# Starlingpox
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{{Short description|Avipox virus}}
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| parent = Avipoxvirus
| virus = Starlingpox virus
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'''Starlingpox''' [virus](/source/virus) is a virus of the ''[Avipoxvirus](/source/Avipoxvirus)'' genus belonging to the ''[Chordopoxvirinae](/source/Chordopoxvirinae)'' subfamily and the ''[Poxviridae](/source/Poxviridae)'' family, impacting various [starling](/source/starling) songbird species (Weli and Tryland 2011).[{{Cite journal |last1=Weli |first1=Simon C |last2=Tryland |first2=Morten |date=December 2011|title=Avipoxviruses: infection biology and their use as vaccine vectors |journal=Virology Journal |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=49 |doi=10.1186/1743-422X-8-49 |issn=1743-422X |pmc=3042955 |pmid=21291547 |doi-access=free }}] The starling variant, Starlingpox virus has been linked to another variant, the [Mynahpox virus](/source/Mynahpox_virus), supporting theorizations that each variation belongs to a subclade, [Sturnindaepox virus](/source/Sturnindaepox_virus) (Gyuranecz, et al. 2013).[{{Cite journal |last1=Gyuranecz |first1=Miklós |last2=Foster |first2=Jeffrey T. |last3=Dán |first3=Ádám |last4=Ip |first4=Hon S. |last5=Egstad |first5=Kristina F. |last6=Parker |first6=Patricia G. |last7=Higashiguchi |first7=Jenni M. |last8=Skinner |first8=Michael A. |last9=Höfle |first9=Ursula |last10=Kreizinger |first10=Zsuzsa |last11=Dorrestein |first11=Gerry M. |last12=Solt |first12=Szabolcs |last13=Sós |first13=Endre |last14=Kim |first14=Young Jun |last15=Uhart |first15=Marcela |date=May 2013 |title=Worldwide Phylogenetic Relationship of Avian Poxviruses |journal=Journal of Virology |language=en |volume=87 |issue=9 |pages=4938–4951 |doi=10.1128/JVI.03183-12 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=3624294 |pmid=23408635}}] Avian pox viruses are widespread, double-stranded, DNA genome viruses that have been found in cutaneous and diphtheritic forms in over 230 bird species.[{{Cite journal |last1=Jarmin |first1=Susan |last2=Manvell |first2=Ruth |last3=Gough |first3=Richard E. |last4=Laidlaw |first4=Stephen M. |last5=Skinner |first5=Michael A. |title=Avipoxvirus phylogenetics: identification of a PCR length polymorphism that discriminates between the two major clades |journal=Journal of General Virology |year=2006 |volume=87 |issue=8 |pages=2191–2201 |doi=10.1099/vir.0.81738-0 |pmid=16847115 |issn=1465-2099|doi-access=free }}]
==Signs and symptoms==
The virus presents with "dry", cutaneous, "wart-like" lesions that may cause vision impairments and trouble eating, or "wet", diphtheritic lesions that may disrupt respiration or lead to secondary bacterial or fungal infections (Lawson, et al., 2012).[{{Cite journal |last1=Lawson |first1=Becki |last2=Lachish |first2=Shelly |last3=Colvile |first3=Katie M. |last4=Durrant |first4=Chris |last5=Peck |first5=Kirsi M. |last6=Toms |first6=Mike P. |last7=Sheldon |first7=Ben C. |last8=Cunningham |first8=Andrew A. |date=2012-11-21 |title=Emergence of a Novel Avian Pox Disease in British Tit Species |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=7 |issue=11 |article-number=e40176 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0040176 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3504035 |pmid=23185231|bibcode=2012PLoSO...740176L |doi-access=free }}] The most well-known symptoms are lesions on the head, concentrated around the eyes and base of the beak (Bateson and Asher, 2010).[{{cite book |last1=Bateson |first1=Melissa |chapter=The European Starling |title=The UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory and Other Research Animals |pages=697–705 |place=Oxford, UK |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|last2=Asher |first2=Lucy|year=2010 |doi=10.1002/9781444318777.ch45 |isbn=9781444318777 }}] Infected birds often have crusted or nodular regions on areas of skin without feathers, including the feet (Axelson 2022).[{{Cite web |title=Pox Virus Infection in Birds {{!}} VCA Animal Hospital |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/pox-virus-infection-in-birds |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Vca |language=en}}] Other common symptoms of avipoxviruses include difficulty breathing, conjunctivitis, emaciation, difficulty swallowing, and weakness (Michigan.gov 2022.)[{{Cite web |title=Avian Pox |url=https://www.michigan.gov/dnr/managing-resources/wildlife/wildlife-disease/avian-pox |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.michigan.gov |language=en}}] Virus particles may aerosolize and be transmitted via inhalation or remain active in dried scabs for years (Wildlife Futures Program, 2021).[{{Cite web |title=Penn Vet {{!}} Fact Sheet Detail |url=https://www.vet.upenn.edu/research/centers-laboratories/research-initiatives/wildlife-futures-program/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheet-detail/avian-pox |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=www.vet.upenn.edu}}] The prevalence of symptoms depends on the route of exposure.[{{Cite journal |last1=van der Meer |first1=Carolina Soares |last2=Paulino |first2=Patrícia Gonzaga |last3=Jardim |first3=Talys Henrique Assumpção |last4=Senne |first4=Nathália Alves |last5=Araujo |first5=Thamires Rezende |last6=dos Santos Juliano |first6=Daniele |last7=Massard |first7=Carlos Luiz |last8=Peixoto |first8=Maristela Peckle |last9=da Costa Angelo |first9=Isabele |last10=Santos |first10=Huarrisson Azevedo |date=2022-08-05 |title=Detection and molecular characterization of Avipoxvirus in Culex spp. (Culicidae) captured in domestic areas in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=13496 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-17745-4 |pmid=35931728 |pmc=9355968 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1213496V |issn=2045-2322}}] Infected mosquitos are capable of spreading the virus to uninfected birds for more than one month, while infected birds will spread the virus through direct contact with food or water sources and contaminated perches or feeders (Michigan.gov 2022).[{{Cite journal |last1=Galvin |first1=Aoife N. |last2=Pandit |first2=Pranav S. |last3=English |first3=Simon G. |last4=Quock |first4=Rachel C. |last5=Bandivadekar |first5=Ruta R. |last6=Colwell |first6=Rita R. |last7=Robinson |first7=Barbara W. |last8=Ernest |first8=Holly B. |last9=Brown |first9=Mollie H. |last10=Sehgal |first10=Ravinder N. M. |last11=Tell |first11=Lisa A. |date=2022 |title=Evaluation of minimally invasive sampling methods for detecting Avipoxvirus: Hummingbirds as a case example |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=9 |article-number=924854 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2022.924854 |pmid=36090172 |pmc=9450938 |issn=2297-1769|doi-access=free }}] Current diagnostic methods that work alongside visual identification include electron microscopy, [histopathology](/source/histopathology) examinations, virus isolation, PCR sequencing, and [necropsy](/source/necropsy).[{{Cite web |last=Rook |date=2021-03-21 |title=Treatment of Avian Pox |url=https://corvid-isle.co.uk/treatment-of-avian-pox |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=Corvid Isle |language=en-GB}}]
==Prevention and management==
Efforts to control and prevent the spread of avian pox viruses in wild populations involve the elimination of mosquito breeding locations, gathering site disinfection, and domestic bird vaccine distribution (Wildlife Futures Program, 2021[{{Cite web |title=Avian influenza basics for urban and backyard poultry owners |url=https://extension.umn.edu/poultry-health/avian-influenza-basics-noncommercial-poultry-flock-owners |access-date=2022-11-18 |website=extension.umn.edu |language=en}}] Additional measures to mitigate the spread among wild populations include so-called "bird-table hygiene recommendations" like providing fresh drinking water each day, rotating garden feeders, and removal of old food, which are thought to disrupt disease transmission in areas where virus concentrations are high (Corvid Isle, 2021).