# Squab

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{{short description|Food; young domestic pigeon, typically under four weeks old}}
{{other uses}}
thumb|upright=1|Pigeon chicks, approximately twenty days of age

In [culinary](/source/culinary) terminology, '''squab''' is an immature [domestic pigeon](/source/domestic_pigeon), typically under four weeks old,<ref name=game-bird>{{cite web |title= Game Birds |url= http://www.allqdup.com/game-birds/ |website= All Q'd Up |access-date= 23 June 2014 |date= 2014-06-23}}</ref> or its meat. Some authors{{who|date=October 2024}} describe it as [tasting like dark chicken](/source/tastes_like_chicken).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lachiusa |first1=Dean |date=8 November 2021 |title=Adventures in Historic Cures: Amusing Home Remedies, Anecdotes, and Definitions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VQtQEAAAQBAJ |publisher=Dean Lachiusa |access-date=16 September 2023 |quote=A domesticated pigeon that reportedly tastes like dark chicken.}}</ref>

The word "squab" probably comes from [Scandinavia](/source/Scandinavia); the Swedish word {{lang|sv|skvabb}} means "loose, fat flesh".<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=squab |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary |edition=11th |page=[https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1210 1210] |isbn=978-0-87779-809-5 |url= https://archive.org/details/merriamwebstersc00merr_6/page/1210 |access-date= 27 August 2009 |year= 2004 |url-access= registration}}</ref> The term formerly applied to all [dove and pigeon species](/source/Columbidae) (such as the [wood pigeon](/source/Common_wood_pigeon), the [mourning dove](/source/mourning_dove), the extinct-in-the-wild [socorro dove](/source/socorro_dove), and the now extinct [passenger pigeon](/source/passenger_pigeon),<ref name="pigeon"/><ref>''[OED](/source/OED)'' gives earliest known usage in 1640 as a young bird, in 1694 as a young pigeon.</ref>) and their meat. More recently, squab meat comes almost entirely from domesticated pigeons. The meat of dove and pigeon [gamebirds](/source/Galliformes) hunted primarily for sport is rarely called "squab".<ref name="pigeon"/>

The practice of domesticating pigeons as [livestock](/source/livestock) may have originated in [North Africa](/source/North_Africa); historically, many societies have consumed squabs or pigeons, including [ancient Egypt](/source/ancient_Egypt) (still common in modern [Egypt](/source/Egypt)), [Rome](/source/Ancient_Rome), [China](/source/China), [India](/source/India) (Northeast),<ref name = pcassam>{{Cite journal |last= Saikia |first= Arani |date= 2013 |title= Food habits in pre-colonial Assam|url= http://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v2(6)/Version-2/A02620105.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiu1Nuj8P7zAhVUgdgFHWmyAQYQFnoECAQQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1l7xpHkZ6eNBPV1NXVXv0C |journal= International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention |volume= 2 |issue= 6 |pages= 1–5 |via= Academia.edu}}{{Dead link |date= February 2023 |bot= InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted= yes }}</ref> and [medieval Europe](/source/Middle_Ages). It is a familiar meat in [Jewish](/source/Jewish_cuisine), [Arab](/source/Arab_cuisine), and [French cuisine](/source/French_cuisine)s. According to the [Tanakh](/source/Tanakh), doves are [kosher](/source/kosher), and they are the only birds that may be used for a ''[korban](/source/korban)''. (Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a ''korban''.) Pigeon is also used in [Asian cuisine](/source/Asian_cuisine)s such as [Chinese](/source/Chinese_cuisine), [Assamese](/source/Assamese_cuisine), and [Indonesian cuisine](/source/Indonesian_cuisine)s. Although squab has been consumed throughout much of [recorded history](/source/recorded_history), it is generally regarded{{citation needed|date=September 2023}} as exotic, not as a contemporary [staple food](/source/staple_food); there are more records of its preparation for the wealthy than for the poor.

The modern squab industry uses [utility pigeons](/source/utility_pigeons). Squab farmers<ref>{{cite book |author1=United States Department of Agriculture |author-link1=United States Department of Agriculture |date=August 1967 |title=Squab Raising |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mT3NJ9-pEB8C |series=Farmers' Bulletin, Issue 684 |edition=revised |publication-place=Washington, D.C. |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |access-date=16 September 2023}}</ref> raise the young until they are roughly a month old (when they reach adult size but have not yet flown) before slaughter.

==History==
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 400px
| image1            = Italia-Orvieto-Citta sotterranea-32E.jpg
| caption1          = A [dovecote](/source/dovecote) in the caves of [Orvieto](/source/Orvieto), [Italy](/source/Italy), where the locals have raised squab for food since the time of the [Etruscans](/source/Etruscan_civilization) in the [Iron Age](/source/Iron_Age)<ref name="GIC">{{cite web |archive-date=June 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613164541/https://www.greatitalianchefs.com/collections/pigeon-recipes |url=https://www.greatitalianchefs.com/collections/pigeon-recipes |title=Pigeon recipes |website=Great Italian Chefs |year=2019}}</ref>
| image2            =
| caption2          = The 1913 magazine ''Pacific Squab Journal'' was published specifically devoted to squab husbandry.
}}
The practice of domesticating pigeon as [livestock](/source/livestock) may have come from the [North Africa](/source/North_Africa);<ref name="Hansel p.6">{{cite book |last=Hansell |first=Jean |title=Dovecotes |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2001 |series=A Shire album Shire Library|volume=213 |page=4 |isbn=978-0-7478-0504-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3A4eojqseYC&q=%22pigeon+keeping%22+squab&pg=PA4 |access-date=2009-09-02}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> historically, squabs or pigeons have been consumed in many civilizations, including [ancient Egypt](/source/ancient_Egypt), [ancient Rome](/source/ancient_Rome), and [Medieval Europe](/source/Medieval_Europe).<ref name="pigeon"/>{{rp|211}} Doves are considered [kosher](/source/kosher), though are not as common in the Jewish diet as they were in ancient times. Texts about [methods of raising pigeons](/source/Pigeon_keeping) for their meat date as far back as [AD](/source/Anno_Domini) 60 in Spain.<ref name=canova/> Such birds were hunted for their meat because it was a cheap and readily available source of protein.<ref name="pigeon"/>

In the [Tierra de Campos](/source/Tierra_de_Campos), a resource-poor region of north-western Spain, squab meat was an important supplement to grain crops from at least Roman times. [Caelius Aurelianus](/source/Caelius_Aurelianus), an Ancient Roman physician, regarded the meat as a cure for headaches, but by the 16th century, squab was believed to cause headaches.<ref name=canova>{{cite journal |last=Canova |first=Jane |date=Spring 2005 |title=Monuments to the Birds: Dovecotes and Pigeon Eating in the Land of Fields |journal=[Gastronomica](/source/Gastronomica) |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=50–59 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2005.5.2.50 |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2005.5.2.50}}</ref>

From the Middle Ages, a [dovecote](/source/dovecote) (French ''pigeonnier'') was a common outbuilding on an estate that aimed to be self-sufficient.<ref name="pigeon"/> The dovecote was considered a "living pantry",<ref name=canova/> a source of meat for unexpected guests, and was important as a supplementary source of income from the sale of surplus birds.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hansell |first=Jean |title=Dovecotes |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2001 |series=A Shire album Shire Library |volume=213 |page=6 |isbn=978-0-7478-0504-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3A4eojqseYC&q=%22pigeon+keeping%22+squab&pg=PA4 |access-date=2009-09-02}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Dovecotes were introduced to South America and Africa by Mediterranean colonists. In medieval England, squab meat was highly valued, although its availability depended on the season.<ref>{{cite book |last=Woolgar |first=C.M. |author2=Serjeantson, Dale |author3=Waldron, Tony |title=Food in medieval England: diet and nutrition |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |series=Medieval history and archaeology |page=151 |isbn=978-0-19-927349-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MO_Obx4ns9wC&q=squabs&pg=PA148}}</ref>

In England, pigeon meat was eaten when other food was rationed during [World War II](/source/World_War_II) and remains associated with wartime shortages and poverty. This was parodied in an episode of the sitcom ''[Dad's Army](/source/Dad's_Army)'', "[Getting the Bird](/source/Getting_the_Bird)".<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q5554675|id=tt0552289}}</ref><ref>Croft, David; Perry, Jimmy; Webber, Richard (2000). The Complete A–Z of Dad's Army. Orion. {{ISBN|0-7528-4637-X}}. {{Page needed|date=July 2011}}</ref> Nevertheless, many people continue to eat it, especially the older generation.

==Husbandry==
thumb|upright=1|A pair of king pigeons. Large breast muscles are common in utility pigeons.
Squab have been commercially raised in North America since the early 1900s. As of 1986, annual production in the United States and Canada was one and a half million squabs per year.<ref name=AggreyCheng>{{Cite journal |last1=Aggrey |first1=S. E. |last2=Cheng |first2=K. M. |title=Estimation of genetic parameters for body weight traits in squab pigeons |journal=Genetics Selection Evolution |volume=24 |issue=6 |pages=553–559 |year=1992 |doi=10.1186/1297-9686-24-6-553| pmc=2711175 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Pigeons, unlike other poultry, form pair bonds to breed, and squabs must be brooded and fed by both parents until they are four weeks old; a pair of pigeons may produce 15 squabs per year.<ref name=AggreyCheng/> Ten pairs can produce eight squabs each month without being fed by their keepers.<ref name=FAO/> Pigeons which are accustomed to their dovecote may [forage](/source/forage) and return there to rest and breed.<ref name=canova/> Industrially raised pigeons have young which weigh {{convert|1.3|lb|kg}} when of age, as opposed to traditionally raised pigeons, which weigh {{convert|0.5|lb|kg}}.<ref name=canova/>

[Utility pigeons](/source/Utility_pigeons) have been [artificially selected](/source/selective_breeding) for weight gain, quick growth, health when kept in large numbers, and health of their infants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |date=March 1986 |title=Some Thoughts About The Future |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1986.45-229 |pmid=3958668 |pmc=1348231}}</ref> For a greater yield, commercially raised squab may be produced in a two-nest system, where the mother lays two new eggs in a second nest while her offspring are still growing in the first nest,<ref name=FAO>{{cite book |last=Schiere |first=Hans |author2=van der Hoek, Rein |title=Livestock keeping in urban areas: a review of traditional technologies based on literature and field experiences |publisher=[Food and Agriculture Organization](/source/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization) |year=2001 |series=FAO animal production and health paper |volume=151 |page=29 |isbn=978-92-5-104575-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mywom_Ourn8C&q=pigeon&pg=PP12}}</ref> fed [crop milk](/source/crop_milk) by both parents.<ref name=DPI>{{cite web |url=http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/213221/Squab-raising.pdf |title=Squab raising |last=Bolla |first=Gerry |year=2007 |publisher=[New South Wales Department of Primary Industries](/source/New_South_Wales_Department_of_Primary_Industries) |access-date=2009-09-03}}</ref> Establishing two breeding lines has been suggested as another strategy for greater yield, where one breeding line is selected for prolificacy and the other for "parental performance",<ref name=JoH>{{cite journal |last=Aggrey |first=S.E. |author2=Cheng, K.M. |year=1993 |title=Genetic and Posthatch Parental Influences on Growth in Pigeon Squabs |journal=[Journal of Heredity](/source/Journal_of_Heredity) |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=184–187 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111314}}</ref> which, according to Aggrey and Cheng, is "vital" for squab growth after the age of two weeks.<ref name=AggreyCheng/>

Meleg estimates that 15–20% of eggs fail to hatch in well-maintained pigeon lofts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/science/our-research/research-areas/veterinary-science/poultry-research-foundation.html |title=Poultry Research Foundation |website=The University of Sydney |access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> Egg size is important for the squab's initial size and for mortality at hatching,{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation to predatory publisher content}} but becomes less important as the squab ages. Aggrey and Cheng say that the hatched weight of squabs is not a good indicator of their weight at four weeks old.<ref name=AggreyCheng/>

Squabs reach adult size, but are not yet ready to fly (making them easier to catch) after roughly a month; at this point, they are [slaughtered](/source/Animal_slaughter).<ref name="pigeon"/><ref name=canova/><ref name=FAO/>

==In cuisine==
{{Nutritional value
| name           = Squab (pigeon), meat only, raw
| kJ             = 594
| carbs          = 0.00
| fiber          = 0.0
| fat            = 7.50
| satfat         = 1.96
| monofat        = 2.66
| polyfat        = 1.60
| omega3fat      =
| omega6fat      =
| protein        = 17.50
| water          = 72.80
| vitA_ug        = 28
| vitA_iu        = 94
| thiamin_mg     = 0.283
| riboflavin_mg  = 0.285
| niacin_mg      =
| pantothenic_mg = 0.787
| vitB6_mg       = 0.53
| folate_ug      = 7
| vitB12_ug      = 0.47
| vitC_mg        = 7.2
| calcium_mg     = 13
| iron_mg        = 4.51
| magnesium_mg   = 25
| manganese_mg   = 0.019
| phosphorus_mg  = 307
| potassium_mg   = 237
| sodium_mg      = 51
| zinc_mg        = 2.7
| note           = There is some variation in nutritional content depending on the breed of utility pigeon used for squabbing.<ref name=Pomianowski/>
| source_usda    = 1
| noRDA          = Yes
| float          = right
}}

Usually considered a delicacy, squab is tender, moist and richer in taste than many commonly consumed [poultry](/source/poultry) meats, but there is relatively little meat per bird, the meat being concentrated in the [breast](/source/breast_meat).<ref name="pigeon">{{cite book |title=Pigeons: The Fascinating Saga of the World's Most Revered and Reviled Bird |last=Andrew D. |first=Blechman |year=2006 |publisher=Open City Books |isbn=978-0-8021-1834-9 |pages = 211–214 }}</ref><ref name="french"/>
Squab is [dark meat](/source/White_meat), and the skin is fatty, like that of [duck](/source/Duck_(food)).<ref name="pigeon"/> The meat is very lean, easily digestible, and "rich in proteins, minerals, and vitamins".<ref name=canova/> It has been described as having a "silky" texture, as it is very tender and fine-grained.<ref name=canova/><ref name="field guide"/> It has a milder taste than other game,<ref name=Age/> and has been described as having a mild berry flavor.<ref name=canova/> Squab's flavor lends itself to [complex red or white wines](/source/Wine_and_food_matching).<ref name=Age>{{cite web |url=http://www.theage.com.au/news/epicure/pigeon-fanciers/2006/07/24/1153593241889.html |title=Pigeon fanciers |last=Cornish |first=Richard |date=July 25, 2006 |work=[The Age](/source/The_Age) |access-date=2009-09-02}}</ref>  The 1997 edition of ''[the Joy of Cooking](/source/the_Joy_of_Cooking)'' cautions that if squab is cooked beyond medium-rare, its flavor becomes 'distinctly "livery"'.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbyW2LeXIOkC&q=joy+of+cooking+squab&pg=PA630 |isbn=9780684818702| title=JOC All New Rev. - 1997| publisher=Simon and Schuster| date=1997-11-05}}</ref>

In the 14th century [humorism](/source/humorism) book ''Health Regime'', squab was regarded as a "hot and moist" food, whereas the meat of older pigeons was regarded as hot, dry, and "barely edible".<ref name=canova/> The Roman cookbook ''[Apicius](/source/Apicius)'' recommended sauces with a combined sweet and sour flavor to accompany roasted or braised squab. In 1607, a recipe book from a monastery in [Salamanca](/source/Salamanca), Spain, suggested cooking squab with pork fat or bitter limes. There is less information about traditional recipes incorporating squab or pigeon used by commoners, but there is evidence they were "handed down from generation to generation".<ref name=canova/>

In the 15th century, the Italian friar [Luca Pacioli](/source/Luca_Pacioli) wrote a book of "culinary secrets" which included "How to Kill a Squab by Hitting with a Feather on the Head".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Parzen |first=Jeremy|date=Fall 2004 |title=Please Play with Your Food: An Incomplete Survey of Culinary Wonders in Italian Renaissance Cookery |journal=Gastronomica |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=25–33 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.25}}</ref> Indeed, squab would serve as a culinary staple in Italy, including in [Umbria](/source/Umbria)n and [Tuscan](/source/Tuscany) cuisine since before the Medieval era.<ref name="GIC"/> In 18th century France, ''pigeons à la crapaudine'' ("toad-like squab") was a popular "dish of skill" for both rich and poor, in which the squab was arranged so that it looked like a frog, with the breast forming the frog's "face". [Religious dietary laws](/source/Medieval_cuisine) once prohibited meat on fast days, but allowed frog's meat, as it was a water dweller. ''Pigeons à la crapaudine'' played with that convention, and is still part of French traditional cuisine.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Jennifer J. |date=February 2009 |title=Masters of Disguise: French Cooks Between Art and Nature, 1651–1793 |journal=Gastronomica |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=36–49 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2009.9.1.36}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Abrahams |first=Marc |title=When is a frog not a frog? When it's a bird |url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2009/sep/29/improbable-research-frog-bird |access-date=20 October 2010 |newspaper=[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian) |date=29 September 2009}}</ref>

A 19th-century recipe from [California](/source/Cuisine_of_California) for ''Pastales de pollos y pichones'' (Chicken and squab pastry) was as a savory [pie](/source/pie) with alternating layers of chicken and squab with a [picadillo](/source/picadillo) of minced veal, [bacon](/source/bacon), [ham](/source/ham) fried in lard with onion, mushrooms, apples, artichokes. tomatoes and seasonings layer.<ref>''El cocinero español'' by Encarnación Pinedo, 1898</ref>

Commercially raised birds "take only half as long to cook" as traditionally raised birds, and are suitable for roasting, grilling, or searing, whereas the traditionally raised birds are better suited to [casserole](/source/casserole)s and slow-cooked stews.<ref name=canova/> The meat from older and wild pigeons is much tougher than squab, and requires a long period of [stewing](/source/stewing) or [roasting](/source/roasting) to tenderize.<ref name="pigeon"/> The consumption of squab probably stems from both the relative ease of catching birds which have not yet [fledge](/source/fledge)d,<ref name="pigeon"/> and that unfledged birds have more tender meat.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hansell |first=Jean |title=Dovecotes |publisher=Osprey Publishing |year=2001 |series=A Shire album Shire Library |volume=213 |page=7 |isbn=978-0-7478-0504-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3A4eojqseYC&q=%22pigeon+keeping%22+squab&pg=PA4 |access-date=2009-09-02}}{{Dead link |date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> Once a squab has fledged, its weight decreases significantly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/documents/ibys/7.htm |title=7.0 Backyard small species / 7.1.3 Pigeons |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1    = Chinese squab.jpg
| caption1  = A large volume of squab is served at [Chinese American](/source/American_Chinese_cuisine) restaurants.
| image2    = HK Quarry Bay 英皇道 King's Road 唐順興 燒味 Tang's Roast shop 乳鴿肉 Squab display on sale Nov-2010.JPG
| caption2  = Dressed squab displayed for sale in Hong Kong
}}

Today, squab is part of the cuisine of many countries, including [China](/source/Chinese_cuisine), [France](/source/French_cuisine), [Egypt](/source/Egypt), [the United States](/source/Cuisine_of_the_United_States), [Italy](/source/Italian_cuisine), [Northern Africa](/source/Northern_Africa), and several [Asian countries](/source/Asian_cuisine).<ref name=Pomianowski>{{cite journal |author=J. F. Pomianowski |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=Research Note: Chemical composition, cholesterol content, and fatty acid profile of pigeon meat as influenced by meat-type breeds |journal=Poultry Science |volume=88 |issue=6 |pages=1306–09 |pmid=19439644 |doi=10.3382/ps.2008-00217 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="march">{{cite news |first=Andrew D. |last=Blechman |title=March of the Pigeons |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/09/opinion/nyregionopinions/09CIblechman.html?scp=32&sq=squab&st=nyt |work=[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times) |date=April 9, 2006 |access-date=2008-02-24 }}</ref> Typical dishes include breast of squab (sometimes as the French ''[salmis](/source/salmis)''), [Egyptian](/source/Egyptian_cuisine) Mahshi (stuffed with rice or ''[Freekeh](/source/Freekeh)'' and herbs), Assamese pigeon curry<ref name="upasana">{{Cite journal |last1=Sarma |first1=Upasana |last2=Govila |first2=Viney Kumar |last3=Yadav |first3=Akansha |date=2020 |title=The traditional and therapeutic use of banana and its plant based delicacies in ethnic Assamese cuisine and religious rituals from Northeast India |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1186/s42779-020-00053-5.pdf |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |volume=7 |pages=1–7 |article-number=21 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00053-5 |s2cid=219530329 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and the [Moroccan](/source/Moroccan_cuisine) ''[pastilla](/source/pastilla)''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=James L. |title=Culinary creation: an introduction to foodservice and world cuisine |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2006 |series=Butterworth-Heinemann hospitality management series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=On54ig_hS9EC&q=squab&pg=PA1 |page=10 |isbn=978-0-7506-7936-7}}</ref> In Spain and France, squab is also preserved as a [confit](/source/confit).<ref name=canova/> Demand for squab is increasing in Nigeria, despite being more expensive than beef, pork or chicken, as pigeons can quickly be raised to table weight and are easy to keep, providing diseases are controlled, as young pigeons are especially susceptible to disease.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

In the United States, squab is "increasingly a specialty item", as the larger and cheaper [chicken](/source/chicken_(food)) has mostly displaced it.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jerolmack |first=Colin |date=April 2007 |title=Animal archeology: Domestic pigeons and the nature-culture dialectic |journal=Qualitative Sociology Review |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=74–95 |doi=10.18778/1733-8077.3.1.06 |s2cid=142002800 |url=http://www.qualitativesociologyreview.org/ENG/Volume6/QSR_3_1_Jerolmack.pdf}}</ref> In 1942, [MFK Fisher](/source/M._F._K._Fisher) quipped in ''[How to Cook a Wolf](/source/How_to_Cook_a_Wolf)'', "It is not easy to find pigeons, these days. Most of the ones you know about in the city are working for the government."<ref>"How to Make a Pigeon Cry" in How to Cook a Wolf (1942) in The Art of Eating: 50th Anniversary Edition by Mary Frances Kennedy Fisher, page 419</ref> However, squab produced from specially raised utility pigeons continues to grace the menus of American ''[haute cuisine](/source/haute_cuisine)'' restaurants such as [Le Cirque](/source/Le_Cirque) and [the French Laundry](/source/the_French_Laundry),<ref name="french">{{cite book |title=The French Laundry Cookbook|last=Thomas |first=Keller |author-link= Thomas Keller |year=1999 |publisher=Artisan |isbn=978-1-57965-126-8 |title-link=The French Laundry Cookbook}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Frank |last=Bruni |title=In Defense of Decadence |url=http://events.nytimes.com/2008/02/06/dining/reviews/06rest.html?scp=1&sq=squab&st=nyt |work=The New York Times |date=February 6, 2008 |access-date=2008-02-24 |archive-date=2008-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305013402/http://events.nytimes.com/2008/02/06/dining/reviews/06rest.html?scp=1&sq=squab&st=nyt |url-status=dead }}</ref> and has enjoyed endorsements from some [celebrity chef](/source/celebrity_chef)s.<ref name="pigeon"/> Accordingly, squab is often sold for much higher prices than other poultry, sometimes as high as eight [USD](/source/United_States_dollar) per pound.<ref name="pigeon"/>

In [Indian cuisine](/source/Indian_cuisine), squab features prominently in the [Northeast](/source/Northeast_India),<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hauzel |first=Hoihnu |title=Essential North-East Cookbook |publisher=[Penguin](/source/Penguin_Books) |year=2014}}</ref> such as in the [Assamese cuisine](/source/Assamese_cuisine).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dutta |first=Parasmoni |date=2008 |title=Physical Folklife of Assam |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/2002511/48949295-ASSAM-FOLKLORE.pdf#page=20 |journal=Folklife |volume=31 |pages=20–21 |via=Academia.edu}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Pigeon is usually cooked as curry and is sometimes cooked with banana blossom.<ref name="upasana"/> It is popular among both the tribal<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boro |first=Franky |title=Glimpses Of Traditional Food Habits, Dress And Ornaments: A Study Among The Bodos Of Udalguri District In Assam |url=http://arfjournals.com/abstract/63645_6_franky_boro.pdf |journal=ARF Journal |access-date=2021-11-04 |archive-date=2022-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616053528/https://arfjournals.com/abstract/63645_6_franky_boro.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kumari |first=Pratisha |date=2014 |title=The Mising foodways: an analytical study on the foods and food related cultural practices of the Misings of Assam |url=http://agnee.tezu.ernet.in:8082/jspui/bitstream/1994/1263/12/12_chapter3.pdf |journal=Tezpur University Ernet}}</ref> and non-tribal populations. Pigeon meat is associated with strength, and the pre-colonial ''Kamarupa Yatra'' also recommends it for health.<ref name = "pcassam" /> Pigeon is sacrificed in some [Hindu](/source/Hinduism) temples, especially in the [Shakta tradition](/source/Shaktism), such as in the [Kamakhya temple](/source/Kamakhya_Temple) in India,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Acharyya |first=Kangkan |date=30 May 2018 |title=Row over buffalo sacrifice in Kamakhya Temple: Banning practice will deprive poor, says head priest |work=Firstpost |url=https://www.firstpost.com/india/row-over-buffalo-sacrifice-in-kamakhya-temple-banning-practice-will-deprive-poor-says-head-priest-4488647.html/amp |access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sunil |first=Oinam |date=16 October 2006 |title=At Kamakhya, there's no stopping animal sacrifice |work=[The Times of India](/source/The_Times_of_India) |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/at-kamakhya-theres-no-stopping-animal-sacrifice/articleshow/2172705.cms |access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref> after which it can be eaten. A similar practice is followed in [Nepal](/source/Nepal) too.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lang |first=Olivia |date=24 November 2009 |title=Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins |work=[The Guardian](/source/The_Guardian) |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/nov/24/hindu-sacrifice-gadhimai-festival-nepal}}</ref> Pigeon curry is often reserved for special occasions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Patgiri |first=Rituparna |date=20 June 2021 |title=Assamese Pigeon Curry: How a staple dish is now becoming almost a rarity |url=https://www.eastmojo.com/food/2021/06/20/assamese-pigeon-curry-how-a-staple-dish-is-now-becoming-almost-a-rarity/ |access-date=4 November 2021 |website=EastMojo}}</ref>

In [Chinese cuisine](/source/Chinese_cuisine), squab is a part of celebratory banquets for holidays such as [Chinese New Year](/source/Chinese_New_Year), usually served deep-fried.<ref name="pigeon"/> Cantonese-style pigeon is typically braised in soy sauce, rice wine and star anise then roasted with crispy skin and tender meat.<ref>CNN Go [http://www.cnngo.com/hong-kong/none/40-things-eat-hong-kong-coronary-arrest-820489 40 Hong Kong foods we can't live without] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105093220/http://www.cnngo.com/hong-kong/none/40-things-eat-hong-kong-coronary-arrest-820489 |date=2012-11-05 }} 13 July 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-09</ref> Squabs are sold live in Chinese marketplaces to assure freshness,<ref>{{cite book |last=Hsiung |first=Deih-Ta |author2=Simonds, Nina |author3=Lowe, Jason |title=The food of China: a journey for food lovers |publisher=Murdoch Books |year=2005 |page=125 |isbn=978-1-74045-463-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-9XWQrpbLAgC&q=squab&pg=PA6 |access-date=2009-09-02}}</ref> but they can also be dressed in two styles. "Chinese-style" (Buddhist slaughter) birds retain their head and feet, whereas "New York-dressed" (Confucian slaughter) birds retain their entrails, head and feet.<ref name="field guide">{{cite book |last=Green |first=Aliza |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetomeat0000gree_n1b1 |title=Field Guide to Meat: How to Identify, Select, and Prepare Virtually Every Meat, Poultry, and Game Cut |publisher=Quirk Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-59474-017-6 |pages=221{{ndash}}223 |quote= |url-access=registration}}</ref> The greatest volume of U.S. squab is currently sold within [Chinatown](/source/Chinatown)s.<ref name="pigeon"/>{{rp|213}}

[[File:Nasi Timbel Dara Goreng.JPG|thumb|right|Fried pigeon with ''[nasi timbel](/source/nasi_timbel)'' (banana leaf wrapped rice), [tempeh](/source/tempeh), [tofu](/source/tofu), and vegetables, [Sundanese cuisine](/source/Sundanese_cuisine), [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia)]]

In [Indonesian cuisine](/source/Indonesian_cuisine), especially [Sundanese](/source/Sundanese_cuisine) and [Javanese](/source/Javanese_cuisine), squab is usually seasoned, spiced with [coriander](/source/coriander), [turmeric](/source/turmeric), [garlic](/source/garlic) and deep fried in a lot of [palm oil](/source/palm_oil). It is served with [sambal](/source/sambal) ([chili sauce](/source/chili_sauce)), [tempeh](/source/tempeh), [tofu](/source/tofu), vegetables, and ''[nasi timbel](/source/nasi_timbel)'' (rice wrapped in banana leaf). {{citation needed|date=April 2016}}

Despite the relative ease of raising pigeons, squab is "not usually considered" in terms of its potential for [food security](/source/food_security).<ref name=FAO/> In parts of the world, squab meat is thought of as distasteful by some [consumer](/source/consumer)s because they view [feral pigeon](/source/feral_pigeon)s as unsanitary urban pests.<ref name="march"/> However, squab meat is regarded as safer than some other poultry products as it harbors fewer [pathogen](/source/pathogen)s,<ref name="CC safety"/><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jeffrey |first=J.S. |author2=Atwill, E.R. |author3=Hunter, A. |year=2001 |title=Farm and management variables linked to fecal shedding of Campylobacter and Salmonella in commercial squab production |journal=Poultry Science |volume=80 |issue=1 |pages=66–70 |url=http://ps.fass.org/cgi/reprint/80/1/66 |pmid=11214338 |doi=10.1093/ps/80.1.66 |access-date=2009-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724195523/http://ps.fass.org/cgi/reprint/80/1/66|archive-date=2011-07-24 |url-status=dead |doi-access=free}}</ref> and may be served between [medium and well done](/source/Doneness).<ref name="CC safety">{{cite book |last=Morgan |first=James L. |title=Culinary creation: an introduction to foodservice and world cuisine |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2006 |series=Butterworth-Heinemann hospitality management series |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=On54ig_hS9EC&q=squab&pg=PA1 |page=220 |isbn=978-0-7506-7936-7}}</ref>

==Wild birds==
Several species of wild pigeons and doves are used as food; however, all types are edible.<ref>[http://www.eattheweeds.com/eggs-for-survival-and-food-2/ Eggs]. Cooking Methods & Materials, Critter Cuisine</ref> 

In Europe, the [wood pigeon](/source/common_wood_pigeon) is commonly shot as a [game bird](/source/game_bird).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://tpwd.texas.gov/publications/nonpwdpubs/introducing_birds/doves_pigeons/|title=TPWD: Doves and Pigeons – Introducing Birds to Young Naturalists|website=tpwd.texas.gov}}</ref> 

The extinction of the passenger pigeon in North America was at least partly due to shooting for use as food.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.audubon.org/magazine/may-june-2014/why-passenger-pigeon-went-extinct|title=Why the Passenger Pigeon Went Extinct|date=17 April 2014|work=Audubon}}</ref> ''[Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management](/source/Mrs_Beeton's_Book_of_Household_Management)'' contains recipes for roast pigeon and [pigeon pie](/source/pigeon_pie), a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain.<ref>[http://www.mrsbeeton.com/40-chapter40.html CHAPTER 40 – DINNERS AND DINING Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429154041/http://mrsbeeton.com/40-chapter40.html |date=29 April 2013 }}. Mrsbeeton.com. Retrieved on 5 March 2013.</ref>

==See also==
*[Pigeon pie](/source/Pigeon_pie)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
===Cooking===
* {{cite book |title=Culinary Birds: The Ultimate Poultry Cookbook |last=Ash |first=John |publisher=Running Press |year=2013 |location=Philadelphia |oclc=861751622}}
* {{cite book |title=D'Artagnan's Glorious Game Cookbook |last1=Daguin |last2=Faison |last3=Pruess |first1=Ariane |first2=George |first3=Joanna |oclc=40744512 |publisher=Little & Brown |location=Boston |year=1999}}

{{wiktionary|squab}}
{{Commons category|Squab}}

===Husbandry===
* American Squab Journal (AKA American Pigeon Journal) [American Pigeon Journal](/source/American_Pigeon_Journal) 1913-1994
* {{cite book |last=Allen |first=Barbara |title=Pigeon |year=2009 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-86189-513-4}}
* {{cite book |title=Profitable Squab Breeding: A Complete Illustrated Guide |year=1914 |last=Dare |first=Carl |url=https://archive.org/details/profitablesquabb00dare |publisher=A. B. Morse Company}}
* {{cite book |year=1916 |url=https://archive.org/details/americansquabcul01eggl/page/n5 |last=Eggleston |first=E. H. |title=American Squab Culture |publisher=W. B. Conkley |location=Chicago}}
* {{cite book |title=Squab Raising |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT31127837/page/n1 |year=1946 |volume=Farmers' Bulletin no. 684 |last1=Lee |first1=Alfred R |last2=Haynes |first2=Sheppard Knapp}}
* {{cite book |title=How to Make Money with Squabs |publisher=Plymouth Rock Squab Company |location=Melrose, Mass |year=1916 |last1=Rice |first1=Elmer |url=https://archive.org/details/howtomakemoneywi00plym/page/n1}}

{{Chinese New Year}}
{{Meat|state=expanded}}
{{Portal bar|Food|Asia}}

Category:Domestic pigeons
Category:Chinese New Year foods
Category:Birds as food
Category:Poultry

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Squab](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squab) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squab?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.