# Soil fertility

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Ability of a soil to sustain agricultural plant growth

Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master horizons, and lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major horizons—the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be buried. The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a significant loss of minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.

Desert east of [Birdsville](/source/Birdsville), [Australia](/source/Australia). Much of Australia is [sparsely populated](/source/Population_density) as its desert soils are mostly infertile; thus unable to support larger scale human habitation.[1][2]

**Soil fertility** refers to the ability of [soil](/source/Soil) to sustain agricultural [plant growth](/source/Plant_growth), i.e. to provide plant [habitat](/source/Habitat) and result in sustained and consistent [yields](/source/Crop_yield) of high quality (see also [soil health](/source/Soil_health)).[3] A fertile soil has the following properties:[4]

- The ability to supply [essential plant nutrients](/source/Plant_nutrition) and water in adequate amounts and proportions for plant growth and reproduction; and

- The absence of [toxic substances](/source/Phytotoxicity) which may inhibit plant growth e.g. Fe2+ which leads to nutrient [toxicity](/source/Toxicity).

The following properties contribute to soil fertility in most situations:

- Sufficient soil depth for adequate root growth and [water retention](/source/Soil_water_(retention));

- Good internal [drainage](/source/Drainage), allowing sufficient [soil aeration](/source/Soil_aeration) for optimal root growth (although some plants, such as [rice](/source/Rice), tolerate [waterlogging](/source/Waterlogging_(agriculture)));

- Topsoil or [horizon O](/source/Soil_horizon) is with sufficient [soil organic matter](/source/Soil_organic_matter) for healthy [soil structure](/source/Soil_structure) and [soil moisture](/source/Soil_moisture) retention;

- [Soil pH](/source/Soil_pH) in the range 5.5 to 7.0 (suitable for most plants but some prefer or tolerate more acid or alkaline conditions);

- Adequate concentrations of [essential plant nutrients](/source/Plant_nutrition) in plant-available forms;

- Presence of a range of [microorganisms](/source/Soil_life) that support plant growth.

In lands used for [agriculture](/source/Agriculture) and other human activities, maintenance of soil fertility typically requires the use of [soil conservation](/source/Soil_conservation) practices. This is because [soil erosion](/source/Soil_erosion) and other forms of [soil degradation](/source/Soil_degradation) generally result in a decline in [soil quality](/source/Soil_quality) with respect to one or more of the aspects indicated above.

Soil fertility and quality of land have been impacted by the effects of [colonialism](/source/Colonialism) and [slavery](/source/Slavery) both in the U.S. and globally.[5] The introduction of harmful land practices such as intensive and non-prescribed burnings and [deforestation](/source/Deforestation) by [colonists](/source/Colonist) created long-lasting negative results to the environment.[6] Also, the rise of [intensive farming](/source/Intensive_farming) and intensive [sylviculture](/source/Sylviculture) contributed to the collapse of [soil quality](/source/Soil_quality) in [developed countries](/source/Developed_country).[7]

Soil fertility and depletion have different origins and consequences in various parts of the world. The intentional creation of [dark earth](/source/Terra_preta) in the [Amazon](/source/Amazon_rainforest) promoted the tight relationship between [indigenous](/source/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas) communities and their land during [Pre-Columbian](/source/Pre-Columbian_era) times and are still searched as areas of high fertility.[8] In [African](/source/Africa) and [Middle Eastern](/source/Middle_East) regions, humans and the environment are also altered due to [soil depletion](/source/Soil_Depletion).[9]

## Soil fertilization

Main article: [Fertilizer](/source/Fertilizer)

[Bioavailable](/source/Bioavailability) [phosphorus](/source/Phosphorus) (available to soil life) is the element in soil that is most often lacking, in particular in humid tropical soils.[10] [Nitrogen](/source/Nitrogen) and [potassium](/source/Potassium) are also needed in substantial amounts.[11] For this reason these three elements are always identified on a commercial fertilizer analysis. For example, a 10-10-15 fertilizer has 10 percent nitrogen, 10 percent available phosphorus (P2O5) and 15 percent water-soluble potassium (K2O). [Sulfur](/source/Sulfur) is the fourth element that may be identified in a commercial analysis—e.g. 21-0-0-24 which would contain 21% nitrogen and 24% sulfate.

Inorganic fertilizers are generally less labour intensive and have higher concentrations of nutrients than organic fertilizers.[12] Also, since nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium generally must be in the inorganic forms to be taken up by plants, inorganic fertilizers are generally immediately bioavailable to plants without modification.[13] However, studies suggest that chemical fertilizers have adverse health impacts on humans including the development of [chronic disease](/source/Chronic_disease) from the [toxins](/source/Toxin).[14] As for the environment, over-reliance on inorganic fertilizers disrupts the natural nutrient balance in the soil, resulting in lower [soil quality](/source/Soil_quality), loss of [organic matter](/source/Organic_matter), and higher chances for [erosion](/source/Erosion) in the soil.[15]

Additionally, the water-soluble [nitrate](/source/Nitrate) nitrogen in inorganic fertilizers does not provide for the long-term needs of the plant and creates [water pollution](/source/Water_pollution).[16] [Slow-release fertilizers](/source/Slow-release_fertilizer) may reduce [leaching](/source/Leaching_(agriculture)) loss of nutrients and may make the nutrients that they provide available over a longer period of time.[17]

Soil fertility is a complex process that involves the constant [cycling of nutrients](/source/Nutrient_cycle) between organic and inorganic forms. As plant material and animal wastes are decomposed by micro-organisms, they release inorganic nutrients to the soil solution, a process referred to as [mineralization](/source/Mineralization_(soil_science)). Those nutrients may then undergo further transformations which may be aided or enabled by soil [micro-organisms](/source/Microorganism). Like plants, many micro-organisms require or preferentially use inorganic forms of nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium and will compete with plants for these nutrients,[18] tying up the nutrients in microbial [biomass](/source/Biomass), a process often called [immobilization](/source/Immobilization_(soil_science)). The balance between immobilization and mineralization processes depends on the balance and availability of major nutrients and organic carbon to soil microorganisms.[19][20] Natural processes such as [lightning strikes](/source/Lightning_strike) may fix atmospheric nitrogen by converting it to [nitric oxide](/source/Nitric_oxide) (NO) and [nitrogen dioxide](/source/Nitrogen_dioxide) (NO2).[21] In soil, nitrogen fixation is performed by free-living and symbiotic bacteria.[22][23] [Denitrification](/source/Denitrification) occurs generally under [anaerobic](/source/Hypoxia_(environmental)) conditions (e.g. [flooding](/source/Flooding), [waterlogging](/source/Waterlogging_(agriculture)), [particulate organic matter](/source/Particulate_organic_matter), [soil aggregates](/source/Soil_aggregate)) in the presence of [denitrifying bacteria](/source/Denitrifying_bacteria),[24][25] but it may also occur in aerobic environments where [oxygen](/source/Oxygen) concentration is fluctuating and reduced carbon is available.[26] Nutrient [cations](/source/Cation), including [potassium](/source/Potassium) and many [micronutrients](/source/Micronutrient), are held in relatively strong [electrostatic](/source/Electrostatics) interaction bonds with the negatively charged portions of the soil ([clay](/source/Clay_mineral), [humus](/source/Humus)) in a process known as [cation exchange](/source/Cation-exchange_capacity) which has a prominent influence on soil fertility.[27]

[Phosphorus](/source/Phosphorus) is a primary factor of soil fertility as it is essential for [cell division](/source/Cell_division) and [plant development](/source/Plant_development), especially in [seedlings](/source/Seedling) and young plants.[28][29] However, phosphorus is becoming increasingly harder to find and its reserves are starting to be depleted due to its excessive use as a [fertilizer](/source/Fertilizer).[30] The widespread use of phosphorus in fertilizers has led to [pollution](/source/Pollution) and [eutrophication](/source/Eutrophication).[31][32] The term [peak phosphorus](/source/Peak_phosphorus) has been coined, due to the limited occurrence of [rock phosphate](/source/Rock_phosphate) in the world, estimating that U.S. peak phosphorus occurred in 1988 and for the world in 1989.[33]

A wide variety of materials have been described as [soil conditioners](/source/Soil_conditioner) due to their ability to improve [soil quality](/source/Soil_quality), including [biochar](/source/Biochar), offering multiple [soil health](/source/Soil_health) benefits.[34]

[Food waste](/source/Food_loss_and_waste) [compost](/source/Compost) was found to have better [soil improvement](/source/Soil_improvement) than [manure](/source/Manure) based compost.[35]

## Light and CO2 limitations

[Photosynthesis](/source/Photosynthesis) is the process whereby plants use [light energy](/source/Light_energy) to drive [chemical reactions](/source/Chemical_reaction) which convert CO2 into [sugars](/source/Sugar). As such, all plants require access to both light and [carbon dioxide](/source/Carbon_dioxide) to produce energy, grow and reproduce.

While typically limited by nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, low levels of carbon dioxide can also act as a limiting factor on plant growth. Peer-reviewed and published scientific studies have shown that increasing CO2 is highly effective at promoting plant growth up to levels over 300 ppm. Further increases in CO2 can, to a very small degree, continue to increase net photosynthetic output.[36]

## Soil depletion

[Soil depletion](/source/Soil_Depletion) occurs when the components which contribute to fertility are removed and not replaced, and the conditions which support soil's fertility are not maintained. This leads to poor crop yields, now becoming a global problem.[37] In agriculture, soil depletion can be due to excessively [intensive cultivation](/source/Intensive_cultivation) and inadequate [soil management](/source/Soil_management).[38] Depletion may occur through a variety of other effects, including over-[tillage](/source/Tillage) (which damages [soil structure](/source/Soil_structure)),[39] overuse of nutrient inputs which leads to mining of the [soil nutrient bank](/source/Nutrient_management),[40] and [salinization](/source/Soil_salinity) of soil.[41]

### Colonial impacts on soil depletion

Soil fertility can be severely challenged when [land-use changes](/source/Land-use_change) rapidly. For example, in [Colonial New England](/source/Colonial_New_England), [colonists](/source/Colonist) made a number of decisions that depleted the soils, including: allowing herd animals to wander freely, not replenishing soils with manure, and a sequence of events that led to erosion.[42] [William Cronon](/source/William_Cronon) wrote that "...the long-term effect was to put those soils in jeopardy. The removal of the forest, the increase in destructive floods, the soil compaction and close-cropping wrought by grazing animals, ploughing—all served to increase erosion." Cronon continues, explaining, "Where mowing was unnecessary and grazing among living trees was possible, settlers saved labor by simply burning the forest undergrowth...and turning loose their cattle...In at least one ill-favored area, the inhabitants of neighboring towns burned so frequently and graze so intensively that...the timber was greatly injured, and the land became hard to subdue...In the long run, cattle tended to encourage the growth of woody, thorn-bearing plants which they could not eat and which, once established, were very difficult to remove". These practices were methods of simplifying labor for colonial settlers in new lands when they were not familiar with traditional [Indigenous](/source/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas) agricultural methods. Those Indigenous communities were not consulted but rather forced out of their [homelands](/source/Homeland) so European settlers could commodify their resources. The practice of intensive land burning and turning loose cattle ruined soil fertility and prohibited [sustainable](/source/Sustainability) crop growth.[42]

While colonists utilized fire to clear land, certain [prescribed burning](/source/Prescribed_burning) practices are common and valuable to increase [biodiversity](/source/Biodiversity) and in turn, benefit soil fertility.[43] However, without consideration of the intensity, seasonality, and frequency of the burns, the conservation of biodiversity and the overall health of the soil can be negatively impacted by fire.[44]

In addition to [soil erosion](/source/Soil_erosion) through using too much fire,[45] colonial agriculture also resulted in [topsoil depletion](/source/Topsoil_depletion).[5] Topsoil depletion occurs when the nutrient-rich organic [topsoil](/source/Topsoil), which takes hundreds to thousands of years to build up under natural conditions,[46] is eroded or depleted of its original organic material. The [Dust Bowl](/source/Dust_Bowl) in the [Great Plains](/source/Great_Plains) of North America is a great example of this with about one-half of the original topsoil of the Great Plains having disappeared since the beginning of agricultural production there in the 1880s.[47] Outside of the context of colonialism, many past civilizations' collapses can be attributed to topsoil depletion.[48]

### Soil depletion and enslavement

As historian [David Silkenat](/source/David_Silkenat) explains, the goals of Southern plantation and [slave](/source/Slavery) owners, instead of measuring [productivity](/source/Productivity) based on outputs per acre, were to maximize the amount of labor that could be extracted from the enslaved [workforce](/source/Workforce). The landscape was seen as disposable, and the African slaves were seen as expendable. Once these Southern farmers forced slaves to engage in mass [deforestation](/source/Deforestation), they would discard the land and move towards more fertile prospects. The forced slave practices created extensive destruction on the land. The environmental impact included draining [swamps](/source/Swamp), clearing forests for [monocropping](/source/Monocropping) and fuel [steamships](/source/Steamship), and introducing [invasive species](/source/Invasive_species), all leading to fragile [ecosystems](/source/Ecosystem). In the aftermath, these ecosystems left hillsides eroded, rivers clogged with sterile soil, and extinction of native species. [Silkenat](/source/David_Silkenat) summarizes this phenomenon of the relationship between enslavement and soil, "Although typically treated separately, slavery and the environment naturally intersect in complex and powerful ways, leaving lasting effects from the period of emancipation through modern-day reckonings with racial justice…the land too fell victim to the slave owner's lash".[49]

### Global Soil Depletion

One of the most widespread occurrences of soil depletion as of 2008[\[update\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Soil_fertility&action=edit) is in tropical zones where [nutrient](/source/Nutrient) content of soils is low.[40] The depletion of soil has affected the state of plant life and crops in agriculture in many countries.[37] In the [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) for example, many countries find it difficult to grow produce because of [drought](/source/Drought),[50] lack of soil ([soil erosion](/source/Soil_erosion)),[51] and lack of [irrigation](/source/Irrigation).[52] The [Middle East](/source/Middle_East) has three countries that indicate a decline in crop production, the highest rates of productivity decline being found in hilly and dryland areas.[53]

Many countries in Africa also undergo a depletion of fertile soil, in particular in [sub-Saharan Africa](/source/Sub-Saharan_Africa) ([Sahel](/source/Sahel)) under high [population pressure](/source/Population_pressure).[54] In regions of [arid climate](/source/Arid_climate) like [Sudan](/source/Sudan) and the countries that make up the [Sahara Desert](/source/Sahara_Desert), droughts and soil degradation are common, aggravataed by badly-adapted [agricultural practices](/source/Agricultural_practice).[55] Cash crops such as teas, maize, and beans require a high variety and quantity of nutrients in order to grow healthy and sustain population growth.[56] Soil fertility has declined in the farming regions of Africa and the use of artificial and natural [fertilizers](/source/Fertilizer) has been used to regain the nutrients of ground soil.[57]

## Dark Earths

### South America

The details of Indigenous societies prior to European colonization in 1492 within the [Amazonian](/source/Amazon_rainforest) regions of South America, particularly the size of the communities and the depth of interactions with the environment, are continually debated. Central to the debate is the influence of [Dark Earth](/source/Terra_preta). Dark Earth is a type of soil found in the Amazon that has a darker color, higher organic carbon content, and higher fertility than soil in other regions of South America, which makes it highly coveted even today.[58] Dark Earth deposits have been found, through [ethnographic](/source/Ethnography) and [archaeological](/source/Archaeological) studies, to have been created through ancient Indigenous practices by intentional soil management.[59]

[Ethnoarchaeologist](/source/Ethnoarchaeology) Morgan Schmidt outlines how this carbon-rich soil was intentionally created by communities in the Amazon. While Dark Earth, and other anthropic soils, can be found all throughout the world, Amazonian Dark Earth is particularly significant because "it contrasts too sharply with the especially poor fertility of typical highly weathered tropical upland soils in the Amazon". There is much evidence to suggest that the development of ancient agricultural societies in the Amazon was strongly influenced by the formation of Dark Earth. As a result, Amazonian societies benefitted from the dark earth in terms of agricultural success and enhanced food production. Soil analyses have been completed on the modern and ancient [Kuikuro](/source/Kuikuro) Indigenous Territory in the Upper [Xingu River](/source/Xingu_River) basin in southeastern Amazonia through archaeological and ethnographic research to determine the human relation to the soil. The "results demonstrate the intentional creation of dark earth, highlighting how Indigenous knowledge can provide strategies for sustainable rainforest management". Present-day addition of orgnic waste products ([fish](/source/Fish) and [manioc](/source/Manioc) [refuses](/source/Refuse)), [ashes](/source/Ash) and [charcoal](/source/Charcoal) as mounds up to ~50 to 60 cm above the original ground surface by Kuikuro [Amerindians](/source/Amerindians) was hypothesized to be common practice in [Pre-Columbian](/source/Pre-Columbian_era) agriculture.[59] By transforming charcoal in [black carbon](/source/Black_carbon), a source of highly stable [humus](/source/Humus),[60] the grinding and mixing activity of the peregrine [pantropical](/source/Pantropical) [earthworm](/source/Earthworm) *[Pontoscolex corethrurus](/source/Pontoscolex_corethrurus)* adds a natural biological phenomenon to our knowledge of the formation of the fertile Amazonian Dark Earths.[61]

### Africa

In [Egypt](/source/Egypt), earthworms of the [Nile River](/source/Nile_River) Valley contributed to the significant fertility of the soils.[62] As a result, [Cleopatra](/source/Cleopatra) declared the earthworm a sacred animal to be revered and protected by all her subjects. Egyptians were not allowed to remove so much as a single worm from the land of Egypt, and even farmers were not allowed to touch an earthworm for fear of offending the god of fertility.[63] In Ghana and Liberia, it is a long-standing practice to combine different types of waste to create fertile soil that is referred to as African Dark Earths. This soil contains high concentrations of calcium, phosphorus, and carbon.[64]

### North America and Eurasia

Also called [Mollisols](/source/Mollisol), [Chernozems](/source/Chernozem) or [Black Soils](/source/Black_Soil), with a number of variants, Dark Earths are widespread in [North America](/source/North_America) and in a [mid-latitude](/source/Mid-latitude) stretch extending over a large part of Eurasia.[65] The formation of these fertile carbon- and nutrient-rich [zonal soils](/source/Zonal_soil) was longtime attributed to dry [continental climate](/source/Continental_climate) conditions and [steppe](/source/Steppe) or [prairie](/source/Prairie) vegetation (according to [biomes](/source/Biome))[66] until it became admitted that past [human activities](/source/Human_activities) (deposition of domestic and occupational [wastes](/source/Waste), [charred](/source/Charred) residues, biomass [ashes](/source/Ash), [burning](/source/Burning), [fertilisation](/source/Fertilizer)) were a driving factor of Dark Earth formation, and that not only in the [tropics](/source/Tropics).[67] The presence in the A horizon of sand- and silt-size [char](/source/Char_(chemistry)) particles of both wood and herb origin[68] attests for previously forested environments which humans destroyed by fire for the sake of [agriculture](/source/Agriculture) or [hunting](/source/Hunting) of large herbivores after the [Last Glacial Period](/source/Last_Glacial_Period).[69] Whether charcoal was deliberately managed by humans as a [soil conditioner](/source/Soil_conditioner) and whether [earthworm](/source/Earthworm) grinding and mixing of charcoal contributed to the formation of [temperate](/source/Temperate_climate) Dark Earths is still a matter of conjecture, although it has been claimed that [Prehistoric](/source/Prehistory) agriculture favored earthworm abundance for Chernozem formation.[70]

## Humans and soil

[Albert Howard](/source/Albert_Howard) is credited as the first [Westerner](/source/Western_world) to publish Native techniques of [sustainable agriculture](/source/Sustainable_agriculture). As noted by Howard in 1945, "In all future studies of disease we must, therefore, always begin with the soil. This must be gotten into good condition first of all and then the reaction of the soil, the plant, animal, and man observed. Many diseases will then automatically disappear... Soil fertility is the basis of the public health system of the future...". Howard connects the health crises of crops to the impacts of [livestock](/source/Livestock) and [human health](/source/Human_health), ultimately spreading the message that humans must respect and restore the soil for the benefit of the human and non-human world. He continues that [industrial agriculture](/source/Industrial_agriculture) disrupts the delicate [balance of nature](/source/Balance_of_nature) and irrevocably robs the soil of its fertility.[71]

## Irrigation effects

[Irrigation](/source/Irrigation) is a process by which crops are watered by man-made means, such as bringing in water from pipes, [canals](/source/Canal), or [sprinklers](/source/Irrigation_sprinkler). Irrigation is used when the natural [rainfall](/source/Rainfall) patterns of a region are not sustainable enough to maintain crops. Ancient civilizations heavily relied on irrigation and today about 18% of the world's cropland is irrigated.[72] The quality of irrigation water is very important to maintain soil fertility and [tilth](/source/Tilth), and for using more soil depth by the plants.[73] When soil is irrigated with high [alkaline](/source/Alkali) water, unwanted [sodium salts](/source/Sodium_salt) build up in the soil which would make soil draining capacity very poor.[74] So plant roots cannot penetrate deep into the soil for optimum growth in [Alkali soils](/source/Alkali_soils).[75] When soil is [irrigated with low pH (acidic) water](/source/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation), the useful salts (Ca, Mg, K, P, S, etc.) are removed by draining water from the [acidic soil](/source/Soil_pH) and in addition plant-unwanted [aluminium](/source/Aluminium) and [manganese](/source/Manganese) salts are dissolved from the soil, impeding plant growth.[76] When soil is irrigated with high [salinity](/source/Salinity) water or sufficient water is not draining out from the irrigated soil, the soil would convert into [saline soil](/source/Soil_salinity_control) and lose its fertility.[77] Saline water enhances the [turgor pressure](/source/Turgor_pressure) or [osmotic pressure](/source/Osmotic_pressure) requirement which impedes the uptake of water and nutrients by the plant roots.[78]

[Topsoil](/source/Topsoil) loss takes place in [alkali soils](/source/Alkali_soil) due to erosion by rainwater [surface runoff](/source/Surface_runoff) or drainage[79] as they form [colloids](/source/Colloid) (fine mud) in contact with water.[80] Plants absorb water-soluble inorganic salts mostly from the soil for their growth, although some non-neglectable uptake occurs also from rain and aerial spray deposited on the foliage.[81] Soil as such does not lose fertility just by growing crops if [weathering](/source/Weathering) of soil minerals compensate for nutrients exported in [harvest](/source/Harvest).[82] However, it can lose its fertility through the accumulation of unwanted and depletion of wanted inorganic salts by improper irrigation[83] and [acid rain](/source/Acid_rain) water.[84] The fertility of many soils which are not suitable for plant growth can be enhanced many times gradually by providing adequate irrigation water of suitable quality[85] and good drainage from the soil.[86]

## Global distribution

Global distribution of soil types of the [USDA soil taxonomy](/source/USDA_soil_taxonomy) system. [Mollisols](/source/Mollisols), shown here in dark green, are a good (though not the only) indicator of high soil fertility. They coincide to a large extent with the world's major grain producing areas like the North American [Prairie](/source/Prairie) States, the [Pampa](/source/Pampa) and [Gran Chaco](/source/Gran_Chaco) of South America and the [Ukraine](/source/Ukraine)-to-Central Asia [Black Earth](/source/Chernozem) belt.

## See also

- [Arable land](/source/Arable_land)

- [Plaggen soil](/source/Plaggen_soil)

- [Shifting cultivation](/source/Shifting_cultivation)

- [Soil contamination](/source/Soil_contamination)

- [Soil life](/source/Soil_life)

- [Terra preta](/source/Terra_preta)

- [Cation-exchange capacity](/source/Cation-exchange_capacity)

## References

1. **[^](#cite_ref-1)** Kelly, Karina (13 September 1995). ["A chat with Tim Flannery on population control"](https://web.archive.org/web/20100113095438/http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/info/q95-19-5.htm). [Australian Broadcasting Corporation](/source/Australian_Broadcasting_Corporation). Archived from [the original](http://www.abc.net.au/quantum/info/q95-19-5.htm) on 13 January 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Well, Australia has by far the world's least fertile soils.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Grant, Cameron (August 2007). ["Damaged dirt"](https://web.archive.org/web/20110706100423/http://www.1degree.com.au/files/AdvertiserPartworks_Part3_Page8.pdf?download=1&filename=AdvertiserPartworks_Part3_Page8.pdf) (PDF). *[The Advertiser](/source/The_Advertiser_(Adelaide))*. Archived from [the original](http://www.1degree.com.au/files/AdvertiserPartworks_Part3_Page8.pdf?download=1&filename=AdvertiserPartworks_Part3_Page8.pdf) (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Australia has the oldest, most highly weathered soils on the planet.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Xing, Yingying; Wang, Xiukang; Mustafa, Adnan (1 January 2025). ["Exploring the link between soil health and crop productivity"](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoenv.2025.117703). *[Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety](/source/Ecotoxicology_and_Environmental_Safety)*. **289** 117703. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2025EcoES.28917703X](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025EcoES.28917703X). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.117703](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoenv.2025.117703). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [39808880](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39808880).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Soil fertility"](https://web.archive.org/web/20171124155743/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/publicat/faobul4/faobul4/b401.htm). *www.fao.org*. Archived from [the original](http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/publicat/FAOBUL4/FAOBUL4/B401.htm) on 24 November 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2016.

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v t e Soil science History Index Main fields Pedology Edaphology Soil biology Soil microbiology Soil zoology Soil ecology Soil physics Soil mechanics Soil chemistry Environmental soil science Agricultural soil science Soil topics Soil Pedosphere Soil morphology Pedodiversity Soil formation Soil erosion Soil contamination Soil retrogression and degradation Soil compaction Soil compaction (agriculture) Soil sealing Soil salinity Alkali soil Soil pH Soil acidification Soil health Soil life Soil biodiversity Soil quality Soil value Soil fertility Soil resilience Soil color Soil texture Soil structure Pore space in soil Pore water pressure Soil crust Soil horizon Soil biomantle Soil carbon Soil gas Soil respiration Soil organic matter Soil moisture Soil water (retention) Applications Soil conservation Soil management Soil guideline value Soil survey Soil test Soil governance Soil value Soil salinity control Erosion control Agroecology Liming (soil) Related fields Geology Geochemistry Petrology Geomorphology Geotechnical engineering Hydrology Hydrogeology Biogeography Earth materials Archaeology Agricultural science Agrology Societies, Initiatives Australian Society of Soil Science Incorporated Canadian Society of Soil Science Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (India) German Soil Science Society Indian Institute of Soil Science International Union of Soil Sciences International Year of Soil National Society of Consulting Soil Scientists (US) OPAL Soil Centre (UK) Soil Science Society of Poland Soil and Water Conservation Society (US) Soil Science Society of America World Congress of Soil Science Scientific journals Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Plant and Soil Pochvovedenie Soil Research Soil Science Society of America Journal See also Land use Land conversion Land management Vegetation Infiltration (hydrology) Groundwater Crust (geology) Impervious surface/Surface runoff Petrichor Soil type v t e Soil classification World Reference Base for Soil Resources (1998–) Acrisols Alisols Andosols Anthrosols Arenosols Calcisols Cambisols Chernozem Cryosols Durisols Ferralsols Fluvisols Gleysols Gypsisols Histosol Kastanozems Leptosols Lixisols Luvisols Nitisols Phaeozems Planosols Plinthosols Podzols Regosols Retisols Solonchaks Solonetz Stagnosol Technosols Umbrisols Vertisols USDA soil taxonomy Alfisols Andisols Aridisols Entisols Gelisols Histosols Inceptisols Mollisols Oxisols Spodosols Ultisols Vertisols Other systems FAO soil classification (1974–1998) Unified Soil Classification System AASHTO Soil Classification System Référentiel pédologique (French classification system) Canadian system of soil classification Australian Soil Classification Polish Soil Classification 1938 USDA soil taxonomy List of U.S. state soils List of vineyard soil types PG-3 (Spanish classification system) Non-systematic soil types Sand Silt Clay Loam Topsoil Subsoil Soil crust Claypan Hardpan Gypcrust Caliche Parent material Pedosphere Laimosphere Rhizosphere Bulk soil Alkali soil Bay mud Blue goo Brickearth Brown earth Calcareous grassland Dark earth Dry quicksand Duplex soil Eluvium Expansive clay Fill dirt Fuller's earth Hydrophobic soil Loess Mud Muskeg Paleosol Peat Prime farmland Quicksand Serpentine soil Spodic soil Stagnogley Subaqueous soil Takir Terra preta Terra rossa Tropical peat Yedoma Soil on bodies other than Earth Lunar regolith Martian regolith Types of soil Wikipedia:WikiProject Soil Category soil Category soil science List of soil scientists

v t e Plant nutrition / Fertilizer Imbalances Boron deficiency Calcium deficiency Iron deficiency Magnesium deficiency#Plants Manganese deficiency Molybdenum deficiency Nitrogen deficiency Phosphorus deficiency Potassium deficiency Zinc deficiency Micronutrient deficiency Chlorosis Fertilizer burn Assimilation Nitrogen assimilation Phosphorus assimilation Sulfur assimilation Microbial assistance Photorespiration Methods Fertigation Fertilizer tree Green manure Hoagland solution Hydroponic dosers Living mulch Nutrient budgeting Nutrient management Organic fertilizer Plant tissue test Variable rate application Controlled-release fertiliser Miscellaneous Soil fertility Nutrient pollution Soil pH Agrobiology Related concepts Algal nutrient solutions Biostimulant

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Soil fertility](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.