# Spice > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Spice > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Spice.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice > Source revision: 1354488236 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) Food flavouring For other uses, see [Spice (disambiguation)](/source/Spice_(disambiguation)). Spices at a central market in [Agadir](/source/Agadir), [Morocco](/source/Morocco) A group of [Indian herbs and spices](/source/Indian_spices) in bowls Spices of Saúde flea market, [São Paulo](/source/S%C3%A3o_Paulo), [Brazil](/source/Brazil) In the [culinary arts](/source/Culinary_art), a **spice** is a [seed](/source/Seed), [fruit](/source/Fruit), [root](/source/Root), [bark](/source/Bark_(botany)), or other [plant](/source/Plant) substance primarily used for [flavouring](/source/Flavouring) or [colouring](/source/Colour) food. Spices are distinguished from [herbs](/source/Herb), which are the leaves, flowers, or stems of plants used for [flavouring](/source/Flavouring) or as a [garnish](/source/Garnish_(food)). Spices and herbs are both [seasonings](/source/Seasoning). Spices are sometimes used in [medicine](/source/Medicine), [religious rituals](/source/Sacred_rite), [cosmetics](/source/Cosmetics), or [perfume](/source/Perfume) production. They are usually classified into spices, spice seeds, and herbal categories.[1] For example, [vanilla](/source/Vanilla) is commonly used as an ingredient in [fragrance](/source/Aroma_compound) manufacturing.[2] Plant-based [sweeteners](/source/Sweetener) such as [sugar](/source/Sugar) are not considered spices. Spices can be used in various forms, including fresh, whole, dried, grated, chopped, crushed, ground, or extracted into a tincture. These processes may occur before the spice is sold, during meal preparation in the kitchen, or even at the table when serving a dish, such as grinding peppercorns as a condiment. Certain spices are rarely available fresh, or whole, and are typically purchased in ground form. Small seeds, such as fennel and mustard, can be used either in their whole form or as a powder.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] A whole dried spice has the longest shelf life, so it can be purchased and stored in larger amounts, making it cheaper on a per-serving basis. A fresh spice, such as [ginger](/source/Ginger), is usually more flavourful than its dried form, but fresh spices are more expensive and have a much shorter shelf life.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] A 2019 review paper found that most claimed health benefits were not supported by [clinical evidence](/source/Evidence-based_medicine), although noted that [polyphenols](/source/Polyphenol) found in spices may be beneficial.[3] [India](/source/India) contributes to 75% of global spice production.[4] This is reflected culturally through its [cuisine](/source/Indian_cuisine). Historically, the [spice trade](/source/Spice_trade) developed throughout the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent) as well as in [East Asia](/source/East_Asia) and the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East). Europe's demand for spices was among the economic and cultural factors that encouraged exploration in the [early modern period](/source/Early_modern_period). ## Definition Although defining spice is difficult, varying definitions cover several common aspects. One such aspect is the biological source of spices: the *[Oxford English Dictionary](/source/Oxford_English_Dictionary)* (*OED*) identifies the source as vegetables, while Redgrove (1933) is more specific as to the part of the plant, specifically the [root](/source/Root), [rhizome](/source/Rhizome), [flower](/source/Flower), [fruit](/source/Fruit), [seed](/source/Seed) and [bark](/source/Bark_(botany)) when they are dried, in contrast with herbaceous parts which constitute [herbs](/source/Herb). *[The Oxford Companion to Food](/source/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Food)* challenges spices as sourced from plants being a hard rule, pointing to [ambergris](/source/Ambergris) being often identified as a spice despite its animal origin.[5] Another aspect is the geographical source: The *OED* specifies spices are sourced from the tropics, while *The Oxford Companion to Food* gives the example of [caraway seeds](/source/Caraway) as demonstrating that spices can come from temperate climes. The notion that spices have a tropical origin is historic: originally "spice" was understood as a type of merchandise from the Orient. As Europeans encountered the Americas, beginning the [Columbian exchange](/source/Columbian_exchange), the meaning expanded to capture new aromatics, and the meaning later shifted again to refer to culinary use. This historic development has led to some ingredients indigenous to European cooking such as garlic and horseradish not being considered spices despite sharing many attributes.[5] ## History See also: [Spice use in antiquity](/source/Spice_use_in_antiquity) ### Early history [Archeological](/source/Archaeology) study of early spice use is difficult, as spices were used in small quantities, leaving few preserved remains.[6] The [spice trade](/source/Spice_trade) developed throughout the [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent)[7] and [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) by 2000 BCE with [cinnamon](/source/Cinnamon) and [black pepper](/source/Black_pepper), and in [East Asia](/source/East_Asia) with herbs and pepper. The Egyptians used herbs for [cuisine](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_cuisine) and [mummification](/source/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices). Their demand for exotic spices and herbs helped stimulate world trade. [Cloves](/source/Clove) were used in [Mesopotamia](/source/Mesopotamia) by 1700 BCE.[note 1] The earliest written records of spices come from ancient Egyptian, Chinese, and Indian cultures. The [Ebers Papyrus](/source/Ebers_Papyrus) from early Egypt dating from 1550 BCE describes some eight hundred different [herbal medicinal](/source/Herbal_medicine) remedies and numerous medicinal procedures.[11] By 1000 BCE, medical systems based on herbs could be found in [China](/source/China), [Korea](/source/Korea), and [India](/source/India).[12] Early uses were associated with magic, medicine, religion, tradition, and preservation.[13] Indonesian merchants travelled around China, India, the Middle East, and the east coast of Africa. [Arab](/source/Arab) merchants facilitated the routes through the Middle East and India. This resulted in the Egyptian [port city of Alexandria](/source/Port_of_Alexandria) being the main trading center for spices. The most important discovery prior to the European spice trade was the [monsoon](/source/Monsoon) winds (40 CE). Sailing from Eastern spice cultivators to Western European consumers gradually replaced the land-locked spice routes once facilitated by the Middle East Arab caravans.[13] Spices were prominent enough in the ancient world that they are mentioned in the [Old Testament](/source/Old_Testament). In [Genesis](/source/Genesis_(Old_Testament)), [Joseph](/source/Joseph_(Hebrew_Bible)) was sold into slavery by his brothers to spice merchants. In [Exodus](/source/Book_of_Exodus), [manna](/source/Manna) is described as being similar to coriander in appearance. In the [Song of Solomon](/source/Song_of_Solomon), the male narrator compares his beloved to many saffron, cinnamon, and other spices.[14] Historians believe that [nutmeg](/source/Nutmeg), which originates from the [Banda Islands](/source/Banda_Islands) in [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia), was introduced to Europe in the 6th century BCE.[15] The [Romans](/source/Ancient_Rome) had cloves in the 1st century CE, as [Pliny the Elder](/source/Pliny_the_Elder) wrote about them.[16] ### Middle Ages "The Mullus" harvesting pepper. Illustration from a French edition of *[The Travels of Marco Polo](/source/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo)*. Spices were among the most demanded and expensive products available in Europe in the [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages),[17] the most common being [black pepper](/source/Black_pepper), [cinnamon](/source/Cinnamon) (and the cheaper alternative [cassia](/source/Cinnamomum_aromaticum)), [cumin](/source/Cumin), [nutmeg](/source/Nutmeg), ginger, and [cloves](/source/Cloves). Given medieval medicine's main theory of [humorism](/source/Humorism), spices and herbs were indispensable to balance "humors" in food,[18] on a daily basis for good health at a time of recurrent [pandemics](/source/Pandemic). In addition to being desired by those using [medieval medicine](/source/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe), the European elite also craved spices in the Middle Ages, believing spices to be from and a connection to "paradise".[19] An example of the European aristocracy's demand for spice comes from the [King of Aragon](/source/King_of_Aragon), who invested substantial resources into importing spices to [Spain](/source/Spain) in the 12th century. He was specifically looking for spices to put in [wine](/source/Wine) and was not alone among [European monarchs](/source/European_Monarchs) at the time to have such a desire for spice.[20] Spices were all imported from plantations in Asia and Africa, which made them expensive. From the 8th until the 15th century, the [Republic of Venice](/source/Republic_of_Venice) held a monopoly on spice trade with the Middle East, using this position to dominate the neighbouring Italian [maritime republics](/source/Maritime_republics) and city-states. The trade made the region rich. It has been estimated that around 1,000 tons of pepper and 1,000 tons of other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the [Late Middle Ages](/source/Late_Middle_Ages). The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people.[21] The most exclusive was [saffron](/source/Saffron), used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor. Spices that have now fallen into obscurity in European cuisine include [grains of paradise](/source/Aframomum_melegueta), a relative of [cardamom](/source/Cardamom) which mostly replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking, along with [long pepper](/source/Long_pepper), [mace](/source/Nutmeg), [spikenard](/source/Spikenard), [galangal](/source/Galangal), and [cubeb](/source/Cubeb).[22] ### Early modern period Voyagers from [Spain](/source/Spain) and [Portugal](/source/Portugal) were interested in seeking new routes to trade in spices and other valuable products from Asia. The control of trade routes and the spice-producing regions were the main reasons that [Portuguese](/source/Portugal) navigator [Vasco da Gama](/source/Vasco_da_Gama) sailed to [India](/source/India) in 1499.[23] When da Gama discovered the pepper market in India, he was able to secure peppers for a much lower cost than demanded by [Venice](/source/Venice).[20] At around the same time, [Christopher Columbus](/source/Christopher_Columbus) returned from the [New World](/source/New_World). He described to [investors](/source/Investor) the new spices available there.[24][a] Another source of competition in the spice trade during the 15th and 16th centuries was the [Ragusans](/source/Republic_of_Ragusa) from the maritime republic of [Dubrovnik](/source/Dubrovnik) in southern Croatia.[25] The military prowess of [Afonso de Albuquerque](/source/Afonso_de_Albuquerque) (1453–1515) allowed the Portuguese to take control of the sea routes to India. In 1506, he took the island of [Socotra](/source/Socotra) in the mouth of the [Red Sea](/source/Red_Sea) and, in 1507, [Ormuz](/source/Ormuz) in the [Persian Gulf](/source/Persian_Gulf). Since becoming the [viceroy](/source/Viceroy) of the [Indies](/source/Indies), he took [Goa](/source/Goa) in India in 1510, and [Malacca](/source/Malacca) on the [Malay Peninsula](/source/Malay_Peninsula) in 1511. The Portuguese could now trade directly with [Siam](/source/Thailand), [China](/source/China), and the [Maluku Islands](/source/Maluku_Islands).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*] With the discovery of the New World came new spices, including [allspice](/source/Allspice), [chili peppers](/source/Chili_pepper), [vanilla](/source/Vanilla), and [chocolate](/source/Chocolate). This development kept the spice trade, with the Americas as a latecomer with their new seasonings, profitable well into the 19th century.[26] ## Function Turmeric powder, mustard seeds, chilli powder, cumin seeds Spices are primarily used as food [flavouring](/source/Flavouring) or to create variety.[27] They are also used to perfume [cosmetics](/source/Cosmetics) and [incense](/source/Incense). At various periods, many spices were used in [herbal medicine](/source/Herbal_medicine). Finally, since they can be expensive, rare and exotic commodities, their [conspicuous consumption](/source/Conspicuous_consumption) has often been a symbol of wealth and social class.[22] ### Preservative claim The most popular explanation for the love of spices in the Middle Ages is that they were used to preserve meat from spoiling, or to cover up the taste of meat that had already gone off. This compelling but false idea constitutes something of an urban legend, a story so instinctively attractive that mere fact seems unable to wipe it out... Anyone who could afford spices could easily find meat fresher than what city dwellers today buy in their local supermarket.[22] It is often claimed that spices were used either as [food preservatives](/source/Food_preservation) or to mask the taste of [spoiled meat](/source/Meat_spoilage), especially in the European [Middle Ages](/source/Middle_Ages).[22][28] This is false.[29][30][31][22] In fact, spices are rather ineffective as preservatives as compared to [salting](/source/Salting_(food)), [smoking](/source/Smoking_(cooking)), [pickling](/source/Pickling), or [drying](/source/Food_drying), and are ineffective in covering the taste of spoiled meat.[22] Moreover, spices have always been comparatively expensive: in 15th century Oxford, a whole pig cost about the same as a pound of the cheapest spice, pepper.[22] There is also no evidence of such use from contemporary cookbooks: "Old cookbooks make it clear that spices weren't used as a preservative. They typically suggest adding spices toward the end of the cooking process, where they could have no preservative effect whatsoever."[32] Indeed, [Cristoforo di Messisbugo](/source/Cristoforo_di_Messisbugo) suggested in the 16th century that pepper may speed up spoilage.[32] Though some spices have [antimicrobial](/source/Antimicrobial) properties in vitro,[33] pepper—by far the most common spice—is relatively ineffective, and in any case, salt, which is far cheaper, is also far more effective.[32] ## Classification and types See also: [Outline of herbs and spices](/source/Outline_of_herbs_and_spices) A plate of [Indian herbs and spices](/source/Indian_spices) ### Culinary herbs and spices Main article: [List of culinary herbs and spices](/source/List_of_culinary_herbs_and_spices) ### Botanical basis - [Seeds](/source/Seed), such as [fennel](/source/Fennel), [mustard](/source/Mustard_seeds), [nutmeg](/source/Nutmeg), and [black pepper](/source/Black_pepper) - [Fruits](/source/Fruit), such as [cayenne pepper](/source/Cayenne_pepper) and [Chimayo pepper](/source/Chimayo_pepper) - [Arils](/source/Aril), such as [mace](/source/Mace_(spice)) (part of nutmeg plant fruit) - [Barks](/source/Bark_(botany)), such as [true cinnamon](/source/Cinnamomum_zeylanicum) and [cassia](/source/Cinnamomum_aromaticum) - [Flower buds](/source/Flower_bud), such as [cloves](/source/Cloves) - [Stigmas](/source/Stigma_(botany)), such as [saffron](/source/Saffron) - [Roots](/source/Root) and [rhizomes](/source/Rhizome), such as [turmeric](/source/Turmeric), [ginger](/source/Ginger) and [galangal](/source/Galangal) - [Resins](/source/Resin), such as [asafoetida](/source/Asafoetida) ### Common spice mixtures Main article: [Spice mix](/source/Spice_mix) - [Advieh](/source/Advieh) ([Iran](/source/Iran)) - [Baharat](/source/Baharat) ([Arab world](/source/Arab_world), and the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) in general) - [Berbere](/source/Berbere) ([Ethiopia](/source/Ethiopia) and [Eritrea](/source/Eritrea)) - [Yaji (spice blend)](/source/Yaji_(spice_blend)) ([Nigeria](/source/Nigeria)) - [Bumbu](/source/Bumbu_(seasoning)) ([Indonesia](/source/Indonesian_cuisine)) - [Cajun](/source/Cajun_cuisine#Blended) ([United States](/source/United_States)) - [Chaat masala](/source/Chaat_masala) ([Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent)) - [Chili](/source/Chili_pepper) [powder](/source/Chili_powder) and [crushed red pepper](/source/Crushed_red_pepper) ([Cayenne](/source/Cayenne_pepper), [Chipotle](/source/Chipotle), [Jalapeño](/source/Jalape%C3%B1o), [New Mexico](/source/New_Mexico_chile), [Tabasco](/source/Tabasco_pepper), and [other cultivars](/source/List_of_Capsicum_cultivars)) - [Curry powder](/source/Curry_powder) - [Five-spice powder](/source/Five-spice_powder) ([China](/source/China)) - [Garam masala](/source/Garam_masala) (Indian subcontinent) - [Harissa](/source/Harissa) ([North Africa](/source/North_Africa)) - [Hawaij](/source/Hawaij) ([Yemen](/source/Yemen)) - [Jerk spice](/source/Jamaican_jerk_spice) ([Jamaica](/source/Jamaica)) - [Khmeli suneli](/source/Khmeli_suneli) ([Georgia](/source/Georgia_(country))) - [Masala](/source/Masala_(spice)) (a generic name for any mix used in the Indian subcontinent) - [Mixed spice](/source/Mixed_spice) ([United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom)) - [Panch phoron](/source/Panch_phoron) (Indian subcontinent) - [Pumpkin pie spice](/source/Pumpkin_pie_spice) ([United States](/source/United_States)) - [Quatre épices](/source/Quatre_%C3%A9pices) ([France](/source/France)) - [Ras el hanout](/source/Ras_el_hanout) ([North Africa](/source/North_Africa)) - [Sharena sol](/source/Sharena_sol) (literally "colorful salt", [Bulgaria](/source/Bulgaria)) - [Shichimi tōgarashi](/source/Shichimi) ([Japan](/source/Japan)) - [Speculaas](/source/Speculaas) ([Belgium](/source/Belgium) and [Netherlands](/source/Netherlands)) - Thuna Paha ([Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka)) - [Vegeta](/source/Podravka#Consumer_brands) ([Croatia](/source/Croatia)) and a generic name for the staple brand in [Central and Eastern Europe](/source/Central_and_Eastern_Europe) - [Za'atar](/source/Za'atar) (Middle East) ## Handling A shelf of common spices for a home kitchen in Canada or the United States Pepper mill A [mortar and pestle](/source/Mortar_and_pestle) is the classic set of tools for grinding a whole spice. Less labour-intensive tools are more common now: a [microplane](/source/Microplane) or fine [grater](/source/Grater) can be used to grind small amounts; a [coffee grinder](/source/Blade_grinder)[note 2] is useful for larger amounts. A frequently used spice such as black pepper may merit storage in its own hand grinder or [mill](/source/Burr_mill#Manual_burr_grinders). The flavor of a spice is derived in part from compounds (volatile oils) that [oxidise](/source/Oxidise) or evaporate when exposed to air. Grinding a spice greatly increases its surface area and so increases the rates of oxidation and evaporation. Thus, the flavor is maximised by storing a spice whole and grinding when needed. The shelf life of a whole dry spice is roughly two years; of a ground spice roughly six months.[34] The "flavor life" of a ground spice can be much shorter.[note 3] Ground spices are better stored away from light.[note 4] Some flavor elements in spices are soluble in water; many are soluble in oil or fat. As a general rule, the flavours from a spice take time to infuse into the food so spices are added early in preparation. This contrasts to [herbs](/source/Herb) which are usually added late in preparation.[34] ### Salmonella contamination A study by the [Food and Drug Administration](/source/Food_and_Drug_Administration) of shipments of spices to the United States during fiscal years 2007–2009 showed about 7% of the shipments were contaminated by *[Salmonella](/source/Salmonella)* bacteria, some of it antibiotic-resistant.[35] As most spices are cooked before being served salmonella contamination often has no effect, but some spices, particularly pepper, are often eaten raw and are present at the table for convenient use. Shipments from Mexico and India, a major producer, were the most frequently contaminated.[36] [Food irradiation](/source/Food_irradiation) is said to minimise this risk.[37][38] ## Production Spices and herbs at a shop in [Goa](/source/Goa), India Top Spice Producing Countries (in metric tonnes) Rank Country 2010 2011 1 India 1,474,900 1,525,000 2 Bangladesh 128,517 139,775 3 Turkey 107,000 113,783 4 China 90,000 95,890 5 Pakistan 53,647 53,620 6 Iran 18,028 21,307 7 Nepal 20,360 20,905 8 Colombia 16,998 19,378 9 Ethiopia 27,122 17,905 10 Sri Lanka 8,293 8,438 — World 1,995,523 2,063,472 Source: UN Food & Agriculture Organization[39] ## Standardization The [International Organization for Standardization](/source/International_Organization_for_Standardization) addresses spices and [condiments](/source/Condiment), along with related food additives, as part of the [International Classification for Standards](/source/International_Classification_for_Standards) 67.220 series.[40] ## Gallery - The *Gato Negro* café and spice shop ([Buenos Aires](/source/Buenos_Aires), Argentina) - A spice shop selling a variety of spices in Iran - Night spice shop in Casablanca, Morocco - A spice shop in [Taliparamba](/source/Taliparamba), India - Spices sold in [Taliparamba](/source/Taliparamba), India - Spice seller at a market in [Kashgar](/source/Kashgar), China - Spice market, [Marrakesh](/source/Marrakesh), Morocco - Spice shop in [Bahawalpur](/source/Bahawalpur), Pakistan. ## See also - [Food portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Food) - [Medicine portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Medicine) - [Tempering (spices)](/source/Tempering_(spices)), technique to extract essential oils from whole spices - [Spice rub](/source/Spice_rub), spices rubbed onto food before cooking ## Notes 1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** A team of archaeologists led by [Giorgio Buccellati](/source/Giorgio_Buccellati) excavating the ruins of a burned-down house at the site of [Terqa](/source/Terqa), in modern-day [Syria](/source/Syria), found a ceramic pot containing a handful of cloves. The house had burned down around 1720 BC and this was the first evidence of cloves being used in the west before Roman times.[8][9][10] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Other types of coffee grinders, such as a [burr mill](/source/Burr_mill), can grind spices just as well as coffee beans. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-38)** [Nutmeg](/source/Nutmeg), in particular, suffers from grinding and the flavor will degrade noticeably in a matter of days. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-39)** Light contributes to oxidation processes. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-26)** The word "ají" is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers. ## References 1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** ["Spice and herb | Types, Uses, & Facts | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/spice-food). *www.britannica.com*. March 8, 2024. Retrieved April 9, 2024. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Ahmad, Hafsa; Khera, Rasheed Ahmad; Hanif, Muhammad Asif; Ayub, Muhammad Adnan; Jilani, Muhammad Idrees (2020). "Vanilla". *Medicinal Plants of South Asia*. pp. 657–669. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/B978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-102659-5.00048-3). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-08-102659-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-102659-5). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [241855294](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:241855294). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-:3_3-0)** Vázquez-Fresno, Rosa; Rosana, Albert Remus R.; Sajed, Tanvir; et al. (May 22, 2019). ["Herbs and Spices - Biomarkers of Intake Based on Human Intervention Studies – A Systematic Review"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6532192). *Genes and Nutrition*. **14** (18): 18. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/s12263-019-0636-8](https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12263-019-0636-8). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [6532192](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6532192). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [31143299](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31143299). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Spices Board"](https://www.indianspices.com/). *www.indianspices.com*. Retrieved July 20, 2024. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidsonJaine2014spices_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidsonJaine2014spices_5-1) [Davidson & Jaine (2014)](#CITEREFDavidsonJaine2014), spices. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Moore, Katherine M (2013). "The archaeology of food". In [Albala, Ken](/source/Ken_Albala) (ed.). *Routledge International Handbook of Food Studies*. Oxford & New York: [Routledge](/source/Routledge). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-415-78264-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-78264-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Sidebotham2019_7-0)** Steven E. Sidebotham (May 7, 2019). [*Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ). Univ of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-30338-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-30338-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tw6LDwAAQBAJ) from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved April 13, 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** Daniel T. Potts (1997), [Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations.](https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&pg=PA269) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164819/https://books.google.com/books?id=O_aFGKPsWwcC&pg=PA269) March 26, 2023, at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) A&C Black publishers, p. 269 1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Buccellati, G., M. Kelly-Buccellati, Terqa: The First Eight Seasons, Les Annales Archeologiques Arabes Syriennes 33(2), 1983, 47–67 1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** O'Connell, John (2016). *The Book of Spice: From Anise to Zedoary*. Pegasus Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-68177-152-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68177-152-6). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Woodward, Penny (2003). "Herbs and Spices". In Katz (ed.). *Encyclopedia of Food and Culture*. Vol. 2. Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 187–195. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Sonal Dubey (2017). ["Indian Spices and their medicinal value"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320247387). *Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research*. **51** (3s2): s330–s332. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5530/ijper.51.3s.41](https://doi.org/10.5530%2Fijper.51.3s.41). Retrieved July 27, 2025. By 1000 BCE, medical systems based upon herbs could be found in China, Korea, and India. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ABCp14_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ABCp14_14-1) Murdock, Linda (2001). *A Busy Cook's Guide to Spices: How to Introduce New Flavors to Everyday Meals*. Bellwether Books. p. 14. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-9704285-0-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9704285-0-9). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["Bible Gateway passage: Song of Songs 4:14 - New International Version"](https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Song+of+Solomon+4:14&version=NIV). *Bible Gateway*. Retrieved March 22, 2025. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Burkill, I.H. (1966). *A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula*. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-Operatives. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Duke_2002_p._7_17-0)** Duke, J.A. (2002). [*CRC Handbook of Medicinal Spices*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7). CRC Press. p. 7. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4200-4048-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-4048-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230630115408/https://books.google.com/books?id=vPTLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA7) from the original on June 30, 2023. Retrieved May 9, 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Comme le précise l'historien français [Jacques Heers](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Heers&action=edit&redlink=1), « contrairement à ce que disent nos livres, qui insistent tellement sur les condiments, [les] soieries valaient bien plus que les épices elles-mêmes : pour le même poids, la soie coûtait au moins dix fois plus que le poivre » dans *Jacques Heers*, Perrin, 2008, p. 62. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Linda Civitello (2007). *Cuisine and culture: a history of food and people*. John Wiley and Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-471-74172-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-74172-8). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-20)** Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (1992). *Tastes of paradise : a social history of spices, stimulants, and intoxicants*. Pantheon Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-394-57984-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-57984-4). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [24702170](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24702170). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_21-1) Freedman, Paul (June 5, 2015). "Health, wellness and the allure of spices in the Middle Ages". *Journal of Ethnopharmacology*. Potent Substances: On the Boundaries of Food and Medicine. **167**: 47–53. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.jep.2014.10.065](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jep.2014.10.065). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25450779](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25450779). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004). [*Food in Medieval Times*](https://archive.org/details/foodmedievaltime00adam_218). Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. p. [65](https://archive.org/details/foodmedievaltime00adam_218/page/n89). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-313-32147-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32147-4). Retrieved April 1, 2026. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-freedman_23-6) Paul Freedman, *Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination*, 2008, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780300151350](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300151350), p. 2-3 1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Gantzer, Hugh; Gantzer, Colleen (2014). *SpiceStory*. Spices Board of India. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789383098385](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789383098385). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-25)** Turner, 2004, p. 11 1. **[^](#cite_ref-27)** Encyclopedia of Jewish Food, p. 453, Gil Marks, John Wiley & Sons, 2010. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-39130-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-39130-3) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-28)** ["Mariners Weather Log Vol. 52, No. 3, December 2008"](https://www.vos.noaa.gov/MWL/dec_08/great_exchange.shtml). *www.vos.noaa.gov*. Retrieved October 7, 2024. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-:4_29-0)** Dennett, Carrie (January 26, 2017). ["How a full spice cabinet can keep you healthy"](https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/spices-and-herbs-do-more-than-add-flavor-to-food--they-are-nutritional-powerhouses/2017/01/25/79dbedb4-e24c-11e6-a453-19ec4b3d09ba_story.html). *[The Washington Post](/source/The_Washington_Post)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230208195529/https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/wellness/spices-and-herbs-do-more-than-add-flavor-to-food--they-are-nutritional-powerhouses/2017/01/25/79dbedb4-e24c-11e6-a453-19ec4b3d09ba_story.html) from the original on February 8, 2023. Retrieved August 12, 2022. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-ThomasDaoust2012_30-0)** Thomas, Frédéric; Daoust, Simon P.; Raymond, Michel (June 2012). ["Can we understand modern humans without considering pathogens?: Human evolution and parasites"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3353360). *Evolutionary Applications*. **5** (4): 368–379. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1752-4571.2011.00231.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1752-4571.2011.00231.x). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [3353360](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3353360). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [25568057](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25568057). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Paul Freedman, "Food Histories of the Middle Ages", in Kyri W. Claflin, Peter Scholliers, *Writing Food History: A Global Perspective*, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1847888097](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1847888097), p. 24 1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** [Andrew Dalby](/source/Andrew_Dalby), *Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices*, 2000, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0520236742](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0520236742), p. 156 1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Andrew Jotischky, *A Hermit's Cookbook: Monks, Food and Fasting in the Middle Ages*, 2011, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1441159916](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1441159916), p. 170 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-krondl_34-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-krondl_34-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-krondl_34-2) Michael Krondl, *[The Taste of Conquest: The Rise and Fall of the Three Great Cities of Spice](/source/The_Taste_of_Conquest%3A_The_Rise_and_Fall_of_the_Three_Great_Cities_of_Spice)*, 2007, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780345480835](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780345480835), p. 6 1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** Shelef, L.A. (1984). "Antimicrobial Effects of Spices". *Journal of Food Safety*. **6** (1): 29–44. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1111/j.1745-4565.1984.tb00477.x](https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1745-4565.1984.tb00477.x). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-GE714_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-GE714_37-1) Host: [Alton Brown](/source/Alton_Brown) (January 14, 2004). "[Spice Capades](/source/List_of_Good_Eats_episodes#Season_7)". [*Good Eats*](/source/Good_Eats). Season 7. Episode 14. Food Network. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-40)** Van Dorena, Jane M.; Daria Kleinmeiera; Thomas S. Hammack; Ann Westerman (June 2013). ["Prevalence, serotype diversity, and antimicrobial resistance of Salmonella in imported shipments of spice offered for entry to the United States, FY2007–FY2009"](https://zenodo.org/record/1258953). *Food Microbiology*. **34** (2): 239–251. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.fm.2012.10.002](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.fm.2012.10.002). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [23541190](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23541190). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190616194240/https://zenodo.org/record/1258953) from the original on June 16, 2019. Retrieved June 16, 2019. Shipments of imported spices offered for entry to the United States were sampled during the fiscal years 2007–2009. The mean shipment prevalence for Salmonella was 0.066 (95% CI 0.057–0.076) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-NYT82713_41-0)** Gardiner Harris (August 27, 2013). ["Salmonella in Spices Prompts Changes in Farming"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/world/asia/farmers-change-over-spices-link-to-food-ills.html). *The New York Times*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130829170450/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/world/asia/farmers-change-over-spices-link-to-food-ills.html) from the original on August 29, 2013. Retrieved August 28, 2013. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** Calucci, L.; Pinzino, C.; Zandomeneghi, M.; Capocchi, A.; Ghiringhelli, S.; Saviozzi, F.; Tozzi, S.; Galleschi, L. (2003). "Effects of gamma-irradiation on the free radical and antioxidant contents in nine aromatic herbs and spices". *Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry*. **51** (4): 927–34. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2003JAFC...51..927C](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JAFC...51..927C). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1021/jf020739n](https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf020739n). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [12568551](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12568551). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Myths about Food Irradiation"](https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation). *Center for Consumer Research*. June 28, 2017. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220730162900/https://ccr.ucdavis.edu/food-irradiation/myths-about-food-irradiation) from the original on July 30, 2022. Retrieved July 30, 2022. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** ["Production of Spice by countries"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110713020710/http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx). [UN Food & Agriculture Organization](/source/FAO). 2011. Archived from [the original](http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx) on July 13, 2011. Retrieved December 20, 2013. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** ["67.220: Spices and condiments. Food additives"](http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on). *[International Organization for Standardization](/source/International_Organization_for_Standardization)*. 2009. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20110606151414/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=67&ICS2=220&development=on) from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2009. ## Sources - [Davidson, Alan](/source/Alan_Davidson_(food_writer)); [Jaine, Tom](/source/Tom_Jaine) (2014). *[The Oxford Companion to Food](/source/The_Oxford_Companion_to_Food)* (3rd ed.). [Oxford University Press](/source/Oxford_University_Press). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780191756276](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191756276). ## Further reading ### Books - Czarra, Fred (2009). [*Spices: A Global History*](https://archive.org/details/spicesglobalhist0000czar). Reaktion Books. p. [128](https://archive.org/details/spicesglobalhist0000czar/page/128). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-86189-426-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86189-426-7). Retrieved April 1, 2026. - [Dalby, Andrew](/source/Andrew_Dalby) (2000). *Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices*. University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-23674-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-23674-5). - [Freedman, Paul](/source/Paul_Freedman) (2008). *Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination*. Yale University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-300-21131-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-21131-3). - [Keay, John](/source/John_Keay) (2006). *The Spice Route: A History*. John Murray. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7195-6199-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6199-3). - Miller, James Innes (1969). *The spice trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B.C. to A.D. 641*. Oxford: Clarendon P. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-814264-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814264-5). - Morton, Timothy (2006). *The Poetics of Spice: Romantic Consumerism and the Exotic*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-02666-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-02666-6). - Seidemann, Johannes (2005). *World Spice Plants: Economic Usage, Botany, Taxonomy*. Springer. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-540-22279-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-22279-8). - [Turner, Jack](/source/Jack_Turner_(writer)) (2004). [*Spice: The History of a Temptation*](https://archive.org/details/spicehistoryofte00turn_0). Knopf. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-375-40721-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-40721-5). Retrieved April 1, 2026. ## External links - Media related to [Spice](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Spice) at Wikimedia Commons - [Cookbook:Spices and herbs](https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Spices_and_herbs) at Wikibooks - The dictionary definition of [*spice*](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/spice) at Wiktionary v t e Culinary herbs and spices Herbs Angelica Basil Holy Thai Lemon Bay leaf Indian bay leaf (tejpat) Boldo Borage Chervil Chives garlic / Chinese Cicely Coriander leaf / Cilantro Bolivian Vietnamese (rau răm) Culantro Cress Curry leaf Dill Epazote Hemp Hoja santa Houttuynia cordata (giấp cá) Hyssop Jimbu Kinh gioi (Vietnamese balm) Kkaennip Lavender Lemon balm Lemon grass Lemon myrtle Lemon verbena Limnophila aromatica (rice-paddy herb) Lovage Marjoram Mint Mugwort Mitsuba Oregano Parsley Perilla Rosemary Rue Sage Savory Sanshō leaf Shiso Sorrel Tarragon Thyme Woodruff Spices Aonori Ajwain Alligator pepper Allspice Amchoor Anise Asafoetida Black pepper Brazilian pepper Camphor Caraway Cardamom black Cassia Celery powder Celery seed Charoli Chenpi Chili Chili powder Cayenne Chipotle Crushed red pepper Jalapeño New Mexico Tabasco Cultivars Cinnamon Clove Coriander seed Cubeb Cumin Nigella sativa Bunium persicum Deulkkae Dill / Dill seed Fennel Fenugreek blue Fingerroot Galangal greater lesser Garlic Ginger Aromatic ginger Golpar Grains of paradise Grains of Selim Horseradish Japanese pricklyash Juniper berry Kokum Korarima Dried lime Liquorice Litsea cubeba Long pepper Mango-ginger Mastic Mahleb Mustard black brown white Nigella Njangsa Nutmeg Onion powder Paprika Peruvian pepper Pomegranate seed Poppy seed Radhuni Rose Saffron Sarsaparilla Sassafras Sesame Shiso Sichuan pepper (huājiāo) Star anise Sumac Tamarind Tasmanian pepper Tonka bean Turmeric Uzazi Vanilla Voatsiperifery Wasabi Yuzu zest Zedoary Zereshk Zest Blends Adjika Advieh Baharat Beau monde seasoning Berbere Bouquet garni Buknu Chaat masala Chaunk Cinnamon sugar Crab boil Curry powder Doubanjiang Douchi Duqqa Fines herbes Five-spice powder Garam masala Garlic powder Garlic salt Gochujang Harissa Hawaij Herbes de Provence Húng lìu Idli podi Italian seasoning Jamaican jerk spice Khmeli suneli Lemon pepper Mitmita Mixed spice Montreal steak seasoning Mulling spices Old Bay Seasoning Panch phoron Persillade Powder-douce Pumpkin pie spice Qâlat daqqa Quatre épices Ras el hanout Recado rojo Sharena sol Shichimi Tabil Tajin Tandoori masala Thuna paha Vadouvan Yuzu koshō Za'atar Lists Culinary By region Australian Bangladeshi Indian Pakistani Related topics Chinese herbology Herbal tea Marination Seasoning Spice rub v t e Cuisines Continental African North West list Pan-American Caribbean North South list Asian Caucasian Central Levantine South North Indian South Indian list European Balkan Central Eastern Caucasian list Oceanian Australian New Zealand Intercontinental Global Latin American Mediterranean Middle Eastern National and (regional) Afghan Albanian Algerian 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flowers Sago palm queen Sassafras filé powder root beer Saw palmetto Wild ginseng Wild onions Bear garlic Canada onion Crow garlic Twincrest onion Pacific mountain onion Ramps Mushrooms Bare-toothed russula Bay bolete Birch bolete Cep Chanterelle Honey mushroom Lingzhi (reishi) Matsutake Morel Oyster mushroom Parasol mushroom Red cap Saffron milk cap Slippery jack Truffle Yellow knight Nuts spices Allspice Areca nut Bay leaf Black pepper Brazil nut Cinnamon Clove Hazelnut Malva nut Nutmeg Pine nut Vanilla Oil waxes Allanblackia Babassu Bacuri Candlenut Capuacu Carnauba Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana) Cocoa butter Eucalyptol Eucalyptus Illipe Japan wax Kokum Kombo Kpangnan Kusum Mafura Mahua Mango butter Murumuru Nagkesar Palm (kernel) Phulwara Pilu Pongamia Sal-seed (Shorea robusta) Sandalwood Shea butter Tamanu Tea-seed Tea-tree Tucuma Ucuuba Vateria indica Resins Benzoin Birch tar Camphor Creosote Frankincense Gamboge Kauri Lacquer Mastic Myrrh Pine tar Pitch Rosin Turpentine Varnish Sap / gum / etc. Birch syrup Chicle chewing gum Coconut sugar Date sugar Fruit syrup Gum arabic Gutta-percha Kino Latex Maple sugar Maple syrup Palm sugar Palm wine akpeteshie ogogoro Rubber Spruce gum Other Amadou Bamboo edible musical instruments textiles Birch bark Birch beer Cork Ferns Forage Gambier Moss Natural dyes henna Peat Quinine Rattan Shellac Tanbark tannin Tendu leaves Thatching Vegetable ivory Willow bark Related Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry) Forest farming / gardening Honey hunting Indian forest produce Mushroom hunting Naval stores Resin extraction Rubber tapping Wildcrafting Category Commons Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Japan Czech Republic Israel Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland Yale LUX --- Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Spice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spice?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.