# Sonom

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{{about|the king of the rGyalrong people|other people with the same Tibetan name|Sonam}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Sonom
| image        = 
| succession   = lord-lama of [Chuchen (Greater Jinchuan)](/source/Chiefdom_of_Chuchen)
| moretext     = 
| reign        = {{circa}} 1766 – 1776
| coronation   = 
| predecessor  = Langkya
| successor    = ''annexed by Qing China''
| spouse       = 
| father       = Langkya
| mother       = Atsang
| birth_name   = 
| birth_date   = Unknown
| birth_place  = [Chuchen](/source/Chiefdom_of_Chuchen)
| death_date   = {{circa}} June 13–14, 1776 {{executed}}
| death_place  = [Beijing](/source/Beijing), [Qing China](/source/Qing_China)
}}
{{Infobox Tibetan-Chinese
|tc=索諾木
|s=索诺木
|p=Suǒnuòmù
|t=བསོད་ནམས
|w=bSod-nams<ref name=Entenmannp4>Entenmann, p. 4.</ref>
}}
'''Sonom''' (died {{circa}} June 13–14, 1776) was a chieftain of the [rGyalrong people](/source/rGyalrong_people) in [China](/source/Qing_dynasty). He was the lord-lama of [Greater Jinchuan](/source/Chiefdom_of_Chuchen).<ref name=TheobaldWarFinancep20>Theobald, Ulrich. ''War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776)'' (Monies, Markets, and Finance in East Asia, 1600-1900). [BRILL](/source/Brill_Publishers), July 11, 2013. {{ISBN|9004255672}}, 9789004255678. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DUodAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20].</ref> He was executed after his January 1776 defeat in the [Jinchuan campaigns](/source/Jinchuan_campaigns).

==Family==
Sonom was the fourth son of Langkya {{#tag:ref|''Langkya'': {{zh|c=郎卡|p=Lángkǎ|w=Lang-k'a}}|group=note}}, who was the previous ruler of Greater Jinchuan. Sonom's mother was Atsang {{#tag:ref|''Atsang'': {{zh|c=阿倉|p=Ācāng|w=A-ts'ang|labels=no}}|group=note}},<ref name=TheobaldBorderp60>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 60 (PDF 70/458). "Senggesang was supported by two of his relatives in Greater Jinchuan, Sonom 索諾木 and Langyka, who both wrote official reports to the imperial court to defend their aggressions." and "Langkya in Greater Jinchuan died from a disease, allegedly likewise caused by an evil spell mantra cast by the king of Gebshidza. His heir was his fourth son Sonom, aged 19 ''sui'',<sup>132</sup> and therefore assisted by his mother Atsang 阿倉 and his aunt Atsing 阿青."</ref> and his eldest brother was Slob dpon rgyal bdak {{#tag:ref|''Slob dpon rgyal bdak'' or ''Shaloben Gangdak'': {{zh|first=t|t=莎羅奔岡達克|s=莎罗奔冈达克|p=Shāluóbēn Gāngdákè|w=Sha-lo-pen Kang-ta-k'o|labels=no}}|group=note}}.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp83>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 83 (PDF 93/458).</ref>

According to the ''Jinchuan suoji'' ("Petty Notes on Jinchuan") {{#tag:ref|''Jinchuan suoji'': {{zh|first=t|t=金川瑣記|s=金川琐记|p=Jīnchuān Suǒjì|w=Chin-ch'uan So-chi|labels=no}} - It is within ''Congshu jicheng'' ({{zh|first=t|t=叢書集成|s=丛书集成|p=Cóngshū Jíchéng|w=Ts'ung-shu Chi-ch'eng|labels=no}}) Volume 3199<ref name=TheobaldBorderp431>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 431 (PDF 441/458), the Bibliography section.</ref>|group=note}} 3 by Li Xinheng {{#tag:ref|''Li Xinheng'': {{zh|c=李心衡|p=Lǐ Xīnhéng|w=Li Hsin-heng|labels=no}}|group=note}}, a paternal aunt of Sonom was the wife of [Skal bzang](/source/Skal_bzang) {{#tag:ref|''Skal bzang'' or ''Senggesang'': {{zh|c=僧格桑|p=Sēnggésāng|w=Seng-ko-sang|labels=no}}|group=note}}. Langkya's daughter married Skal bzang. Therefore, Langkya is also Sonom's great-uncle.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp59>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 59 (PDF 69/458). "<sup>130</sup> ''Pingding Liang Jinchuan fanglüe'' 5, fol. 11b-12a (QL 32/2/wushen). The ''Jinchuan suoji'' 3, p. 26, writes that Senggesang’s wife was the aunt (gu 姑) of Sonom, which would mean that Langkya was Sonom’s great- uncle."</ref>

Sonom's grandfather was Leržirhi {{#tag:ref|''Leržirhi'' {{zh|first=t|t=勒爾日爾習|s=勒尔日尔习|p=Lèěrrìěrxí|w=Le-erh-jih-erh-hsi|labels=no}}|group=note}}.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp61>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 61 (PDF 71/458). "Sonom offered the excuse that the king of Gebshidza had planned
to kill his nephew Dundju Wangdjar 敦珠汪札爾 and[...]" and "The Jinchuan suoji 3, p. 26, says that the murderer was Sonom’s grandfather (zu 祖) Leržirhi 勒爾日爾習."</ref> One of Sonom's aunts was Atsing {{#tag:ref|''Atsing'': {{zh|c=阿青|p=Āqīng|w=A-ch'ing|labels=no}}|group=note}}.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp60/> He had a nephew, Dundju Wangdjar{{#tag:ref|''Dundju Wangdjar'' {{zh|first=t|t=敦珠汪札爾|s=敦珠汪札尔|p=Dūnzhū Wāngzháěr|w=Tun-chu Wang-cha-erh|labels=no}}|group=note}}.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp61/>

==Career==
Sonom, along with Langyka, supported Skal bzang's military campaigns. They argued in favor of their actions in reports they sent to the Chinese government.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp60/> At 19 ''sui'' Sonom became the leader of Greater Jichuan after Langkya's death.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp60/> At the beginning of his rule,<ref>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771 – 1776) Economic, Social and Political Aspects of an Important Qing Period Border War]," p. 30 (PDF 40/458). "6.2. Even Sonom, the rebel leader, had been assisted by his mother and an aunt at the beginning of his reign as lord of Greater Jinchuan (see below)."</ref> Atsang and Atsing assisted him.<ref name=TheobaldBorderp60/> Ulrich Theobald, author of "The Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771 – 1776) Economic, Social and Political Aspects of an Important Qing Period Border War", wrote that Sonom "hesitated a long time before promising his support to Lesser Jinchuan during the second Jinchuan war."<ref name=TheobaldBorderp13>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 13 (PDF 23/458).</ref>

===Death===
In January 1776 his forces were defeated in the [Jinchuan wars](/source/Jinchuan_campaigns) of the [Ten Great Campaigns](/source/Ten_Great_Campaigns). He and his family were presented to the [Emperor of China](/source/Emperor_of_China).<ref name=TheobaldWarFinancep20/>

Circa June 13–14, 1776, Sonom and other rebel leaders were executed by ''[lingchi](/source/lingchi)''. His skull was made into a ''[kapala](/source/kapala)'', his tibia was made into a ''[kangling](/source/kangling)'',<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.docin.com/p-1704830160.html | title =乾隆四十一年制作“嘎布拉”记事录 |author=中国第一历史档案馆 |lang=zh}}</ref> both were preserved and kept in a royal Buddhist temple in Beijing.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.doc88.com/p-9425723616813.html | title =嘎布拉法器与乾隆皇帝的藏传佛教信仰 |author=王家鹏 |lang=zh}}</ref> Of his family, some of the women were enslaved and given to lords of the Ölöd Mongol and Solun. Other women and the children were sentenced to [life imprisonment](/source/life_imprisonment) ({{zh|first=t|t=永遠監禁|s=永远监禁|p=Yǒngyuǎn jiānjìn|w=Yung-yüan Chien-chin|labels=no}}).<ref name=TheobaldBorderp84>Theobald, "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign]," p. 84 (PDF 94/458).</ref>

==Misidentification as a Hmong king==
The 1988 book ''[Hmong: History of a People](/source/Hmong%3A_History_of_a_People)'' by H. Keith Quincy stated that Sonom was a [Hmong](/source/Hmong_people) king.<ref name=Entenmannp1>Entenmann, p. 1.</ref> The book by Quincy, cited by others, stated that in 1772 Sonom had defeated a Chinese army and that Sonom had held the Chinese government forces at bay for four years. According to the Quincy account, ultimately Sonom surrendered when the Chinese promised that his family would survive if he did so. Instead he and his family were executed. Paul Hillmer, the author of the ''A People’s History of the Hmong'', wrote that "This compelling story helps set a dramatic tone for discussing the Hmong's life of hardship in China".<ref name=HillmerPT20>Hillmer, Paul. ''A People’s History of the Hmong'' (UPCC book collections on [Project MUSE](/source/Project_MUSE)). [Minnesota Historical Society](/source/Minnesota_Historical_Society), 2010. {{ISBN|0873517903}}, 9780873517904. [Google Books](/source/Google_Books) [https://books.google.com/books?id=9VS4O_dGtdEC&pg=PT20 Page unstated PT20].</ref>

Robert Entenmann, author of "The Myth of Sonom, the Hmong King," stated that Sonom in fact was not Hmong.<ref name=Entenmannp4/> Entenmann argued that the use of the word "[Miao](/source/Miao_(disambiguation))" was imprecise during the time when [Jean Joseph Marie Amiot](/source/Jean_Joseph_Marie_Amiot) wrote an account of the [Jinchuan Wars](/source/Jinchuan_Wars),<ref name=Entenmannp5>Entenmann, p. 5.</ref> since the [Qing government](/source/Qing_dynasty) under the [Qianlong Emperor](/source/Qianlong_Emperor) referred to all ethnic minorities in Southwest China as "Miao people" ({{zh|c=苗民|p=Miáomín|w=Miao-min|labels=no}}).<ref name=Entenmannp6>Entenmann, p. 6.</ref> Amiot uses "Miao-tsée" ({{zh|c=苗子|p=Miáozi|w=Miao-tzu|labels=no}}) to refer to the [Gyalrong people](/source/Gyalrong_people),<ref name=Entenmannp5/> of which Sonom was a part.<ref name=Entenmannp4>Entenmann, p. 4.</ref> This is distinct from the word "Miaozu" ({{zh|c=苗族|p=Miáozú|w=Miao-tsu|labels=no}}).<ref name=Entenmannp14>Entenmann, p. 14. "<sup>30</sup> [Herbert A. Giles](/source/Herbert_A._Giles), ''[A Chinese-English Dictionary](/source/A_Chinese-English_Dictionary)'', 2nd ed. (Shanghai: [Kelly & Walsh](/source/Kelly_%26_Walsh), 1912), p. 973. "Miaozi 苗子" — which has a pejorative connotation — must be distinguished from "Miaozu 苗族" (Miao nationality), which does not." and "<sup>33</sup> Nicholas Tapp's harsh criticism of the book as "extraordinarily inaccurate and utterly misleading" is fully justified. See his review essay, "The State of Hmong Studies," in Nicholas Tapp, Jean Michaud, Christian Culas, and Gary Yia Lee, eds. ''Hmong/Miao in Asia'' ([Chiangmai](/source/Chiangmai): [Silkworm Books](/source/Silkworm_Books), 2004). "</ref>

[François Marie Savina](/source/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marie_Savina), in ''[Histoire des Miao](/source/Histoire_des_Miao)'', reprinted the account by Amiot.<ref name=Entenmannp5/> Entenmann stated that Savina made the error confusing the Gyalrong for the Hmong because he "was unfamiliar with Chinese history and the subtleties of Chinese vocabulary" even though he had studied Chinese.<ref name=Entenmannp6>Entenmann, p. 6.</ref> The word "Miao" in general was also used to refer to Hmong people.<ref name=Entenmannp5/> Entenmann stated that the book ''Hmong: History of a People'' "does not offer a reliable history of the Hmong in China" because Quincy was "evidently not trained as a historian" and did not read Chinese, so he introduced the error made by Savina.<ref name=Entenmannp6/> Jean Mottin also included the Savina account in ''The History of the Hmong (Meo)''.<ref name=Entenmannp12>Entenmann, p. 12.</ref>

[Anne Fadiman](/source/Anne_Fadiman) in her book ''[The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down](/source/The_Spirit_Catches_You_and_You_Fall_Down)'' cited Quincy and stated that Sonom was Hmong. Entenmann wrote that because of the reliance on Quincy's book, Fadiman's book propagated the mistaken idea that Sonom was a Hmong king.<ref name=Entenmannp1/>

Hillmer wrote that Entenmann's article "has largely proved[...]that Sonom was not Hmong".<ref name=HillmerPT20/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
* Entenmann, Robert ([St. Olaf College](/source/St._Olaf_College)). "{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20051219074933/http://hmongstudies.org/EntenmannHSJ6.pdf The Myth of Sonom, the Hmong King]}}" ({{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183723/http://hmongstudies.org/EntenmannHSJ6.pdf Archive]}}). ''[Hmong Studies Journal](/source/Hmong_Studies_Journal)'', Volume 6, 2005. p.&nbsp;1. Retrieved on July 11, 2014.
* Theobald, Ulrich. "[https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y The Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771 – 1776) Economic, Social and Political Aspects of an Important Qing Period Border War]" ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115534/https://publikationen.uni-tuebingen.de/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10900/46846/pdf/Theobald.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Archive]) (PhD thesis). [University of Tübingen](/source/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen), 2010.

==Citations==
{{reflist|2}}

Category:1776 deaths
Category:18th-century monarchs in Asia
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:Tibetan kings
Category:People executed by the Qing dynasty
Category:18th-century executions by China

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Sonom](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonom) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonom?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.