# Steinernema

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Genus of roundworms

Steinernema Steinernema carpocapsae Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Nematoda Class: Chromadorea Order: Rhabditida Family: Steinernematidae Genus: Steinernema Travassos Species See text Synonyms[1] Neoaplectana Steiner, 1929 Patanodontus de Villalobos & Camino, 1997 Steineria Travassos, 1927

***Steinernema*** is a genus of [nematodes](/source/Nematode) in the family of [Steinernematidae](/source/Steinernematidae).[2][3][4] The genus *Steinernema* is named after the [nematologist](/source/Nematologist) [Gotthold Steiner](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gotthold_Steiner&action=edit&redlink=1).[5] Nematodes of this genus have been shown to be effective as a biological control for agricultural pests of the Scarabaeidae family, such as *[Maladera formosae](/source/Maladera_formosae)*.

## Life cycle

Species form [symbiotic relationships](/source/Symbiosis) with *[Xenorhabdus](/source/Xenorhabdus)* and *[Photorhabdus](/source/Photorhabdus)* bacteria.[6] The free-living third stage juvenile, termed a dauer juvenile, enters its insect hosts through natural openings, such as the mouth, anus, and [spiracles](/source/Spiracle_(arthropods)).[6]

*[Steinernema scapterisci](/source/Steinernema_scapterisci)* emerging from *[Neoscapteriscus vicinus](/source/Neoscapteriscus_vicinus)*

Bacterial cells from the intestines are regurgitated into the insect. The insect hemolymph provides a rich medium for the bacterial cells which grow, releasing toxins and exoenzymes, causing the insect host to die from septicemia.[6] The bacteria also produce other compounds to protect the insect from other microbes in the soil.[6]

The nematode moves out of its developmentally arrested third, nonfeeding stage, triggered by either bacterial or insect food signals. The nematodes feed on the bacteria and moult to the fourth stage, reaching adulthood within a few days. with separate male and female individuals.[6] Nematode development continues for two to three generations. When insufficient nutrient remain adult development is suppressed. Developmentally arrested third stage juveniles accumulate and emerge into the soil, where they may survive for months until a new suitable host is found.[6]

## Species

The following species have been described:[2]

- *[Steinernema abbasi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_abbasi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema aciari](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_aciari&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema adamsi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_adamsi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema affine](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_affine&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema akhursti](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_akhursti&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema anatoliense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_anatoliense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema anomali](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_anomali&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema apuliae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_apuliae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema arenarium](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_arenarium&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema ashiuense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_ashiuense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema australe](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_australe&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema backanense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_backanense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema beddingi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_beddingi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema bicornutum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_bicornutum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema boemarei](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_boemarei&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema brazilense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_brazilense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema cameroonense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_cameroonense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema carpocapsae](/source/Steinernema_carpocapsae)*

- *[Steinernema ceratophorum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_ceratophorum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema cholashanense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_cholashanense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema citrae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_citrae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema costaricense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_costaricense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema cubanum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_cubanum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema cumgarense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_cumgarense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema dharanaii](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_dharanaii&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema diaprepesi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_diaprepesi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema eapokense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_eapokense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema everestense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_everestense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema feltiae](/source/Steinernema_feltiae)*

- *[Steinernema glaseri](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_glaseri&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema guangdongense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_guangdongense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema hebeiense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_hebeiense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema hermaphroditum](/source/Steinernema_hermaphroditum)*

- *[Steinernema ichnusae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_ichnusae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema innovationi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_innovationi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema intermedium](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_intermedium&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema jollieti](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_jollieti&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema karii](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_karii&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema khoisanae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_khoisanae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema kraussei](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_kraussei&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema kushidai](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_kushidai&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema lamjungense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_lamjungense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema litorale](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_litorale&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema loci](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_loci&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema longicaudum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_longicaudum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema minutum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_minutum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema monticolum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_monticolum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema neocurtillae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_neocurtillae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema nepalense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_nepalense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema nyetense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_nyetense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema oregonense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_oregonense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema pakistanense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_pakistanense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema phyllophagae](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_phyllophagae&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema puertoricense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_puertoricense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema puntauvense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_puntauvense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema rarum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_rarum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema riobrave](/source/Steinernema_riobrave)*

- *[Steinernema robustispiculum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_robustispiculum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema sacchari](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_sacchari&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema sangi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_sangi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema sasonense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_sasonense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema scapterisci](/source/Steinernema_scapterisci)*

- *[Steinernema scarabaei](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_scarabaei&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema schliemanni](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_schliemanni&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema serratum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_serratum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema siamkayai](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_siamkayai&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema sichuanense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_sichuanense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema silvaticum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_silvaticum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema surkhetense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_surkhetense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema tami](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_tami&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema texanum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_texanum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema thanhi](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_thanhi&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema thermophilum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_thermophilum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema tophus](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_tophus&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema unicornum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_unicornum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema vulcanicum](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_vulcanicum&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema websteri](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_websteri&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema weiseri](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_weiseri&action=edit&redlink=1)*

- *[Steinernema xueshanense](/source/Steinernema_xueshanense)*

- *[Steinernema yirgalemense](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steinernema_yirgalemense&action=edit&redlink=1)*

## Use in agriculture

Species of this genus can infect insects and are used as a [biopesticide](/source/Biopesticide) to infect agricultural pests.[7] They can be used against a wide variety of species, including [weevils](/source/Weevil), [cutworms](/source/Cutworm), [gnats](/source/Gnat) and [mole crickets](/source/Mole_cricket).[7]

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** [""Steinernema""](http://www.gbif.org/species/2283720). *[Global Biodiversity Information Facility](/source/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility)*. Retrieved 21 August 2021.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-eol_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-eol_2-1) ["Steinernema surkhetense - Overview"](http://eol.org/pages/2856528/overview). *Encyclopedia of Life*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** ["Steinernema"](https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/34507). *www.uniprot.org*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Nematode-Taxonomy_4-0)** Hunt, David J.; Nguyen, Khuong B. (2016). *Advances in Entomopathogenic Nematode Taxonomy and Phylogeny*. BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004285347](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004285347).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** ["Steinernema"](https://www.spektrum.de/lexikon/biologie/steinernema/63508) (in German). {{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_6-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_6-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:0_6-5) Subramanian, S.; Muthulakshmi, M. (2016), ["Entomopathogenic Nematodes"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780128032657000129), *Ecofriendly Pest Management for Food Security*, Elsevier, pp. 367–410, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/b978-0-12-803265-7.00012-9](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-803265-7.00012-9), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-803265-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-803265-7), retrieved 2021-08-21{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_7-1) Denver, D.R.; Clark, K.A.; Raboin, M.J. (2011). ["Reproductive mode evolution in nematodes: Insights from molecular phylogenies and recently discovered species"](https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1055790311003307). *Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution*. **61** (2): 584–592. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ympev.2011.07.007](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2011.07.007). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [21787872](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21787872).

## Further reading

- Nguyen, Khuong B.; Hunt, D. David J. (2007). *Entomopathogenic Nematodes: Systematics, Phylogeny and Bacterial Symbionts*. BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004152939](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004152939).

- Hunt, David J.; Nguyen, Khuong B. (2016). *Advances in Entomopathogenic Nematode Taxonomy and Phylogeny*. BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004285347](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004285347).

- Vega, Fernando E.; Kaya, Harry K. (2012). *Insect Pathology*. Academic Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780123849847](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780123849847).

Taxon identifiers Steinernema Wikidata: Q5304420 Wikispecies: Steinernema ADW: Steinernema AFD: Steinernema BOLD: 28284 CoL: 87KQY EoL: 2856528 EPPO: 1STNRG Fauna Europaea: 393443 Fauna Europaea (new): b21c06d0-f0e4-4616-94af-9fa18ca9888c GBIF: 2283720 iNaturalist: 546784 IRMNG: 1043101 ITIS: 63393 NCBI: 34507 NZOR: 35caf5bd-6599-4873-bc84-c9f4295f1964 Open Tree of Life: 1040286 WoRMS: 1299350

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Steinernema](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinernema) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steinernema?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.