangdong.[59] That came five years after the failed Guangzhou Uprising. This time, Sun appealed to the [triads](/source/Triad_(organized_crime)) for help.[60] The uprising was another failure. Miyazaki, who participated in the revolt with Sun, wrote an account of the revolutionary effort under the title "33-Year Dream" (三十三年之夢) in 1902.[61][62][63]

### Getting support from Siamese Chinese

In 1903, Sun made a secret trip to [Bangkok](/source/Bangkok) in which he sought funds for his cause in Southeast Asia. His loyal followers published newspapers, providing invaluable support to the dissemination of his revolutionary principles and ideals among [Siamese Chinese](/source/Siamese_Chinese) in [Siam](/source/Rattanakosin_Kingdom_(1782%E2%80%931932)) ([Thailand](/source/Thailand)). In Bangkok, Sun visited [Yaowarat Road](/source/Yaowarat_Road), in the city's [Chinatown](/source/Chinatown%2C_Bangkok). On that street, Sun gave a speech claiming that [Overseas Chinese](/source/Overseas_Chinese) were "the Mother of the Revolution." He also met the local Chinese merchant Seow Houtseng,[64] who sent financial support to him.

Sun's speech on Yaowarat Road was commemorated by the street later being named "Sun Yat Sen Street" or "Soi Sun Yat Sen" ([Thai](/source/Thai_language): ซอยซุนยัตเซ็น) in his honour.[65]

### Getting support from American Chinese

According to Lee Yun-ping, chairman of the Chinese historical society, Sun needed a certificate to enter the United States since the [Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882](/source/Chinese_Exclusion_Act_of_1882) would have otherwise blocked him.[66]

In March 1904, while residing in [Kula](/source/Kula%2C_Hawaii), [Maui](/source/Maui), Sun Yat-sen obtained a Certificate of Hawaiian Birth, issued by the [Territory of Hawaii](/source/Territory_of_Hawaii), stating that "he was born in the [Hawaiian Islands](/source/Hawaiian_Islands) on the 24th day of November, A.D. 1870."[67][68] He renounced it after it served its purpose to circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act.[68] Official files of the United States show that Sun had United States nationality, moved to China with his family at age 4, and returned to Hawaii 10 years later.[69]

On 6 April 1904, on his first attempt to enter the United States, Sun Yat-sen landed in [San Francisco](/source/San_Francisco). He was detained and faced with possible deportation.[66] Sun, represented by the law firm of Ralston & Siddons, based in [Washington DC](/source/Washington_DC), filed an appeal with the Commissioner-General of Immigration on 26 April 1904. On 28 April 1904, the acting secretary of the [Department of Commerce and Labor](/source/Department_of_Commerce_and_Labor) in a four-page decision contained in the case file, set aside the order of deportation and ordered the Commissioner of Immigration in San Francisco to "permit the said Sun Yat-sen to land." Sun was then freed to embark on his fundraising tour in the United States.[66]

### Returned to exile in Japan

In 1900, Sun Yat-sen temporarily [exiled](/source/Exile) himself to Japan again. During his stay in Japan, he expressed his thoughts to [Inukai Tsuyoshi](/source/Inukai_Tsuyoshi), saying, "The [Meiji Restoration](/source/Meiji_Restoration) is the first step of the Chinese revolution, and the Chinese revolution is the second step of the Meiji Restoration."[70]

Wedding photo, Sun's 2nd marriage, to Soong Ching-ling, October 1915, Tokyo.

While in Japan, on 25 October 1915,[71] Sun married [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling), the second daughter of [Soong Jiashu](/source/Charlie_Soong), who was also a Hakka like him. The arrangement of their marriage was supported by [Umeya Shokichi](/source/Umeya_Shokichi), a Japanese supporter who provided financial aid.[72][73]

[Fusanosuke Kuhara](/source/Fusanosuke_Kuhara), a prominent figure in Japan's political and business circles, invited Sun to his villa, the Nihonkan, located where the current restaurant "Kochuan" in Shirokane Happo-en stands. Kuhara offered Sun the newly built "Orchid Room" to encourage and support his friend living in a foreign land.

The Orchid Room was equipped with a secret escape route known as "Sun Yat-sen's Escape Passage." This precautionary measure included a hidden door behind the fireplace, which led to an underground tunnel, providing an escape route in case of emergencies.

### Unifying forces of Tongmenghui in Tokyo

Main article: [Tongmenghui](/source/Tongmenghui)

A letter with Sun's seal commencing the [Tongmenghui](/source/Tongmenghui) in Hong Kong

In 1904, Sun Yat-sen came about with the goal "to expel the [Tatar](/source/Tatars) barbarians (specifically, the Manchu), to revive [Zhonghua](/source/Names_of_China#Zhongguo_and_Zhonghua), to establish a Republic, and to [distribute land](/source/Land_reform) equally among the people" (驅除韃虜, 恢復中華, 創立民國, 平均地權).[74] One of Sun's major legacies was the creation of his political philosophy of the [Three Principles of the People](/source/Three_Principles_of_the_People). These Principles included the principle of nationalism (minzu, 民族), of democracy (minquan, 民權), and of welfare (minsheng, 民生).[74]

On 20 August 1905, Sun joined forces with revolutionary Chinese students studying in Tokyo to form the unified group [Tongmenghui](/source/Tongmenghui) (United League), which sponsored uprisings in China.[74][75] By 1906 the number of Tongmenghui members reached 963.[74]

### Getting support from Malayan Chinese

Main article: [Chinese revolutionary activities in Malaya](/source/Chinese_revolutionary_activities_in_Malaya)

Interior of the [Wan Qing Yuan](/source/Wan_Qing_Yuan) featuring Sun's items and photos

The [Sun Yat-sen Museum](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Museum_Penang) in [George Town, Penang](/source/George_Town%2C_Penang), Malaysia, where he planned the [Xinhai Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution).[76]

Sun's notability and popularity extended beyond the [Greater China](/source/Greater_China) region, particularly to [Nanyang](/source/Nanyang_(geographical_region)) (Southeast Asia), where a large concentration of [overseas Chinese](/source/Overseas_Chinese) resided in [Malaya](/source/British_Malaya) ([Malaysia](/source/Malaysia) and Singapore). In Singapore, he met the local Chinese merchants Teo Eng Hock (張永福), Tan Chor Nam (陳楚楠) and Lim Nee Soon (林義順), which mark the commencement of direct support from the [Nanyang](/source/Nanyang_(region)) Chinese. The Singapore chapter of the Tongmenghui was established on 6 April 1906,[77] but some records claim the founding date to be end of 1905.[77] The [villa](/source/Villa) used by Sun was known as [Wan Qing Yuan](/source/Wan_Qing_Yuan).[77][78] Singapore then was the headquarters of the Tongmenghui.[77]

After founding the Tongmenghui, Sun advocated the establishment of the *[Chong Shing Yit Pao](/source/Chong_Shing_Yit_Pao)* as the alliance's mouthpiece to promote revolutionary ideas. Later, he initiated the establishment of reading clubs across Singapore and Malaysia to disseminate revolutionary ideas by the lower class through public readings of newspaper stories. The United Chinese Library, founded on 8 August 1910, was one such reading club, first set up at leased property on the second floor of the Wan He Salt Traders in North Boat Quay.[79]

The establishment of [United Chinese Library](/source/United_Chinese_Library) (同德书报社) was encouraged by Sun since 1907. In 1910, the library was rented on the second floor of Wanhe (万和) Salt Godown, in North Boat Quay. In November 1911, the library moved to 51 [Armenian Street](/source/Armenian_Street%2C_Singapore). Sun missed the ceremony of new address due to delay of ship transportation service.[80]

The registration was approved on 8 August 1911. The library provided over 50,000 books and many of them were destroyed during [Japanese occupation of Singapore](/source/Japanese_occupation_of_Singapore).[80]

### Uprisings

On 1 December 1907, Sun led the [Zhennanguan Uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Zhennanguan_Uprising) against the Qing at [Friendship Pass](/source/Friendship_Pass), which is the border between [Guangxi](/source/Guangxi) and [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam).[81] The uprising failed after seven days of fighting.[81][82] In 1907, there were a total of four failed uprisings, including [Huanggang uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Huanggang_Uprising), [Huizhou seven women lake uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Huizhou_Qinühu_Uprising) and [Qinzhou uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Qinzhou_Uprising).[77] In 1908, two more uprisings failed: the [Qin-lian Uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Qin-lian_Uprising) and [Hekou Uprising](/source/Xinhai_Revolution#Hekou_Uprising).[77]

### Anti-Sun factionalism

Because of the failures, Sun's leadership was challenged by elements from within the Tongmenghui who wished to remove him as leader. In Tokyo, members from the recently merged [Restoration society](/source/Guangfuhui) raised doubts about Sun's credentials.[77] [Tao Chengzhang](/source/Tao_Chengzhang) and [Zhang Binglin](/source/Zhang_Binglin) publicly denounced Sun in an open leaflet, "A declaration of Sun Yat-sen's Criminal Acts by the Revolutionaries in Southeast Asia",[77] which was printed and distributed in reformist newspapers like *Nanyang Zonghui Bao*.[77][83] The goal was to target Sun as a leader leading a revolt only for [profiteering](/source/Profiteering_(business)).[77]

The revolutionaries were polarized and split between pro-Sun and anti-Sun camps.[77] Sun publicly fought off comments about how he had something to gain financially from the revolution.[77] However, by 19 July 1910, the Tongmenghui headquarters had to relocate from Singapore to Penang to reduce the anti-Sun activities.[77] It was also in Penang that Sun and his supporters would launch the first Chinese "daily" newspaper, the *[Kwong Wah Yit Poh](/source/Kwong_Wah_Yit_Poh)*, in December 1910.[81]

### 1911 revolution

Main articles: [Wuchang Uprising](/source/Wuchang_Uprising) and [Xinhai Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution)

The Revolutionary Army of the [Wuchang Uprising](/source/Wuchang_Uprising) fighting in the [Battle of Yangxia](/source/Battle_of_Yangxia)

To sponsor more uprisings, Sun made a personal plea for financial aid at the [Penang conference](/source/1910_Penang_conference), held on 13 November 1910 in Malaya.[84] The high-powered preparatory meeting of Sun's supporters was subsequently held in Ipoh, Singapore, at the villa of Teh Lay Seng, the chairman of the Tungmenghui, to raise funds for the [Huanghuagang Uprising](/source/Huanghuagang_Uprising), also known as the Yellow Flower Mound Uprising.[85] The Ipoh leaders were Teh Lay Seng, Wong I Ek, Lee Guan Swee, and Lee Hau Cheong.[86] The leaders launched a major drive for donations across the [Malay Peninsula](/source/Malay_Peninsula)[84] and raised [HK$](/source/HK%24)187,000.[84]

On 27 April 1911, the revolutionary [Huang Xing](/source/Huang_Xing) led the [Yellow Flower Mound](/source/Second_Guangzhou_Uprising) Uprising against the Qing. The revolt failed and ended in disaster. The bodies of only 72 revolutionaries were identified of the 86 that were found.[87] The revolutionaries are remembered as [martyrs](/source/Martyrdom_in_Chinese_culture).[87] Despite the failure of this uprising, which was due to a leak, it was successful in triggering off the trend of nation-wide revolts.[88]

On 10 October 1911, the military [Wuchang Uprising](/source/Wuchang_Uprising) took place and was led again by Huang Xing. The uprising expanded to the [Xinhai Revolution](/source/Xinhai_Revolution), also known as the "Chinese Revolution", to overthrow the last emperor, [Puyi](/source/Puyi).[89] Sun had no direct involvement in it, as he was in [Denver](/source/Denver), [Colorado](/source/Colorado), and had spent much of the year in the United States in search of support from [Chinese Americans](/source/Chinese_Americans). That put Huang in charge of the revolution that ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China. On 12 October, when Sun learned of the successful rebellion against the Qing emperor from press reports, he returned to China from the United States and was accompanied by his closest foreign advisor, the American "General" [Homer Lea](/source/Homer_Lea), an adventurer whom Sun had met in London when they attempted to arrange British financing for the future Chinese republic. Both sailed for China, arriving there on 21 December 1911.[90]

## Republic of China with multiple governments

### Provisional government

Main article: [Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1912)](/source/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912))

*Portrait of Sun Yat-sen* (1921) by [Li Tiefu](/source/Li_Tiefu)

On 29 December 1911, a meeting of representatives from provinces in Nanjing elected Sun as the [provisional president](/source/List_of_leaders_of_the_Republic_of_China).[91] 1 January 1912 was set as the [epoch](/source/Epoch_(reference_date)) of the new [republican calendar](/source/Minguo_calendar).[92] [Li Yuanhong](/source/Li_Yuanhong) was made provisional vice-president, and Huang Xing became the minister of the army. It was argued Sun was a 'compromise candidate' to end an impasse and power struggle between Li Yuanhong and Huang Xing over the role of the Generalissimo.[93] A new [provisional government](/source/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)) for the Republic of China was created, along with a [provisional constitution](/source/Provisional_Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China). Sun is credited for funding the revolutions and for keeping revolutionary spirit alive, even after a series of false starts. His successful merger of smaller revolutionary groups into a single coherent party provided a better base for those who shared revolutionary ideals. Under Sun's provisional government, several innovations were introduced, such as the aforementioned calendar system, and fashionable [Zhongshan suits](/source/Mao_suit).

### Beiyang government

Main article: [Beiyang government](/source/Beiyang_government)

[Yuan Shikai](/source/Yuan_Shikai), who was in control of the [Beiyang Army](/source/Beiyang_Army), had been promised the position of president of the Republic of China if he could get the Qing court to abdicate.[94] On 12 February 1912, the Emperor did abdicate the throne.[92] Sun stepped down as president, and Yuan became the new provisional president in Beijing on 10 March 1912.[94] The provisional government did not have any military forces of its own. Its control over elements of the new army that had mutinied was limited, and significant forces still had not declared against the Qing.

Sun Yat-sen sent telegrams to the leaders of all provinces to request them to elect and to establish the [National Assembly](/source/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)) in 1912.[95] In May 1912, the legislative assembly moved from Nanjing to Beijing, with its 120 members divided between members of the Tongmenghui and a republican party that supported Yuan Shikai.[96] Many revolutionary members were already alarmed by Yuan's ambitions and the northern-based [Beiyang government](/source/Beiyang_government).

### New Nationalist party in 1912, failed Second Revolution and new exile

The Tongmenghui member [Song Jiaoren](/source/Song_Jiaoren) quickly tried to control the assembly. He mobilized the old Tongmenghui at the core with the mergers of a number of new small parties to form a new political party, the [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang) (Chinese Nationalist Party, commonly abbreviated as "KMT") on 25 August 1912 at [Huguang Guild Hall](/source/Huguang_Guild_Hall), Beijing.[96] The [1912–1913 National assembly election](/source/1912_Republic_of_China_National_Assembly_elections) was considered a huge success for the KMT, which won 269 of the 596 seats in the lower house and 123 of the 274 seats in the upper house.[94][96] In retaliation, the KMT leader [Song Jiaoren](/source/Song_Jiaoren) was assassinated, almost certainly by a secret order of Yuan, on 20 March 1913.[94] The [Second Revolution](/source/Second_Revolution_(China)) took place by Sun and KMT military forces trying to overthrow Yuan's forces of about 80,000 men in an armed conflict in July 1913.[97] The revolt against Yuan was unsuccessful. In August 1913, Sun fled to Japan, where he later enlisted financial aid by the politician and industrialist [Fusanosuke Kuhara](/source/Fusanosuke_Kuhara).[98]

### Warlords chaos

In 1915, Yuan proclaimed the [Empire of China](/source/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)) with himself as [Emperor of China](/source/Emperor_of_China). Sun took part in the [National Protection War](/source/National_Protection_War) of the [Constitutional Protection Movement](/source/Constitutional_Protection_Movement) and also supported bandit leaders like [Bai Lang](/source/Bai_Lang_Rebellion) during the [Bai Lang Rebellion](/source/Bai_Lang_Rebellion), which marked the beginning of the [Warlord Era](/source/Warlord_Era). In 1915, Sun wrote to the [Second International](/source/Second_International), a [socialist](/source/Socialist)-based organization in [Paris](/source/Paris), and asked it to send a team of specialists to help China set up the world's first socialist republic.[99] The same year, Sun received the [Indian](/source/India) communist [M.N. Roy](/source/M.N._Roy) as a guest.[100] There were then [many theories and proposals](/source/Federalism_in_China) of what China could be. In the political mess, both Sun Yat-sen and [Xu Shichang](/source/Xu_Shichang) were announced as president of the Republic of China.[101]

## Alliance with Communist Party and Northern Expedition

Further information: [Northern Expedition](/source/Northern_Expedition)

### Guangzhou militarist government

(L-R): [Liao Zhongkai](/source/Liao_Zhongkai), [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek), Sun Yat-sen and [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling) at the founding of the [Whampoa Military Academy](/source/Whampoa_Military_Academy) in 1924

China had become divided among regional military leaders. Sun saw the danger and returned to China in 1916 to advocate [Chinese reunification](/source/Chinese_reunification_(1928)). In 1921, he started a [self-proclaimed military government](/source/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_in_Guangzhou) in [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou) and was elected [Grand Marshal](/source/Dayuanshuai).[102] According to historian William C. Kirby, between 1912 and 1927, three governments were set up in South China: the [Provisional government in Nanjing (1912)](/source/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1912)), the [Military government in Guangzhou (1923–1925)](/source/Army_and_Navy_Marshal_stronghold_of_the_Republic_of_China), and the [National government in Guangzhou and later Wuhan](/source/Nationalist_government) (1925–1927).[103] The governments in the south were established to rival the Beiyang government in the north.[102] Yuan Shikai had banned the KMT. The short-lived [Chinese Revolutionary Party](/source/Chinese_Revolutionary_Party) was a temporary replacement for the KMT. On 10 October 1919, Sun resurrected the KMT with the new name [Chung-kuo](/source/Names_of_China) [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang), or "Nationalist Party of China."[96]

### First United Front

Main article: [First United Front](/source/First_United_Front)

Sun Yat-sen (seated), [He Yingqin](/source/He_Yingqin), [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek) and [Wang Boling](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wang_Boling&action=edit&redlink=1) in 1924

Sun was now convinced that the only hope for a unified China lay in a military conquest from his base in the south, followed by a period of [political tutelage](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_the_Founding_of_the_National_Government&action=edit&redlink=1) [[zh](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E5%BB%BA%E5%9C%8B%E5%A4%A7%E7%B6%B1)], which would culminate in the transition to democracy. To hasten the conquest of China, he began a policy of active co-operation with the [Chinese Communist Party](/source/Chinese_Communist_Party) (CCP).[2]

In January 1923, Sun broadcast his *Peaceful Reunification Manifesto* on the radio.[104]: 45 He called for the four major warlord factions to stay in their respective territories, decrease their troops, and avoid interfering in each other's affairs.[104]: 45 In a maneuver likely intended to flatter Britain and the United States while pressuring the Soviet Union, Sun appealed for a "friendly power" to help guide the proposed disarmament process in China.[104]: 45 Sun's bargaining posture improved as a result, and the morning after the broadcast he met with Soviet Ambassador [Adolph Joffe](/source/Adolph_Joffe) to discuss Soviet assistance for the KMT.[104]: 47

Sun and the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union)'s [Adolph Joffe](/source/Adolph_Joffe) signed the [Sun-Joffe Manifesto](/source/Sun-Joffe_Manifesto) in January 1923.[2] Sun received help from the [Comintern](/source/Comintern) for his acceptance of communist members into his KMT. Sun received assistance from Soviet advisor [Mikhail Borodin](/source/Mikhail_Borodin), whom Sun described as his "[Lafayette](/source/Marquis_de_Lafayette)".[105]: 54 The Russian revolutionary and socialist leader [Vladimir Lenin](/source/Vladimir_Lenin) praised Sun and his KMT for its ideology, principles, attempts at social reformation, and fight against foreign imperialism.[106][107][108] Sun also returned the praise by calling Lenin a "great man" and indicated that he wished to follow the same path as Lenin.[109] In 1923, after having been in contact with Lenin and other Moscow communists, Sun sent representatives to study the [Red Army](/source/Red_Army), and in turn, the Soviets sent representatives to help reorganize the KMT at Sun's request.[110]

With the Soviets' help, Sun was able to develop the military power needed for the [Northern Expedition](/source/Northern_Expedition) against the military at the north. He established the [Whampoa Military Academy](/source/Whampoa_Military_Academy) near Guangzhou with [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek) as the [commandant](/source/Commandant) of the [National Revolutionary Army](/source/National_Revolutionary_Army) (NRA).[111] Other Whampoa leaders include [Wang Jingwei](/source/Wang_Jingwei) and [Hu Hanmin](/source/Hu_Hanmin) as political instructors. This full collaboration was called the [First United Front](/source/First_United_Front).

On his deathbed, Sun reiterated his loyalty and friendship with the Soviet Union in one of his three last wills which was written by himself. He stated the need to cooperate in order to defeat imperialism in Asia, hailing the Soviets as the bulwark of anti-imperialism.

### Financial concerns

In 1924 Sun appointed his brother-in-law [T. V. Soong](/source/T._V._Soong) to set up the first Chinese central bank, the [Canton Central Bank](/source/Central_Bank_of_the_Republic_of_China_(Taiwan)).[112] To establish national capitalism and a banking system was a major objective for the KMT.[113] However, Sun met opposition by the [Canton Merchant Volunteers Corps Uprising](/source/Canton_Merchant_Volunteers_Corps_Uprising) against him.

## Final years

Sun's 1924 *Outline of the Foundation of the Nationalist State* aimed to reclaim control of transportation and trade from foreign entities.[114]: 38

### Final speeches

Sun (seated, right) and his wife [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling) (seated next to him) in [Kobe](/source/Kobe), Japan in 1924

In February 1923, Sun made a presentation to the [Students' Union](/source/Students'_Union) in [Hong Kong University](/source/Hong_Kong_University) and declared that the corruption of China and the [peace, order, and good government](/source/Peace%2C_order%2C_and_good_government) of Hong Kong had turned him into a revolutionary.[115][116] The same year, he delivered a speech in which he proclaimed his [Three Principles of the People](/source/Three_Principles_of_the_People) as the foundation of the country and the [Five-Yuan Constitution](/source/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China) as the guideline for the political system and bureaucracy. Part of the speech was made into the [National Anthem of the Republic of China](/source/National_Anthem_of_the_Republic_of_China).

On 10 November 1924, Sun traveled north to [Tianjin](/source/Tianjin) and delivered a speech to suggest a gathering for a "national conference" for the Chinese people. He called for the end of warlord rules and the abolition of all [unequal treaties](/source/Unequal_treaties) with the [Western powers](/source/Western_powers).[117] Two days later, he traveled to Beijing to discuss the future of the country despite his deteriorating health and the ongoing civil war of the warlords. Among the people whom he met was the Muslim warlord General [Ma Fuxiang](/source/Ma_Fuxiang), who informed Sun that he would welcome Sun's leadership.[118] On 28 November 1924 Sun traveled to Japan and gave a [speech on Pan-Asianism](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Sun_Yat_Sen%27s_speech_on_Pan-Asianism) at [Kobe](/source/Kobe), Japan.[119]

### Illness and death

For many years, it was popularly believed that Sun died of [liver cancer](/source/Liver_cancer). On 26 January 1925, Sun underwent an [exploratory laparotomy](/source/Exploratory_laparotomy) at [Peking Union Medical College Hospital](/source/Peking_Union_Medical_College_Hospital) (PUMCH) to investigate a long-term illness. It was performed by the head of the Department of Surgery, Adrian S. Taylor, who stated that the procedure "revealed extensive involvement of the liver by [carcinoma](/source/Carcinoma)" and that Sun had only about ten days to live. Sun was hospitalized, and his condition was treated with [radium](/source/Radium).[120] Sun survived the initial ten-day period, and on 18 February, against the advice of doctors, he was transferred to the KMT headquarters and treated with [traditional Chinese medicine](/source/Traditional_Chinese_medicine). That was also unsuccessful, and he died on 12 March, at the age of 58.[121] Contemporary reports in *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*,[121] *[Time](/source/Time_(magazine))*,[122] and the Chinese newspaper *Qun Qiang Bao* all reported the cause of death as liver cancer, based on Taylor's observation,[123] despite an autopsy stating the cause of death was gall bladder cancer, which had spread to the liver.[120]

Sun left three deathbed testaments, one to the party, one to his family, and one to the Soviet Union. The first two were drafted by [Wang Jingwei](/source/Wang_Jingwei) on Sun's behalf.[124] The third was dictated by Sun himself.[125]

Sun Yat-sen on his death bed. Picture at The Museum of Dr. Sun Yat-sen in [Cuiheng](/source/Cuiheng)

Sun's body was preserved in [mineral oil](/source/Mineral_oil)[126] and taken to the [Temple of Azure Clouds](/source/Temple_of_Azure_Clouds), a [Buddhist](/source/Buddhist) shrine in the [Western Hills](/source/Western_Hills) a few miles outside Beijing.[127] A glass-covered steel coffin was sent by the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union) to the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall at Temple of Azure Clouds as a permanent repository for the body but was ultimately declined by the family as unsuitable.[128] The body was embalmed for preservation by [Peking Union Medical College](/source/Peking_Union_Medical_College) who reportedly guaranteed its preservation for 150 years.[128]

In 1926, construction began on a majestic mausoleum at the foot of [Purple Mountain](/source/Purple_Mountain_(Nanjing)) in Nanjing, which was completed in the spring of 1929. On 1 June 1929, Sun's remains were moved from Beijing and interred in the [Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Mausoleum).

By pure chance, in May 2016, an American pathologist, Rolf F. Barth, was visiting the [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall_(Guangzhou)) in [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou) when he noticed a faded copy of the original autopsy report on display. The autopsy was performed immediately after Sun's death by James Cash, a pathologist at PUMCH. Based on a [tissue sample](/source/Sampling_(medicine)), Cash concluded that the cause of death was an [adenocarcinoma](/source/Adenocarcinoma) in the [gallbladder](/source/Gallbladder) that had [metastasized](/source/Metastasis) to the liver. In modern China, liver cancer is far more common than [gallbladder cancer](/source/Gallbladder_cancer). Although the incidence rates for either one in 1925 are not known, if one assumes that they were similar to modern rates, the original diagnosis by Taylor was a reasonable conclusion. From the time of Sun's death to the appearance of Barth's report[120] in the *[Chinese Journal of Cancer](/source/Chinese_Journal_of_Cancer)* in September 2016, Sun's true cause of death was not reported in any English-language publication. Even in Chinese-language sources, it appeared in only one non-medical online report in 2013.[120][129]

## Legacy

### Power struggle

Chinese generals at the [Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Mausoleum) in 1928 after the [Northern Expedition](/source/Northern_Expedition). From right: [Cheng Jin](/source/He_Chengjun) (何成浚), [Zhang Zuobao](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Zuobao&action=edit&redlink=1) (張作寶), [Chen Diaoyuan](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chen_Diaoyuan&action=edit&redlink=1) (陳調元), [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek), [Woo Tsin-hang](/source/Woo_Tsin-hang), [Yan Xishan](/source/Yan_Xishan), [Ma Fuxiang](/source/Ma_Fuxiang), [Ma Sida](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ma_Sida&action=edit&redlink=1) (馬四達), and [Bai Chongxi](/source/Bai_Chongxi).

After Sun's death, [Wang Jingwei](/source/Wang_Jingwei) became the first president of the Nationalist government, which soon fragmented into three competing factions: the center-right [Nanjing government](/source/Nanjing_government) led by [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek), the leftist [Wuhan government](/source/Wuhan_government_of_the_Republic_of_China) led by Wang Jingwei, and the far-right [Western Hills Group](/source/Western_Hills_Group), originally convened in Beijing, which maintained its own Central Executive Committee in Shanghai.[130]: 109 Each rival power center controlled its own provincial military.[46]: 109

At stake in the struggle was the right to lay claim to Sun's ambiguous legacy. In 1927, Chiang married [Soong Mei-ling](/source/Soong_Mei-ling), a sister of Sun's widow [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling), and he could now claim to be a brother-in-law of Sun. When the Nationalists committed the [Shanghai massacre](/source/Shanghai_massacre) in 1927, splitting with the Communists and starting the [Chinese Civil War](/source/Chinese_Civil_War), each group claimed to be his true heirs, and the conflict that continued until [World War II](/source/World_War_II). When Wang Jingwei, who had led the collaborationist government during World War II, was buried on the mountain next to the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in 1944, Chiang had Wang's tomb demolished after the war.

Sun's widow, [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling), sided with the Communists during the Chinese Civil War and was critical of Chiang's regime since the Shanghai massacre in 1927. She held high but largely honorary positions after the founding of the People's Republic.[131]

### Personality cult

A [personality cult](/source/Personality_cult) in the Republic of China was centered on Sun and his successor, [Generalissimo](/source/Generalissimo) [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek). The cult was created after Sun Yat-sen died. Chinese Muslim generals and imams participated in the personality cult and the [one-party state](/source/One-party_state), with Muslim General [Ma Bufang](/source/Ma_Bufang) making people bow to Sun's portrait and listen to the national anthem during a [Tibetan](/source/Tibetan_people) and [Mongol](/source/Mongol_people) religious ceremony for the [Qinghai Lake](/source/Qinghai_Lake) god.[132] Quotes from the [Qur'an](/source/Qur'an) and the [Hadith](/source/Hadith) were used by [Hui](/source/Hui_people) Muslims to justify Chiang's rule over China.[133]

The Kuomintang's constitution designated Sun as the party president. After his death, the Kuomintang opted to keep that language in its constitution to honor his memory forever. The party has since been headed by a director-general (1927–1975) and a chairman (since 1975), who discharge the functions of the president.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

Though he took a stance against [idolatry](/source/Idolatry) in life, Sun sometimes became [worshiped as a god](/source/Apotheosis) among people. For example, a KMT committee member Hsieh Kun-hong controversially referred to Sun as having "[become immortal](/source/Xian_(Taoism))" after death under the posthumous name of "Great Merciful True Monarch" ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 偉慈真君) in 2021. Sun is already worshipped in the syncretic Vietnamese religion of [Caodaism](/source/Caodaism).[134]

### Father of the Nation

Statue of Sun at his Mausoleum in Nanjing, with a [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang) flag on the ceiling

Sun Yat-sen remains unique among 20th-century Chinese leaders for having a high reputation in both [Mainland China](/source/Mainland_China) and [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan). In Taiwan, he is seen as the Father of the [Republic of China](/source/Republic_of_China) and is known by the [posthumous name](/source/Posthumous_name) *[Father of the Nation](/source/Father_of_the_Nation), Mr. Sun Zhongshan* (Chinese: 國父 孫中山先生, and the [one-character space](/source/Tai_tou) is a traditional homage symbol).[5]

### Forerunner of revolution

Sun Yat-sen tribute in [Tiananmen Square](/source/Tiananmen_Square) in front of the [Monument to the People's Heroes](/source/Monument_to_the_People's_Heroes), 2021

In Mainland China, Sun is seen as a Chinese nationalist, a proto-socialist, and the first president of a Republican China and is highly regarded as the Forerunner of the Revolution (革命先行者).[2] He is even mentioned by name in the [preamble](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China) to the [Constitution of the People's Republic of China](/source/Constitution_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China). In recent years, the leadership of the [Chinese Communist Party](/source/Chinese_Communist_Party) has increasingly invoked Sun, partly as a way of bolstering [Chinese nationalism](/source/Chinese_nationalism) in light of the [reform and opening up](/source/Reform_and_opening_up) and partly to increase connections with supporters of the Kuomintang on Taiwan, which the [People's Republic of China](/source/People's_Republic_of_China) sees as allies against [Taiwan independence](/source/Taiwan_independence). [Sun's tomb](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Mausoleum) was one of the first stops made by the leaders of both the Kuomintang and the [People First Party](/source/People_First_Party_(Republic_of_China)) on their [pan-blue visit to mainland China in 2005](/source/2005_Pan-Blue_visits_to_mainland_China).[135] A massive portrait of Sun continues to appear in [Tiananmen Square](/source/Tiananmen_Square) for May Day and [National Day](/source/National_Day_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China).

In 1956, [Mao Zedong](/source/Mao_Zedong) said, "Let us pay tribute to our great revolutionary forerunner, Dr. Sun Yat-sen!... he bequeathed to us much that is useful in the sphere of political thought."[136][137]

[Xi Jinping](/source/Xi_Jinping) incorporates Sun's legacy into his discourse on national rejuvenation.[138] Xi describes Sun as the first person to propose a method for Chinese revival, including adopting the first blueprint for China's modernization.[138]

### New Three Principles of the People

Main article: [Three Principles of the People](/source/Three_Principles_of_the_People)

Sun's Three Principles of the People has been reinterpreted by the Chinese Communist Party to argue that communism is a necessary conclusion of them and thus provide legitimacy for the government. This reinterpretation of the Three Principles of the People is commonly referred to as the New Three Principles of the People ([Chinese](/source/Chinese_language): 新三民主義, also translated as "neo-tridemism"), a word coined by Mao's 1940 essay *[On New Democracy](/source/On_New_Democracy)* in which he argued that the Communist Party is a better enforcer of the Three Principles of the People compared to the bourgeois Kuomintang and that the new three principles are about allying with the communists and the Russians (Soviets) and supporting the peasants and the workers.[139] Proponents of the New Three Principles of the People claim that Sun's book Three Principles of the People acknowledges that the principles of welfare is inherently socialistic and communistic.[140]

During the 90th anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution in 2001, former CCP General Secretary [Jiang Zemin](/source/Jiang_Zemin) claimed that Sun supposedly advocated for the "New Three Principles of the People."[141][142] In 2001, Sun's granddaughter Lily Sun said that the Chinese Communists were distorting Sun's legacy. She again voiced her displeasure in 2002 in a private letter to Jiang about the distortion of history.[141] In 2008 Jiang Zemin was willing to offer US$10 million to sponsor a Xinhai Revolution anniversary celebration event. According to *[Ming Pao](/source/Ming_Pao)*, she did not take the money because then she would not "have the freedom to properly communicate the Revolution."[141]

### KMT emblem removal case

In 1981, Lily Sun took a trip to Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum in Nanjing. The emblem of the KMT had been removed from the top of his sacrificial hall at the time of her visit but was later restored. On another visit in May 2011, she was surprised to find the four-character "General Rules of Meetings" (會議通則), a document that Sun wrote in reference to [Robert's Rules of Order](/source/Robert's_Rules_of_Order) had been removed from a stone carving.[141]

### Founding father of the nation debate

In 1940, the Republic of China (ROC) government had bestowed the title of "father of the nation" on Sun. However, after 1949, as a result of the Chiang regime's arrival in Taiwan, his "father of the nation" designation continued only in Taiwan.[143]

Sun visited Taiwan briefly on only three occasions (in 1900, 1913, and 1918) or four by counting 1924, when his boat had stopped in Keelung Harbor, but he did not disembark.[143]

In November 2004, the [Taiwanese Ministry of Education](/source/Ministry_of_Education_(Taiwan)) proposed that Sun was not the father of Taiwan. Instead, Sun was a foreigner from mainland China.[144] Taiwanese Education Minister [Tu Cheng-sheng](/source/Tu_Cheng-sheng) and the [Examination Yuan](/source/Examination_Yuan) member [Lin Yu-ti](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lin_Yu-ti&action=edit&redlink=1) [[zh](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E7%8E%89%E4%BD%93)], both of whom supported the proposal, had their portraits pelted with eggs in protest.[145] At a Sun Yat-sen statue in [Kaohsiung](/source/Kaohsiung), a 70-year-old retired soldier of the Republic of China committed suicide on Sun's birthday, 12 November, to protest the ministry's proposal.[144][145]

## Views

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### Western culture

Sun Yat-sen was a lifelong Christian,[146] and saw it as the best way to develop the Chinese nation. He went on foreign trips to gather support and resources of Western and Christian nations.[147] He was highly critical of anything from ancient Chinese which did not conform to Western standards and ideals. This led him and his group to break idols and denounce Chinese medicine amongst other things.[148][149]

### Economic development

Sun Yat-sen spent years in Hawaii as a student in the late 1870s and early 1880s and was highly impressed with the economic development that he saw there. He used the Kingdom of Hawaii as a model to develop his vision of a technologically modern, politically independent, actively [anti-imperialist](/source/Anti-imperialist) China.[150] Sun, an important pioneer of international development, proposed in the 1920s international institutions of the sort that appeared after World War II. He focused on China, with its vast potential and weak base of mostly local entrepreneurs.[151]

His key proposal was socialism. He proposed:

- The State will take over all the large enterprises; we shall encourage and protect enterprises which may reasonably be entrusted to the people; the nation will possess equality with other nations; every Chinese will be equal to every other Chinese both politically and in his opportunities of economic advancement.[152]

He also proposed, "If we use existing foreign capital to build up a future communist society in China, half the work will bring double the results."[153][154][155] He also said, "It is my idea to make capitalism create socialism in China."[156][157]

Sun promoted the ideas of the economist [Henry George](/source/Henry_George) and was influenced by [Georgist](/source/Georgism) ideas on land ownership and a [land value tax](/source/Land_value_tax).[158][159]

### Culture

Sun supported [natalism](/source/Natalism) and had [eugenic](/source/Eugenic) ideals.[160]: 41 He favored premarital health examinations, [sterilization](/source/Sterilization_(medicine)) of those perceived as unfit, and other programs for socially engineering China's population.[160]: 41–42 In Sun's view, China had only endured Western invasions and colonial rule because of its large population.[160]: 41 Those views led him to oppose the use of [birth control](/source/Birth_control).[160]: 41

### Pan-Asianism

Sun was a proponent of [Pan-Asianism](/source/Pan-Asianism). He said that Asia was the "cradle of the world's oldest civilisation" and that "even the ancient civilisations of the West, of Greece and Rome, had their origins on Asiatic soil." He thought that it was only in recent times that Asians "gradually degenerated and become weak."[161] For Sun, "Pan-Asianism is based on the principle of the Rule of Right, and justifies the avenging of wrongs done to others." He advocated overthrowing the Western "Rule of Might" and "seeking a civilisation of peace and equality and the emancipation of all races."[162]

## Relationship with Japan

### Meiji Restoration and Sun Yat-sen's Revolutionary Views

According to [Hosaka Masayasu](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hosaka_Masayasu&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E9%98%AA%E6%AD%A3%E5%BA%B7)], one of the reasons why figures like [Miyazaki Toten](/source/Miyazaki_Toten), [Yamada Yoshimasa](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yamada_Yoshimasa&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1%E7%94%B0%E8%89%AF%E6%94%BF)], and [Yamada Junzaburo](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yamada_Junzaburo&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1%E7%94%B0%E7%B4%94%E4%B8%89%E9%83%8E)] supported Sun Yat-sen's revolutionary movement was because the ideals of the [Meiji Restoration](/source/Meiji_Restoration) or the [Freedom and People's Rights Movement](/source/Freedom_and_People's_Rights_Movement) could not be realized in Japan, and they sought to compensate for that failure.[163]

However, Sun Yat-sen himself stated the following in [1919](/source/1919):

- The Chinese Nationalist Party is, after all, the revolutionaries of Japan from 50 years ago. Japan, a weak country in the East, was fortunate to have revolutionaries from the Meiji Restoration, who, for the first time, rallied and transformed Japan from a weak country to a strong one. Our revolutionaries also followed the path of Japan's revolutionaries, seeking to transform China.[164]

In [1923](/source/1923), he also said:

- Japan's Meiji Restoration was the cause of the Chinese revolution, and the Chinese revolution was the result of Japan's Meiji Restoration. Both are originally connected and work together to achieve the revival of East Asia.[165]

Based on his empathy for the Meiji Restoration, Sun Yat-sen sought collaboration between Japan and China. For him, Japan's Twenty-One Demands on China represented a betrayal of the "revolutionary aspirations" of the Meiji patriots and advanced Japan's policy of aggression against China.[166]

### Relationship with the Japanese

During his lifetime, Sun Yat-sen had a wide range of relationships with Japanese people.[167] His second wife, [Kaoru Otsuki](/source/Kaoru_Otsuki), was Japanese. Through the mediation of [Inukai Tsuyoshi](/source/Inukai_Tsuyoshi), he became acquainted with [Miyazaki Toten](/source/Miyazaki_Toten),[168] [Tōyama Mitsuru](/source/T%C5%8Dyama_Mitsuru), and [Uchida Ryōhei](/source/Uchida_Ry%C5%8Dhei), with whom he also had ideological exchanges and received financial support.[169] In addition, he received financial aid from businessmen such as [Matsukata Kōjirō](/source/Matsukata_K%C5%8Djir%C5%8D), [Yasukawa Keiichirō](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yasukawa_Keiichir%C5%8D&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%89%E5%B7%9D%E6%95%AC%E4%B8%80%E9%83%8E)], stock trader [Suzuki Kugorou](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suzuki_Kugorou&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%88%B4%E6%9C%A8%E4%B9%85%E4%BA%94%E9%83%8E)], and [Umeya Shōkichi](/source/Umeya_Sh%C5%8Dkichi).[72][73] One of his supporters during his stay in Japan was also the great-grandfather of manga artist [Shibata Ami](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Shibata_Ami&action=edit&redlink=1) [[ja](https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9F%B4%E7%94%B0%E4%BA%9C%E7%BE%8E)].

Additionally, [Sasaki Tōichi](/source/Sasaki_T%C5%8Dichi) of the Imperial Japanese Army served as a military advisor to Sun. He also became friends with [Minakata Kumagusu](/source/Minakata_Kumagusu), and their friendship deepened after they met while Sun was in exile in London.[170]

### Great Asianism Lecture

The Great Asianism Lecture refers to the speech given by Sun Yat-sen on November 29, 1924, the day after his meeting with [Tōyama Mitsuru](/source/T%C5%8Dyama_Mitsuru) in Kobe. It was delivered at the auditorium of the Kobe Prefectural Girls' High School, located where the current Hyogo Prefectural Government Office is, to five organizations, including the Kobe Chamber of Commerce. This speech distinguished between the "kingly way" of the East and the "hegemonic way" of the West, praising the kingly way of the East, and condemning Japan's tilt towards hegemonic ways due to excess, while also praising Japan's modernization as a leader in this regard.[171][172]

- You Japanese people have adopted the hegemonic cultural ways of the West, while also possessing the essence of the kingly way of Asian culture. However, as you look toward the future of world culture, the question remains: will you ultimately become the tools of the Western hegemonic ways, or will you stand as a barrier to the Eastern kingly way? This depends on your careful consideration and deliberate choices.[173]

This speech criticized Western [colonialism](/source/Colonialism) while praising Japan's modernization and civilization. It also criticized Japan for becoming a follower of Western colonialism and advocated for cooperation among Asians.

## Family

Main article: [Family tree of Sun Yat-sen](/source/Family_tree_of_Sun_Yat-sen)

Partners of Sun Yat-sen

[Lu Muzhen](/source/Lu_Muzhen) (1867–1952, m. 1885–1915)

[Kaoru Otsuki](/source/Kaoru_Otsuki) (1888–1970, m. 1905–1906)

[Chen Cuifen](/source/Chen_Cuifen) (1874–1962, m. 1905–?)[174]

[Soong Ching Ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling) (1893–1981, m. 1915–1925)

Sun Yat-sen was born to Sun Dacheng (孫達成) and his wife, [Lady Yang](/source/Madame_Yang) (楊氏) on 12 November 1866.[175] At the time, his father was 53, and his mother was 38 years old. He had an older brother, Sun Dezhang (孫德彰), and an older sister, Sun Jinxing (孫金星), who died at the early age of 4. Another older brother, Sun Deyou (孫德祐), died at the age of 6. He also had an older sister, Sun Miaoqian (孫妙茜), and a younger sister, Sun Qiuqi (孫秋綺).[27]

At age 20, Sun had an [arranged marriage](/source/Arranged_marriage) with the fellow villager [Lu Muzhen](/source/Lu_Muzhen). She bore a son, [Sun Fo](/source/Sun_Fo), and two daughters, Sun Jinyuan (孫金媛) and Sun Jinwan (孫金婉).[27] Sun Fo was the grandfather of Leland Sun, who spent 37 years working in [Hollywood](/source/Cinema_of_the_United_States) as an actor and [stuntman](/source/Stuntman).[176] Sun Yat-sen was also the godfather of Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger, an American author and poet who wrote under the name [Cordwainer Smith](/source/Cordwainer_Smith).

Sun's first [concubine](/source/Concubine), the Hong Kong–born [Chen Cuifen](/source/Chen_Cuifen), lived in [Taiping, Perak](/source/Taiping%2C_Perak) (now in [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia)) for 17 years. The couple adopted a local girl as their daughter. Cuifen subsequently relocated to China, where she died.[177]

During Sun's exile in Japan, he had relationships with two Japanese women: the 15-year-old [Haru Asada](/source/Haru_Asada), whom he took as a concubine up to her death in 1902, and another 15-year-old schoolgirl, [Kaoru Otsuki](/source/Kaoru_Otsuki), whom Sun married in 1905 and abandoned the next year while she was pregnant.[178] Otsuki later had their daughter, Fumiko, adopted by the Miyagawa family in Yokohama, who did not discover her parentage until 1951,[178] 26 years after Sun's death.

On 25 October 1915 in Japan, Sun married [Soong Ching-ling](/source/Soong_Ching-ling), one of the [Soong sisters](/source/Soong_sisters).[27][179] Soong Ching-ling's father was the American-educated [Methodist](/source/Methodist) minister [Charles Soong](/source/Charles_Soong), who made a fortune in banking and in printing of Bibles. Although Charles had been a personal friend of Sun, he was enraged by Sun announcing his intention to marry Ching-ling because while Sun was a Christian, he [kept two wives](/source/Bigamy): Lu Muzhen and Kaoru Otsuki. Soong viewed Sun's actions as running directly against their shared religion.

Soong Ching-Ling's sister, [Soong Mei-ling](/source/Soong_Mei-ling), later married [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek).

## Cultural references

### Memorials and structures in Asia

Aerial perspective of Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall, in central Singapore, taken in 2016

In most major [Chinese cities](/source/Chinese_cities), one of the main streets is [Zhongshan Lu](/source/List_of_streets_named_after_Sun_Yat-sen) (中山路) to celebrate Sun's memory. There are also numerous parks, schools, and geographical features named after him. Xiangshan, Sun's hometown in Guangdong, was renamed [Zhongshan](/source/Zhongshan) in his honor, and there is a hall dedicated to his memory at the [Temple of Azure Clouds](/source/Temple_of_Azure_Clouds) in Beijing. There are also a series of [Sun Yat-sen stamps](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_stamps).

Other references to Sun include the [Sun Yat-sen University](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_University) in Guangzhou and [National Sun Yat-sen University](/source/National_Sun_Yat-sen_University) in [Kaohsiung](/source/Kaohsiung). Other structures include [Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Mausoleum), [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall subway station](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall_Station_(Guangzhou)), [Sun Yat-sen house](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_House_(Nanjing)) in Nanjing, [Dr Sun Yat-sen Museum](/source/Dr_Sun_Yat-sen_Museum) in Hong Kong, [Chung-Shan Building](/source/Chung-Shan_Building), [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall_(Guangzhou)) in [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou), [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall) in [Taipei](/source/Taipei) and [Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat_Sen_Nanyang_Memorial_Hall) in Singapore. [Zhongshan Memorial Middle School](/source/Zhongshan_Memorial_Middle_School) has also been a name used by many schools. [Zhongshan Park](/source/Zhongshan_Park) is also a common name used for a number of places named after him. The first highway in Taiwan is called the [Sun Yat-sen expressway](/source/National_Highway_No._1_(Taiwan)). Two ships are also named after him; the [Chinese gunboat Chung Shan](/source/Chinese_gunboat_Chung_Shan) and the [Chinese cruiser Yat Sen](/source/Chinese_cruiser_Yat_Sen). The old Chinatown in [Calcutta](/source/Calcutta) (now known as [Kolkata](/source/Kolkata)), India, has the prominent Sun Yat-sen Street.

In Russia, a village in [Mikhaylovsky District](/source/Mikhaylovsky_District%2C_Primorsky_Krai) of [Primorsky Krai](/source/Primorsky_Krai) was named [Sunyatsenskoe](https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5) in honor of him. There are streets named after him in [Astrakhan](/source/Astrakhan), [Ufa](/source/Ufa) and [Aldan](/source/Aldan%2C_Russia). There was a street that was named after Sun in the Russian city of [Omsk](/source/Omsk) until 2005, when it was renamed in honor of the recipient of the title [Hero of Soviet Union](/source/Hero_of_Soviet_Union) Mikhail Ivanovich Leonov.[180][181][182][183]

In [George Town](/source/George_Town%2C_Penang), Penang, [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia), the Penang Philomatic Union had its premises at 120 [Armenian Street](/source/Armenian_Street%2C_George_Town) in 1910, while Sun spent more than four months in [Penang](/source/Penang) and convened the historic "Penang Conference" to launch the fundraising campaign for the Huanghuagang Uprising and founded the *Kwong Wah Yit Poh*. The house, which has been preserved as the [Sun Yat-sen Museum](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Museum_Penang) (formerly called the Sun Yat Sen Penang Base), was visited by President-designate [Hu Jintao](/source/Hu_Jintao) in 2002. The Penang Philomatic Union subsequently moved to a bungalow at 65 [Macalister Road](/source/Macalister_Road%2C_George_Town), which has been preserved as the Sun Yat-sen Memorial Centre Penang.

As a dedication, the 1966 [Chinese Cultural Renaissance](/source/Chinese_Cultural_Renaissance) was launched on Sun's birthday on 12 November.[184]

The [Nanyang](/source/Nanyang_(region)) Wan Qing Yuan in Singapore have since been preserved and renamed as the [Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat_Sen_Nanyang_Memorial_Hall).[78] A Sun Yat-sen heritage trail was also launched on 20 November 2010 in Penang.[185]

Sun's Hawaiian birth certificate, which claimed that he was not born in China but in the United States, was on public display at the [American Institute in Taiwan](/source/American_Institute_in_Taiwan) on [US Independence Day](/source/US_Independence_Day) on 4 July 2011.[186]

A street in [Medan](/source/Medan), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia), is named "Jalan Sun Yat-Sen" in honor of him.[187]

A street named "Tôn Dật Tiên" (the [Sino-Vietnamese](/source/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary) name for Sun Yat-Sen) is located in [Phú Mỹ Hưng Urban Area](/source/Ph%C3%BA_M%E1%BB%B9_H%C6%B0ng_urban_area), [Ho Chi Minh City](/source/Ho_Chi_Minh_City), [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam).

The "Trail of Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh"[188] was established in 2019, based on the book "Road to Revolution: Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh."[189]

#### Gallery

		- [Mausoleum of Sun Yat-sen](/source/Mausoleum_of_Sun_Yat-sen), [Nanjing](/source/Nanjing)

		- [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall_(Guangzhou)), [Guangzhou](/source/Guangzhou)

		- [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall), [Taipei](/source/Taipei)

		- Sun Yat-sen Memorial Centre, [George Town](/source/George_Town%2C_Penang), [Penang](/source/Penang), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia)

		- A marker on the [Sun Yat-sen Historical Trail](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Historical_Trail), [Hong Kong](/source/Hong_Kong_SAR)

		- Statue of Sun Yat-sen before the site of Provisional Military Government of [Wuchang Uprising](/source/Wuchang_Uprising), [Wuhan](/source/Wuhan)

		- Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall at [Temple of Azure Clouds](/source/Temple_of_Azure_Clouds), [Beijing](/source/Beijing)

		- Bronze statue in the campus of [Sun Yat-sen University](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_University), originally made and given by [Umeya Shokichi](/source/Umeya_Shokichi)

		- The Museum of Dr. Sun Yat-sen in [Cuiheng](/source/Cuiheng), [Guangdong](/source/Guangdong)

		- Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall (Ijokaku), [Kobe](/source/Kobe), [Japan](/source/Japan)

### Memorials and structures outside Asia

Sun Yat-Sen monument in [Chinatown](/source/LA_Chinatown) of [Los Angeles](/source/Los_Angeles), [California](/source/California)

Sun Yat-Sen sculpture by [Joe Rosenthal](/source/Joe_Rosenthal) at [Riverdale Park](/source/Riverdale_Park_(Toronto)) in [Toronto](/source/Toronto), [Ontario](/source/Ontario)

[St. John's University](/source/St._John's_University_(New_York_City)), in [New York City](/source/New_York_City), has a facility built in 1973, the Sun Yat-Sen Memorial Hall, which built to resemble a traditional Chinese building in honor of Sun.[190] [Dr. Sun Yat-Sen Classical Chinese Garden](/source/Dr._Sun_Yat-Sen_Classical_Chinese_Garden), located in [Vancouver](/source/Vancouver), is the largest classical Chinese gardens outside Asia. The Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Park is in [Chinatown, Honolulu](/source/Chinatown%2C_Honolulu).[191] On the island of [Maui](/source/Maui), the little Sun Yat-sen Park at Kamaole is near where his older brother had a ranch on the slopes of [Haleakala](/source/Haleakala) in the [Kula](/source/Kula%2C_Hawaii) region.[14][15][16][50]

In [Los Angeles](/source/Chinatown%2C_Los_Angeles), there is a seated statue of him in Central Plaza.[192] In [Sacramento](/source/Sacramento), California, there is a bronze statue of Sun in front of the Chinese Benevolent Association of Sacramento. Another statue of Sun, by [Joe Rosenthal](/source/Joe_Rosenthal_(sculptor)), can be found at [Riverdale Park](/source/Riverdale_Park_(Toronto)) in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and there is another statue in Toronto's downtown [Chinatown](/source/Chinatown%2C_Toronto). There is also the [Moscow Sun Yat-sen University](/source/Moscow_Sun_Yat-sen_University). In [Chinatown, San Francisco](/source/Chinatown%2C_San_Francisco) is a 12-foot [statue of Sun](/source/Statue_of_Sun_Yat-sen_(San_Francisco)) on [Saint Mary's Square](/source/Saint_Mary's_Square_(San_Francisco)).[193]

In late 2011, the Chinese Youth Society of [Melbourne](/source/Melbourne), in celebration of the [100th anniversary of the founding of the Republic of China](/source/100th_Anniversary_of_the_Republic_of_China), unveiled in a [lion dance](/source/Lion_dance) blessing ceremony a [memorial statue of Sun](/source/Statue_of_Sun_Yat-sen_(Melbourne)) outside the [Chinese Museum](/source/Chinese_Museum%2C_Melbourne) in the [city's Chinatown](/source/Chinatown%2C_Melbourne) on the spot that its traditional [Chinese New Year](/source/Chinese_New_Year) lion dance always ends.[194]

Sun Yat-Sen plaza in the Chinese Quarter of [Montreal](/source/Montreal), [Quebec](/source/Quebec)

In 1993, [Lily Sun](/source/Family_tree_of_Sun_Yat-sen), one of Sun Yat-sen's granddaughters, donated books, photographs, artwork and other memorabilia to the [Kapiʻolani Community College](/source/Kapi%CA%BBolani_Community_College) library as part of the Sun Yat-sen Asian Collection.[195] During October and November every year the entire collection is shown.[195] In 1997, the Dr Sun Yat-sen Hawaii Foundation was formed online as a virtual library.[195] In 2006, the [NASA](/source/NASA) [Mars Exploration Rover](/source/Mars_Exploration_Rover) [Spirit](/source/Spirit_Rover) called one of the hills that was explored "Zhongshan."[196]

In 2019, a [statue of Dr. Sun Yat-sen](/source/Statue_of_Sun_Yat-sen_(New_York_City)) by Lu Chun-Hsiung and Michael Kang was permanently installed in the northern plaza of Manhattan's [Columbus Park](/source/Columbus_Park_(Manhattan)).[197][198]

## In popular culture

### Opera

*[Dr. Sun Yat-sen](/source/Dr._Sun_Yat-sen_(opera))*[199] (中山逸仙; *ZhōngShān yì xiān*) is a 2011 [Chinese-language western-style opera](/source/Chinese-language_western-style_opera) in three acts by the New York-based American composer [Huang Ruo](/source/Huang_Ruo), who was born in China and is a graduate of [Oberlin College](/source/Oberlin_College)'s Conservatory as well as the Juilliard School. The libretto was written by [Candace Mui-ngam Chong](/source/Candace_Chong_Mui_Ngam), a recent collaborator with playwright [David Henry Hwang](/source/David_Henry_Hwang).[200] It was performed in Hong Kong in October 2011 and was given its [North America](/source/North_America) premiere on 26 July 2014 at the [Santa Fe Opera](/source/Santa_Fe_Opera).

### Television series and films

Sun Yat-sen's life is portrayed in various films, mainly *[The Soong Sisters](/source/The_Soong_Sisters_(film))* and *[Road to Dawn](/source/Road_to_Dawn)*. A fictionalized assassination attempt on his life was featured in *[Bodyguards and Assassins](/source/Bodyguards_and_Assassins)*. He is also portrayed during his struggle to overthrow the Qing dynasty in *[Once Upon a Time in China II](/source/Once_Upon_a_Time_in_China_II)*. The television series *[Towards the Republic](/source/Towards_the_Republic)* features [Ma Shaohua](/source/Ma_Shaohua) as Sun. In *[1911](/source/1911_(film))*, a film commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the Chinese Revolution, [Winston Chao](/source/Winston_Chao) played Sun.[201] In [Space: Above and Beyond](/source/Space%3A_Above_and_Beyond), one of the starships of the China Navy is named the *Sun Yat-sen*.[202]

### Performances

In 2010, the theatrical play *Yellow Flower on Slopes* (斜路黃花) was created and performed.[203]

In 2011, the [Mandopop](/source/Mandopop) group Zhongsan Road 100 (中山路100號) was known for singing the song "Our Father of the Nation" (我們國父).[204]

## Works

- *Kidnapped in London* (1897)

- *The Outline of National Reconstruction/Chien Kuo Ta Kang* (1918)

- *The Fundamentals of National Reconstruction/Jianguo fanglue* (1924)

- *The Principle of Nationalism* (1953)

## See also

- [China portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:China)
- [Taiwan portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Taiwan)
- [Biography portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography)

- [Chiang Kai-shek](/source/Chiang_Kai-shek)

- [Chiang Ching-kuo](/source/Chiang_Ching-kuo)

- [History of the Republic of China](/source/History_of_the_Republic_of_China)

- [Politics of the Republic of China](/source/Politics_of_the_Republic_of_China)

- [Sun Yat-sen Museum Penang](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Museum_Penang)

- [United States Constitution and worldwide influence](/source/United_States_Constitution_and_worldwide_influence)

- [Zhongshan suit](/source/Zhongshan_suit)

- [Kuomintang](/source/Kuomintang)

- [Three Principles of the People](/source/Three_Principles_of_the_People)

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 國父; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Guófù*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** [traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_characters): 孫逸仙; [simplified Chinese](/source/Simplified_Chinese_characters): 孙逸仙; [pinyin](/source/Pinyin): *Sūn Yìxiān* Usually known as **Sun Zhongshan** (孫中山; 孙中山) in Chinese; also known by [several other names](/source/Names_of_Sun_Yat-sen).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** Contrary to a popular legend, Sun entered the Legation voluntarily although he was prevented from leaving. The Legation planned to execute him and to return his body to Beijing for ritual beheading. Cantlie, his former teacher, was refused a writ of *[habeas corpus](/source/Habeas_corpus)* because of the Legation's [diplomatic immunity](/source/Diplomatic_immunity), but he began a campaign through *[The Times](/source/The_Times)*. Through diplomatic channels, the [British Foreign Office](/source/British_Foreign_Office) persuaded the Legation to release Sun.[52]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** - ["Sun Yat-sen"](https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/sun-yat-sen). *Collins English Dictionary*. 2020. - ["Sun Yat-sen"](https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sun-yat-sen). *Dictionary.com*. 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Tung1_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Tung1_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Tung1_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Tung1_4-3) Tung, William L. (1968). *The political institutions of modern China*. Springer publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9024705528](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9024705528). pp. 92, 106.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Schoppa, R. Keith (2000). *The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History*. Columbia University Press. pp. 73, 165, 186. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-50037-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50037-1).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-singtao1_6-13) [Singtao](/source/Singtao) daily. Saturday edition. 23 October 2010. 特別策劃 section A18. Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition 民國之父.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-sunbook2_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-sunbook2_7-1) Wang Ermin (王爾敏) (2011). 思想創造時代：孫中山與中華民國 (in Chinese). Showwe Information. p. 274. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9862217078](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9862217078).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Huang, Yuhe (John Y. Wong) (2012). *三十岁前的孙中山：翠亨、檀岛、香港* [*Sun Yat-sen Before the Age of Thirty: 1866–1895*] (in Chinese). Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore (生活·读书·新知三联书店). p. 137. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9787108038098](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9787108038098).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sunbook1_9-0)** Wang Shounan (王壽南) (2007). *Sun Zhong-san*. [Commercial Press](/source/Commercial_Press) Taiwan. p. 23. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9570521566](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9570521566).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-book2006_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-book2006_10-1) You Zixiang (游梓翔) (2006). 領袖的聲音: 兩岸領導人政治語藝批評, 1906–2006 (in Chinese). Wu-nan wenhua. p. 82. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9571142685](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9571142685).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-chron-nathall_11-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-chron-nathall_11-1) ["Chronology of Dr. Sun Yat-sen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20140416192520/http://www.yatsen.gov.tw/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=129). Taipei: [Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall](/source/Sun_Yat-sen_Memorial_Hall_(Taipei)). Archived from [the original](http://www.yatsen.gov.tw/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=153&Itemid=129) on 16 April 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-作者:门杰丹_12-0)** 门杰丹 (4 December 2003). [浓浓乡情系中原—访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士](http://www.chinanews.com/n/2003-12-04/26/376869.html) [Central Plains Nostalgia-Interview with Dr. Sun Suifang, granddaughter of Sun Yat-sen]. *China News* (in Chinese). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110708144937/http://www.chinanews.com/n/2003-12-04/26/376869.html) from the original on 8 July 2011. [Translate this Chinese article to English](https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=zh-CN&tl=en&prev=_t&hl=en&u=http://www.chinanews.com/n/2003-12-04/26/376869.html)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Bohr, P. Richard (2009). ["Did the Hakka Save China? Ethnicity, Identity, and Minority Status in China's Modern Transformation"](https://digitalcommons.csbsju.edu/headwaters/vol26/iss1/3/). *Headwaters*. **26** (3): 16.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** [*Sun Yat-sen*](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg). Stanford University Press. 1998. p. [24](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsen00berg/page/24). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0804740111](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804740111).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Maui_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Maui_15-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Maui_15-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Maui_15-3) Kubota, Gary (20 August 2017). ["Students from China study Sun Yat-sen on Maui"](https://www.staradvertiser.com/2017/08/20/breaking-news/students-from-china-study-sun-yat-sen-on-maui/). *[Star-Advertiser](/source/Star-Advertiser)*. Honolulu. Retrieved 21 August 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-KHON2SunMei_16-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-KHON2SunMei_16-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-KHON2SunMei_16-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-KHON2SunMei_16-3) KHON web staff (3 June 2013). ["Chinese government officials attend Sun Mei statue unveiling on Maui"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170822100129/http://khon2.com/2013/06/03/chinese-government-officials-attend-sun-mei-statue-unveiling-on-maui/). *[KHON2](/source/KHON-TV)*. [Honolulu](/source/Honolulu). Archived from [the original](https://khon2.com/2013/06/03/chinese-government-officials-attend-sun-mei-statue-unveiling-on-maui/) on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MauiSunPark_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MauiSunPark_17-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-MauiSunPark_17-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-MauiSunPark_17-3) ["Sun Yat-sen Memorial Park"](https://www.hawaii-guide.com/maui/sights/sun_yat_sen_memorial_park). *Hawaii Guide*. Retrieved 21 August 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MauiCountySunPark_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MauiCountySunPark_18-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-MauiCountySunPark_18-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-MauiCountySunPark_18-3) ["Sun Yet Sen Park"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170822053719/https://co.maui.hi.us/Facilities/Facility/Details/Sun-Yet-Sen-Park-173). *[County of Maui](/source/Maui_County%2C_Hawaii)*. Archived from [the original](https://co.maui.hi.us/Facilities/Facility/Details/Sun-Yet-Sen-Park-173) on 22 August 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Gonschor, Lorenz (2 January 2017). ["Revisiting the Hawaiian Influence on the Political Thought of Sun Yat-sen"](https://doi.org/10.1080/00223344.2017.1319128). *The Journal of Pacific History*. **52** (1): 52–67. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00223344.2017.1319128](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00223344.2017.1319128). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0022-3344](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3344). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [157738017](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157738017).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-DrSenIolaniSchool_20-0)** ["Dr. Sun Yat-Sen (class of 1882)"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110720185610/http://www.iolani.org/wn_aboutiolani_100305_cc.htm). *[ʻIolani School](/source/%CA%BBIolani_School)*. Archived from [the original](http://www.iolani.org/wn_aboutiolani_100305_cc.htm) on 20 July 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** Brannon, John (16 August 2007). ["Chinatown park, statue honor Sun Yat-sen"](https://web.archive.org/web/20121004215858/http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/16/ln/hawaii708160313.html). *Honolulu Star-Bulletin*. Archived from [the original](http://the.honoluluadvertiser.com/article/2007/Aug/16/ln/hawaii708160313.html) on 4 October 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2007. Sun graduated from Iolani School in 1882, then attended Oahu College—now known as Punahou School—for one semester.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-big5_22-0)** [基督教與近代中國革命起源:以孫中山為例](https://web.archive.org/web/20111028210411/http://big5.chinanews.com:89/hb/2011/04-02/2950599.shtml). Big5.chinanews.com:89. Archived from [the original](http://big5.chinanews.com:89/hb/2011/04-02/2950599.shtml) on 28 October 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["Central and Western Heritage Trail"](https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185852/https://www.amo.gov.hk/en/trails_west1.php?tid=18). Archived from [the original](https://www.amo.gov.hk/en/trails_west1.php?tid=18) on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 6 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** ["The Diocesan Home and Orphanage"](https://www.sunyatsenhistoricaltrail.hk/en/spots2.html). *Sun Yat-sen Historic Trail*. 17 November 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2021.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** [中山史蹟徑一日遊](https://web.archive.org/web/20111102031359/http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/yfoh/b5/sun_yat_sen.php). Lcsd.gov.hk. Archived from [the original](http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/ce/Museum/Monument/yfoh/b5/sun_yat_sen.php) on 2 November 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** ["The Government Central School"](https://www.sunyatsenhistoricaltrail.hk/en/spots5.html). *Sun Yat-sen Historic Trail*. 14 January 2018. Retrieved 6 July 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_27-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_27-1) Sun, Yat-sen. "The Imbroglio". [*Kidnapped in London*](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kidnapped_in_London/Chapter_1).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** *Growing with Hong Kong: the University and its graduates: the first 90 years*. Hong Kong University Press. 2003. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-962-209-613-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-209-613-4).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-singtao2_29-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-singtao2_29-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-singtao2_29-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-singtao2_29-3) *[Singtao](/source/Singtao) Daily*. 28 February 2011. 特別策劃 section A10. "Sun Yat-sen Xinhai revolution 100th anniversary edition".

1. **[^](#cite_ref-scmp1999_30-0)** *South China Morning Post*. "Birth of Sun heralds dawn of revolutionary era for China". 11 November 1999.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Treadgold, Donald W. (1973). *The West in Russia and China* (Vol. 2 ed.). Cambridge. p. 91.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:6_32-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:6_32-1) Wells, Audrey. ["The Influence of Christianity on Sun Yat-sen"](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781403919755_9). *[Springer Nature](/source/Springer_Nature)*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** "...At present there are some seven members in the interior belonging to our mission, and two here, one I baptized last Sabbath, a young man who is attending the Government Central School. We had a very pleasant communion service yesterday..." – Hager to Clark, 5 May 1884, ABC 16.3.8: South China v.4, no.17, p.3

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** "...We had a pleasant communion yesterday and received one Chinaman into the church..." – Hager to Pond, 5 May 1884, ABC 16.3.8: South China v.4, no.18, p.3 postscript

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Rev. C. R. Hager, 'The First Citizen of the Chinese Republic', The Medical Missionary v.22 1913, p.184

1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** [Bergère](#Bergère): 26

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Soong,_1997_p._151–178_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Soong,_1997_p._151–178_37-1) Soong, (1997) p. 151–178

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dr._Sun_Yat-sen_Museum_38-0)** 中西區區議會 [Central & Western District Council] (November 2006), [孫中山先生史蹟徑](https://web.archive.org/web/20120224001159/http://hk.drsunyatsen.museum/download/brochure_07_a.pdf) [Dr Sun Yat-sen Historical Trail] (PDF), *Dr. Sun Yat-sen Museum* (in Chinese and English), Hong Kong, China, p. 30, archived from [the original](http://hk.drsunyatsen.museum/download/brochure_07_a.pdf) (PDF) on 24 February 2012, retrieved 15 September 2012

1. **[^](#cite_ref-bard_39-0)** Bard, Solomon. *Voices from the past: Hong Kong, 1842–1918*. (2002). HK University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9622095748](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9622095748). p. 183.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Curthoys_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Curthoys_40-1) Curthoys, Ann; Lake, Marilyn (2005). *Connected worlds: history in transnational perspective*. ANU publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1920942441](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1920942441). p. 101.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Wei_41-0)** Wei, Julie Lee. Myers Ramon Hawley. Gillin, Donald G. (1994). *Prescriptions for saving China: selected writings of Sun Yat-sen*. Hoover press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0817992811](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0817992811).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gtong146_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gtong146_42-1) 王恆偉 (2006). #5 清 [Chapter 5. Qing dynasty]. 中國歷史講堂. 中華書局. p. 146. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9628885286](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9628885286).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-Yang_2023_45-0)** Yang, Zhiyi (2023). [*Poetry, History, Memory: Wang Jingwei and China in Dark Times*](https://directory.doabooks.org/handle/20.500.12854/121550). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. p. 31. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.3998/mpub.12697845](https://doi.org/10.3998%2Fmpub.12697845). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-472-07650-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-07650-5). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1404445939](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1404445939), [1417484741](https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1417484741).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-yang-bio_46-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-yang-bio_46-1) (Chinese) Yang, Bayun; Yang, Xing'an (2010). *Yeung Ku-wan – A Biography Written by a Family Member*. Bookoola. p. 17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9881804167](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9881804167)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** Faure, David (1997). [*Society*](https://archive.org/details/documentaryhisto00davi). Hong Kong University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9622093935](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9622093935)., founder [Tse Tsan-tai](/source/Tse_Tsan-tai)'s account

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:04_48-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:04_48-1) Wong, Stephanie M. (2025). *Making Catholicism Chinese: the Catholic Church in a Modernizing China*. New York, NY, United States of America: [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-762369-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-762369-5).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Pina_49-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Pina_49-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Pina_49-2) João de Pina-Cabral. (2002). *Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao*. Berg publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8264-5749-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-5749-3). p. 209.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bevir_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bevir_50-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Bevir_50-2) Bevir, Mark (2010). *Encyclopedia of Political Theory*. Sage publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1412958653](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412958653). p 168.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** Lin, Xiaoqing Diana. (2006). Peking University: *Chinese Scholarship And Intellectuals, 1898–1937*. SUNY Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0791463222](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0791463222). p. 27.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-MauiMagazine_52-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-MauiMagazine_52-1) Paul Wood (November–December 2011). ["The Other Maui Sun"](https://mauimagazine.net/the-other-maui-sun/). [Wailuku, Hawaii](/source/Wailuku%2C_Hawaii): [Maui Nō Ka ʻOi Magazine](/source/Maui_No_Ka_'Oi_Magazine). Retrieved 2 February 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** ["Sun Yat-sen | Chinese leader"](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sun-Yat-sen). *Encyclopedia Britannica*. Retrieved 31 March 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-54)** Wong, J.Y. (1986). *The Origins of a Heroic Image: SunYat Sen in London, 1896–1987*. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. as summarized in Clark, David J.; Gerald McCoy (2000). [*The Most Fundamental Legal Right: Habeas Corpus in the Commonwealth*](https://books.google.com/books?id=B9rYW5xPYEwC&q=Chinese+Legation+London&pg=PA162). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0198265849](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198265849).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-56)** Cantlie, James (1913). *Sun Yat Sen and the Awakening of China*. London: Jarrold & Sons.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** ["JapanFocus"](https://web.archive.org/web/20120316134631/http://old.japanfocus.org/_Sato_Kazuo-Sun_Yat_sen_s_1911_Revolution_had_Its_Seeds_in_Tokyo). Old.japanfocus.org. Archived from [the original](http://old.japanfocus.org/_Sato_Kazuo-Sun_Yat_sen_s_1911_Revolution_had_Its_Seeds_in_Tokyo) on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Thornber, Karen Laura. (2009). *Empire of Texts in Motion: Chinese, Korean, and Taiwanese Transculturations of Japanese Literature*. Harvard University Press. p. 404.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Ocampo, Ambeth (2010). *Looking Back 2*. Pasig: Anvil Publishing. pp. 8–11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** 義和団事件 大辞林 第三版

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bunji-2010_61-0)** 久保田文治 (2010). "孫文と大月薫・宮川冨美子". *孫文研究*. **47**.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Gao, James Zheng. (2009). *Historical dictionary of modern China (1800–1949)*. Scarecrow Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0810849303](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810849303). Chronology section.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** [Bergère](#Bergère): 86

1. **[^](#cite_ref-64)** 劉崇稜 (2004). 日本近代文學精讀. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. p. 71. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9571136752](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9571136752).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-65)** Frédéric, Louis. (2005). *Japan Encyclopedia*. Harvard University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0674017535](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674017535). p. 651.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-66)** [三十三年落花夢](https://taiwanebook.ncl.edu.tw/zh-tw/book/NTUL-0207761/reader) Taiwan Ebook, [National Central Library](/source/National_Central_Library_(Taiwan))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Eiji Murashima. ["The Origins of Chinese Nationalism in Thailand"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170330180058/https://dspace.wul.waseda.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2065/39825/3/AjiaTaiheiyoTokyu_21_Murashima.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Asia-Pacific Studies (Waseda University). Archived from [the original](https://dspace.wul.waseda.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2065/39825/3/AjiaTaiheiyoTokyu_21_Murashima.pdf) (PDF) on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** Eric Lim. ["Soi Sun Yat Sen the legacy of a revolutionary"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170330180038/http://www.tour-bangkok-legacies.com/soi-sun-yat-sen.html). Tour Bangkok Legacies. Archived from [the original](http://www.tour-bangkok-legacies.com/soi-sun-yat-sen.html) on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2017.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-sfworldjournal_69-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-sfworldjournal_69-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-sfworldjournal_69-2) [孫中山思想 3學者演說精采](https://web.archive.org/web/20130513181852/http://sf.worldjournal.com/view/full_sf/12160552/article-%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1%E6%80%9D%E6%83%B3-3%E5%AD%B8%E8%80%85%E6%BC%94%E8%AA%AA%E7%B2%BE%E9%87%87?instance=top_rec). *World journal*. 4 March 2011. Archived from [the original](http://sf.worldjournal.com/view/full_sf/12160552/article-孫中山思想-3學者演說精采?instance=top_rec) on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Certificate_of_Live_Birth_in_Hawaii_70-0)** ["Sun Yat-sen: Certification of Live Birth in Hawaii"](https://www.scribd.com/doc/9830547/Sun-Yatsen-Certification-of-Live-Birth-in-Hawaii). San Francisco, CA, US: [Scribd](/source/Scribd). Retrieved 15 September 2012.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-smys00honu_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-smys00honu_71-1) Smyser, A.A. (2000). [*Sun Yat-sen's strong links to Hawaii*](http://archives.starbulletin.com/2000/03/16/editorial/smyser.html). Honolulu Star Bulletin. "Sun renounced it in due course. It did, however, help him circumvent the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which became applicable when Hawaii was annexed to the United States in 1898."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NARA_72-0)** [Department of Justice. Immigration and Naturalization Service. San Francisco District Office](/source/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service). ["Immigration Arrival Investigation case file for SunYat Sen, 1904–1925"](https://web.archive.org/web/20131016060255/http://media.nara.gov/pacific/san-francisco/gallery/9995-Cabin-Sun-Yat-Sen.pdf) (PDF). *Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1787–2004 ]*. Washington, DC, US: [National Archives and Records Administration](/source/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration). pp. 92–152. *[Immigration Arrival Investigation case file for SunYat Sen, 1904–1925](https://catalog.archives.gov/id/296446)* at the [National Archives and Records Administration](/source/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration). Archived from [the original](https://media.nara.gov/pacific/san-francisco/gallery/9995-Cabin-Sun-Yat-Sen.pdf) (PDF) on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2012. Note that one immigration official recorded that Sun was born in [Kula](/source/Kula%2C_Hawaii), a district of [Maui](/source/Maui), Hawaii.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** 『孫文選集（第三巻）』社会思想社、1989、 [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [4-390-60280-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-390-60280-2)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** ["Part 2: Dr Sun Yat-sen, Madam Soong Ching-ling and Hong Kong – "Dr Sun Yat-sen, Madam Soong Ching-ling and Hong Kong" Photos Exhibition"](https://web.archive.org/web/20241207060138/https://exhibition.hkrf.org.hk/en/exhibition-content-ii-en/). *exhibition.hkrf.org.hk*. Archived from [the original](https://exhibition.hkrf.org.hk/en/exhibition-content-ii-en/) on 7 December 2024. Retrieved 10 May 2026. Wedding Vow [Contract]....This contract is made in triplicate, with one copy held by each party and one by a witness.October 25, 1915. (Translation of the document labelled '(17)The wedding vow of Dr Sun and Madam Soong.')

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-NHK2007-02-25_75-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-NHK2007-02-25_75-1) 2007年2月25日NHK BS1 『世界から見たニッポン～大正編』

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-yomiuri2002-10_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-yomiuri2002-10_76-1) [読売新聞西部本社](/source/%E8%AA%AD%E5%A3%B2%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E), ed. (October 2002). *梅屋庄吉と孫文 盟約ニテ成セル*. 海鳥社. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [4-87415-405-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/4-87415-405-0).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-wanqingyuan1_81-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-wanqingyuan1_81-1) ["Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall"](https://web.archive.org/web/20130820170031/http://www.wanqingyuan.org.sg/). Wanqingyuan.org.sg. Archived from [the original](http://www.wanqingyuan.org.sg/) on 20 August 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2015.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Tang Jiaxuan (2011). *Heavy Storm and Gentle Breeze: A Memoir of China's Diplomacy*. HarperCollins publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0062067258](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062067258).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-86)** Nanyang Zonghui bao. The Union Times paper. 11 November 1909 p2.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Chan, Sue Meng (2013). *Road to Revolution: Dr. Sun Yat Sen and His Comrades in Ipoh. Singapore*. Singapore: Sun Yat Sen Nanyang Memorial Hall. p. 17. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9810782092](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9810782092).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Khoo & Lubis, Salma Nassution & Abdur-Razzaq (2005). *Kinta Valley: Pioneering Malaysia's Modern Development*. Areca Books. p. 231.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-gtong195_90-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-gtong195_90-1) 王恆偉. (2005) (2006) 中國歷史講堂 No. 5 清. 中華書局. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9628885286](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9628885286). pp. 195–198.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Well_95-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Well_95-1) Welland, Sasah Su-ling. (2007). *A Thousand Miles of Dreams: The Journeys of Two Chinese Sisters*. Rowman Littlefield Publishing. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0742553149](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742553149). p. 87.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-96)** Esherick, Joseph (2022). *China in Revolution*. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 160. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781538162774](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781538162774).

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-chien_99-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-chien_99-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-chien_99-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-chien_99-3) Ch'ien Tuan-sheng. *The Government and Politics of China 1912–1949*. Harvard University Press, 1950; rpr. Stanford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0804705516](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804705516). pp. 83–91.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-100)** Ernest Young, "Politics in the Aftermath of Revolution", in John King Fairbank, ed., *The Cambridge History of China: Republican China 1912–1949*, Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1983; [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521235419](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521235419)), p. 228.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-101)** Altman, Albert A., and Harold Z. Schiffrin. "Sun Yat-Sen and the Japanese: 1914–16." Modern Asian Studies, vol. 6, no. 4, 1972, pp. 385–400. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/311539

1. **[^](#cite_ref-102)** *South China Morning post*. Sun Yat-sen's durable and malleable legacy. 26 April 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-103)** Thampi, Madhavi. *India and China in the Colonial World*. Taylor & Francis. p. 229.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-104)** South China morning post. 1913–1922. 9 November 2003.

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## Further reading

- Bergère, Marie-Claire (2000). [*Sun Yat-sen*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vh7M1u4IGFkC&q=sun+yat-sen+li+hongzhang). Stanford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0804740119](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804740119). [OL](/source/OL_(identifier)) [18557273M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL18557273M).

- [Buck, Pearl S.](/source/Pearl_S._Buck), *The Man Who Changed China: The Story of Sun Yat-sen* (1953) [online](https://archive.org/details/manwhochangedchi00buck)

- Chen, Stephen, and [Robert Payne](/source/Robert_Payne_(author)). *Sun Yat Sen: A Portrait* (1946) [online](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.350966)

- Cheng, Chu-yuan ed. *Sun Yat-sen's Doctrine In The Modern World* (1989) [online](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsensdoctri0000unse/page/n6/mode/1up)

- Du, Yue. "Sun Yat-sen as Guofu: Competition over Nationalist Party Orthodoxy in the Second Sino-Japanese War." *Modern China* 45.2 (2019): 201–235.

- Jansen, Marius B. *The Japanese and Sun Yat-sen* (1967) [online](https://archive.org/details/japanesesunyatse0000jans)

- Jie, Wang. "Sun Yat-sen studies." in *Contemporary Studies on Modern Chinese History III* (Routledge, 2021) pp. 36–70.

- Kayloe, Tjio. *The Unfinished Revolution: Sun Yat-Sen and the Struggle for Modern China* (2017). [excerpt](https://www.amazon.com/Unfinished-Revolution-Tjio-Kayloe-ebook/dp/B077Z91HPG/)

- Khoo, Salma Nasution. *Sun Yat Sen in Penang* (Areca Books, 2008).

- Lai, Cheng‐chung, and Paul B. Trescott. "Liang Qichao, Sun Yat‐sen, and the 1905‐1907 debate on socialism." *International Journal of Social Economics* 32.12 (2005): 1051-1062.

- Lee, Lai To; Lee, Hock Guan, eds. (2011). [*Sun Yat-Sen, Nanyang and the 1911 Revolution*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DtB4YAcmjekC&pg=PR1). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9814345460](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9814345460).

- Lei, Zhang, and Zhang Ping. *A Biography of Sun Yat-Sen* (American Academic Press, 2020) [online](https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=CDnrDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Sun+Yat-sen+&ots=zBJQXc_9VJ&sig=xBRSjUnpnOw8g4ZbJb0fS7lqhlo).

- Linebarger, Paul M. A. *Political Doctrines Of Sun Yat-sen* (1937) [online free](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.503202/page/n5)

- Martin, Bernard. *Sun Yat-sen's vision for China* (1966)

- Restarick, Henry B., *Sun Yat-sen, Liberator of China.* (Yale UP, 1931)

- [Schiffrin, Harold Z.](/source/Harold_Zvi_Schiffrin) "The Enigma of Sun Yat-sen" in Mary Wright, ed., *China in Revolution: The First Phase 1900-1913* (1968) pp 443–476.

- Schiffrin, Harold Z. *Sun Yat-sen: Reluctant Revolutionary* (1980)

- Schiffrin, Harold Z. *Sun Yat-sen and the origins of the Chinese revolution* (1968). [online](https://www.google.com/books/edition/Sun_Yat_Sen_and_the_Origins_of_the_Chine/8U_hEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=sun+yat+sen+&pg=PA1&printsec=frontcover)

- Sharman, Lyon. *Sun Yat-sen. His Life and Its Meaning, a Critical Biography* (1934) [online](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsenhislife0000shar/page/n6/mode/1up)

- Shen, Stephen and Robert Payne. *Sun Yat-Sen: A Portrait* (1946) [online free](https://archive.org/download/sunyatsenaportra006424mbp/sunyatsenaportra006424mbp.pdf)

- Soong, Irma Tam. "Sun Yat-sen's Christian Schooling in Hawai'i." *The Hawaiian Journal of History,* vol. 31 (1997) [online](http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/527/JL31157.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191010032454/http://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/527/JL31157.pdf) 10 October 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine)

- Wells, Audrey. *The political thought of Sun Yat-sen: development and impact* (Springer, 2001).

- [Wilbur, Clarence Martin](/source/C._Martin_Wilbur). *Sun Yat-sen, frustrated patriot* (Columbia University Press, 1976), a major scholarly biography [online](https://archive.org/details/sunyatsenfrustra0000wilb)

- Yu, George T. "The 1911 Revolution: Past, Present, and Future", *Asian Survey*, 31#10 (1991), pp. 895–904, [online](https://www.jstor.org/stable/2645062) historiography

## External links

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**[Author:Sun Yat-sen](https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/en:Author:Sun_Yat-sen)**

- [Works by Sun Yat-sen](https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/43141) at [Project Gutenberg](/source/Project_Gutenberg)

- [Works by or about Sun Yat-sen](https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Yat-sen%2C%20Sun%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Sun%20Yat-sen%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Yat-sen%2C%20Sun%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Sun%20Yat-sen%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Yat-sen%2C%20S%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Sun%20Yat-sen%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Yat-sen%2C%20Sun%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Sun%20Yat-sen%22%29%20OR%20%28%221866-1925%22%20AND%20Yat-sen%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at the [Internet Archive](/source/Internet_Archive)

- [Works by Sun Yat-sen](https://librivox.org/author/17745) at [LibriVox](/source/LibriVox) (public domain audiobooks)

- [National Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall Official Website](https://web.archive.org/web/20060718060848/http://www.yatsen.gov.tw/english/index.php) (in English and Chinese)

Political offices Preceded by The Xuantong Emperor as Emperor of the Qing dynasty Head of state of China as Provisional Government of the Republic of China 1912 Succeeded by Yuan Shikai as Provisional President of the Republic of China Preceded by Office created Generalissimo of the Military Government of Nationalist China 1917–1918 Succeeded by Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China Preceded by Himself as Generalissimo of the Military Government of Nationalist China Member of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China 1918 Succeeded by Cen Chunxuan as Chairman of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China Preceded by Cen Chunxuan as Chairman of the Governing Committee of the Military Government of Nationalist China Extraordinary President of Nationalist China 1921–1922 Succeeded by Himself as Generalissimo of the National Government of the Republic of China Preceded by Office created Generalissimo of the National Government of the Republic of China 1923–1925 Succeeded by Hu Hanmin Acting Party political offices Preceded by Song Jiaoren as President of the Kuomintang Premier of the Kuomintang 1913–1914 Succeeded by Himself as Premier of the Chinese Revolutionary Party Preceded by Himself as Premier of the Chinese Revolutionary Party Premier of the Kuomintang 1919–1925 Succeeded by Zhang Renjie as Chairman

v t e Sun Yat-sen Life Four Bandits Tongmenghui Malaya activities Penang conference 1911 Revolution Provisional Government Family Lu Muzhen (first wife) Kaoru Otsuki (second wife) Soong Ching-ling (third wife) Sun Fo (son) Other Mausoleum Names National Sun Yat-sen University Three Principles of the People Roads Suit Sun Yat-sen University

Articles related to Sun Yat-sen v t e Presidents of the Republic of China Provisional Government Sun Yat-sen (1912) Yuan Shikai (1912–1913) Beiyang government Yuan Shikai (1913–1916) Li Yuanhong (1916–1917) Feng Guozhang (1917–1918; acting) Xu Shichang (1918–1922) Li Yuanhong (1922–1923) Gao Lingwei (1923; acting) Cao Kun (1923–1924) Huang Fu (1924; acting) Duan Qirui (1924–1926) Hu Weide (1926; acting) Yan Huiqing (1926; acting) Du Xigui (1926; acting) Wellington Koo (1926–1927; acting) Zhang Zuolin (1927–1928) Nationalist government (chairman) Tan Yankai (1928) Chiang Kai-shek (1928–1931) Lin Sen (1931–1943) Chiang Kai-shek (1943–1948) Constitutional government (indirect election) Chiang Kai-shek (1948–1949) Li Tsung-jen (1949; acting) Yen Hsi-shan (1949–1950; acting) Chiang Kai-shek (1950–1975; resumed) Yen Chia-kan (1975–1978) Chiang Ching-kuo (1978–1988) Lee Teng-hui (1988–1996) Constitutional government (direct election) Lee Teng-hui (1996–2000) Chen Shui-bian (2000–2008) Ma Ying-jeou (2008–2016) Tsai Ing-wen (2016–2024) Lai Ching-te (2024–present) Elections 1911 1912 1913 1916 1918 1923 1948 1954 1960 1966 1972 1978 1984 1990 1996 2000 2004 2008 2012 2016 2020 2024 See also List of presidents of the Republic of China Xia → Shang → Zhou → Qin → Han → Three Kingdoms → Jìn / Sixteen Kingdoms → Southern Dynasties / Northern Dynasties → Sui → Tang → Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms → Liao / Song / Western Xia / Jīn → Yuan → Ming → Qing → Republic of China / People's Republic of China v t e Kuomintang History History of the Kuomintang History of the Kuomintang cultural policy National Revolutionary Army Northern Expedition Blue Sky with a White Sun Revolutionary Committee of the Chinese Kuomintang 2005 Pan–Blue visits to mainland China Founders Song Jiaoren Sun Yat-sen Lu Haodong (Flag, emblem creator) Ideology Chinese unification Chiangism Dang Guo Democratic centralism Five Races Under One Union Socialist ideology of the Kuomintang Three Principles of the People Zhonghua minzu Leaders Sun Yat-sen Song Jiaoren Zhang Renjie Chiang Kai-shek Hu Hanmin Wang Jingwei Chiang Ching-kuo Lee Teng-hui Lien Chan Ma Ying-jeou Wu Po-hsiung Chiang Pin-kung Wu Den-yih Eric Chu Huang Min-hui Hung Hsiu-chu Lin Junq-tzer Wu Den-yih Lin Rong-te Johnny Chiang Party congress 1st (1924) 2nd (1926) 3rd (1929) 4th (1931) 5th (1935) Extraordinary (1938) 6th (Wang, 1939) 6th (1945) 7th (1952) 8th (1957) 9th (1963) 10th (1969) 11th (1976) 12th (1981) 13th (1988) 14th (1993) 15th (1997) 16th (2001) 17th (2005) 18th (2009) 19th (2013) 20th (2017) 21st (2021) Leadership elections 2001 2005 2007 (b) 2009 2013 2015 (b) 2016 (b) 2017 2020 (b) 2021 2025 Significant venues Huguang Guild Hall Presidential Palace (Nanjing) See also List of assets owned by the Kuomintang 2019 Kuomintang presidential primary Notes: Acting leaders italicised ; By-elections denoted with (b) v t e Political philosophy Terms Authority Citizenship‎ Duty Elite Emancipation Freedom Government Hegemony Hierarchy Justice Law Legitimacy Liberty Monopoly Nation Obedience Peace People Pluralism Power Progress Propaganda Property Regime Revolution Rights Ruling class Society Sovereignty‎ State Utopia War Government Aristocracy Oligarchy Autocracy Bureaucracy Dictatorship Democracy Ochlocracy Gerontocracy Meritocracy Monarchy Tyranny Plutocracy Republic Technocracy Theocracy Ideologies Agrarianism Anarchism Capitalism Christian democracy Colonialism Communism Communitarianism Confucianism Conservatism Corporatism Distributism Environmentalism Fascism Feminism Feudalism Hindutva Imperialism Islamism Liberalism Libertarianism Localism Marxism Monarchism Multiculturalism Nationalism Nazism Populism Republicanism Social Darwinism Social democracy Socialism Third Way Concepts Balance of power Bellum omnium contra omnes Body politic Clash of civilizations Common good Consent of the governed Divine right of kings Family as a model for the state Monopoly on violence Natural law Negative and positive rights Night-watchman state Noble lie Noblesse oblige Open society Ordered liberty Original position Overton window Separation of powers Social contract State of nature Statolatry Supermajority Tyranny of the majority Philosophers Antiquity Aristotle Chanakya Cicero Confucius Han Fei Lactantius Mencius Mozi Plato political philosophy Polybius Shang Sun Tzu Thucydides Xenophon Middle Ages Al-Farabi Aquinas Averroes Bruni Dante Gelasius al-Ghazali Ibn Khaldun Marsilius Muhammad Nizam al-Mulk Ockham Plethon Wang Early modern period Boétie Bodin Bossuet Calvin Campanella Filmer Grotius Guicciardini Hobbes political philosophy James Leibniz Locke Luther Machiavelli Milton More Müntzer Pufendorf Spinoza Suárez 18th and 19th centuries Al-Afghani Bakunin Bastiat Beccaria Bentham Bolingbroke Bonald Burke Carlyle Comte Condorcet Constant Cortés Engels Fichte Fourier Franklin Godwin Haller Hegel Herder Hume Iqbal Jefferson Kant political philosophy Le Bon Le Play Madison Maistre Marx Mazzini Mill Montesquieu Nietzsche Owen Paine Proudhon Renan Rousseau Sade Saint-Simon Smith Spencer de Staël Stirner Taine Thoreau Tocqueville Tucker Voltaire 20th and 21st centuries Agamben Ambedkar Apo Arendt Aron Badiou Bauman Benoist Berlin Bernstein Burnham Chomsky Dmowski Du Bois Dugin Dworkin Evola Fanon Fisher Foucault Fromm Fukuyama Gandhi Gentile Gramsci Guénon Habermas Hayek Hoppe Huntington Kautsky Khomeini Kirk Kropotkin Laclau Lenin Luxemburg Mansfield Mao Marcuse Maurras Michels Mises Mosca Mouffe Negri Nozick Nursi Nussbaum Oakeshott Ortega Pareto Popper Qutb Rand Rawls Röpke Rothbard Russell Sartre Savarkar Schmitt Scruton Shariati Sorel Spann Spengler Strauss Sun Taylor Voegelin Walzer Weber Works Analects of Confucius (c. 475 BCE) Republic (c. 375 BCE) Politics (c. 335 BCE) On the Republic (51 BCE) Siyasatnama (11th century) Treatise on Law (c. 1274) Monarchy (1313) Muqaddimah (1337) The Prince (1532) Patriarcha (1642) Leviathan (1651) Two Treatises of Government (1689) The Spirit of Law (1748) The Social Contract (1762) Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) Rights of Man (1791) Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820) Democracy in America (1835–1840) The Communist Manifesto (1848) On Liberty (1859) The Revolt of the Masses (1929) The Road to Serfdom (1944) The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945) The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951) A Theory of Justice (1971) The End of History and the Last Man (1992) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (1996) Related Authoritarianism Collectivism and individualism Conflict theories Contractualism Critique of political economy Egalitarianism Elite theory Elitism History of political thought Institutional discrimination Jurisprudence Justification for the state Political ethics Political spectrum Left-wing politics Centrism Right-wing politics Religion in politics Christianity Islam Judaism Secular state Separation of church and state State atheism Political violence Separatism Social justice Statism Totalitarianism Category:Political philosophy

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Sun Yat-sen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.