# Snow leopard

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Species of large felid

This article is about the cat. For other uses, see [Snow Leopard (disambiguation)](/source/Snow_Leopard_(disambiguation)).

Snow leopard Temporal range: Late Pleistocene – Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N Snow leopard Conservation status Vulnerable (IUCN 3.1)[1] CITES Appendix I [1] Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Placentalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae Genus: Panthera Species: P. uncia Binomial name Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) Distribution of the snow leopard, 2017[1] Synonyms Felis uncia Schreber, 1777 Felis irbis Ehrenberg, 1830 Felis uncioides Horsfield, 1855 Uncia uncia Pocock, 1930 Panthera baikalensis-romanii Medvedev, 2000

The **snow leopard** (***Panthera uncia***) is a [species](/source/Species) of [large cat](/source/Large_cat) in the genus *[Panthera](/source/Panthera)* of the [family](/source/Family_(taxonomy)) [Felidae](/source/Felidae). It is native to the mountain ranges of [Central](/source/Central_Asia) and [South Asia](/source/South_Asia), ranging from eastern [Afghanistan](/source/Afghanistan), the [Himalayas](/source/Himalayas) and the [Tibetan Plateau](/source/Tibetan_Plateau) to southern [Siberia](/source/Siberia), [Mongolia](/source/Mongolia) and [Western China](/source/Western_China). It inhabits [alpine](/source/Alpine_climate) and [subalpine zones](/source/Subalpine_zone) at elevations of 3,000–4,500 m (9,800–14,800 ft), but also lives at lower elevations in the northern part of its range.

The snow leopard was long classified in the [monotypic genus](/source/Monotypic_genus) *Uncia*. Since [phylogenetic](/source/Phylogenetics) studies revealed the relationships among *Panthera* species, it has been considered a member of that [genus](/source/Genus_(biology)). Two subspecies were described based on [morphological](/source/Morphology_(biology)) differences, but [genetic](/source/Genetics) differences between the two have not been confirmed. It is therefore regarded as a [monotypic species](/source/Monotypic_species). It forms a sister group with the [tiger](/source/Tiger) and the genetic divergence is estimated to have occurred 4.62 to 1.82 million years ago.

The snow leopard is a stocky cat and has a thick whitish to grey fur with black spots on the head and neck, with larger rosettes on the back, flanks and bushy tail. Males are larger than the females, and both sexes have long [canine teeth](/source/Canine_teeth), and several adaptations for living in cold, mountainous environments such as small rounded ears, broad paws, and thick tails. It is a [solitary animal](/source/Solitary_animal) and is mostly active at dawn and twilight. It occupies the cliffs and ridges that provide vantage points and shade. It is a [carnivore](/source/Carnivore) and actively hunts its prey, which include various [ungulates](/source/Ungulates) and domestic livestock.

The snow leopard is listed as [Vulnerable](/source/Vulnerable_species) on the [IUCN Red List](/source/IUCN_Red_List) because the global population is estimated to number fewer than 10,000 mature individuals and is expected to decline about 10% by 2040. It is mainly threatened by [poaching](/source/Poaching) and [habitat destruction](/source/Habitat_destruction). It is listed in [CITES Appendix I](/source/CITES_Appendix_I) and legally protected in most countries of its range. It is widely used in [heraldry](/source/Heraldry) and as an emblem in Central Asia, and parts of [North India](/source/North_India).

## Naming and etymology

Illustration of an 'Ounce' (1658)

The [Latin](/source/Latin) name *uncia* and the [English](/source/English_language) word *ounce* both originated from the [Old French](/source/Old_French) word *once*, which was intended to be used for the [Eurasian lynx](/source/Eurasian_lynx) (*Lynx lynx*). *Once* is believed to have originated from a previous form of the word *lynx* through a process known as [false splitting](/source/Rebracketing). The word *once* was originally considered to be pronounced as *l'once*, where *l'* stands for the [elided form](/source/Elision) of the word *la* ('the') in French. Over time, the *l* was wrongly detached from the noun, with *once* then understood to be the name of the animal.[2]

The word *panther* derives from the [classical Latin](/source/Classical_Latin) *panthēra*, itself from the [ancient Greek](/source/Ancient_Greek) πάνθηρ *pánthēr*, which was used for spotted cats.[3]

## Taxonomy

Snow leopard [skull](/source/Skull) in the collection of the [Museum Wiesbaden](/source/Museum_Wiesbaden)

*Felis uncia* was the [scientific name](/source/Scientific_name) used by [Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber](/source/Johann_Christian_Daniel_von_Schreber) in 1777 who [described](/source/Scientific_description) a snow leopard based on an earlier description by [Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon](/source/Georges-Louis_Leclerc%2C_Comte_de_Buffon), assuming that the cat occurred along the [Barbary Coast](/source/Barbary_Coast), in [Persia](/source/Persia), [East India](/source/East_India) and [China](/source/China).[4] The [genus](/source/Genus_(biology)) name *Uncia* was proposed by [John Edward Gray](/source/John_Edward_Gray) in 1854 for Asian cats with a long and thick tail.[5] *Felis irbis* was proposed by [Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg](/source/Christian_Gottfried_Ehrenberg) in 1830, based on a skin of a female snow leopard collected in the [Altai Mountains](/source/Altai_Mountains). He also clarified that several [leopard](/source/Leopard) (*P. pardus*) skins were previously misidentified as snow leopard skins.[6] *Felis uncioides* was proposed by [Thomas Horsfield](/source/Thomas_Horsfield) in 1855 based on a snow leopard skin from Nepal in the collection of the Museum of the [East India Company](/source/East_India_Company).[7] *Uncia uncia* was the scientific name used by [Reginald Innes Pocock](/source/Reginald_Innes_Pocock) in 1930 to denote the species when he reviewed skins and skulls of various *[Panthera](/source/Panthera)* species from Asia. He also described the morphological differences between snow leopard and leopard skins.[8] *Panthera baikalensis-romanii* was proposed by a Russian scientist in 2000 based on a dark brown snow leopard skin from the [Petrovsk-Zabaykalsky District](/source/Petrovsk-Zabaykalsky_District) in southern [Transbaikal](/source/Transbaikal).[9]

The snow leopard was long classified in the [monotypic genus](/source/Monotypic_genus) *Uncia*.[10] Based on results of [phylogenetic](/source/Phylogenetic) studies, it was later subordinated to the genus *Panthera*.[11][12][13][14]

There was no evidence of recognized [subspecies](/source/Subspecies) of snow leopard until early 2017. Results of a [phylogeographic](/source/Phylogeography) analysis indicated that there could be three distinct subspecies:[15]

- *P. u. uncia* in the range countries of the [Pamir Mountains](/source/Pamir_Mountains)

- *P. u. irbis* in Mongolia, and

- *P. u. uncioides* in the Himalayas and [Qinghai](/source/Qinghai).

This classification has been both contested and supported by different researchers.[16][17][18][19] In the 2020s, two possible European extinct paleosubspecies–*[Panthera uncia pyrenaica](/source/Panthera_uncia_pyrenaica)* from France and *Panthera uncia lusitana* from Portugal, were named but the sub-specific validity of the former is uncertain.[20]

## Evolution

Two cladograms proposed for *Panthera*. The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009,[11][21] the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011.[12][22]

Based on the phylogenetic analysis of the [DNA sequence](/source/DNA_sequence) sampled across the living [Felidae](/source/Felidae), the snow leopard forms a [sister group](/source/Sister_group) with the [tiger](/source/Tiger) (*P. tigris*). The [genetic divergence](/source/Genetic_divergence) time of this group is estimated at [4.62 to 1.82](https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4.62–1.82) million years ago.[11][21] The snow leopard and the tiger probably diverged between [3.7 to 2.7](https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=3.7–2.7) million years ago.[12] *Panthera* originates most likely in northern Central Asia. *[Panthera blytheae](/source/Panthera_blytheae)* [excavated](/source/Excavation_(archaeology)) in western Tibet's [Ngari Prefecture](/source/Ngari_Prefecture) has been initially described the oldest known *Panthera* species and exhibits skull characteristics similar to the snow leopard,[23] though its taxonomic placement has been disputed by other researchers who suggest that the species likely belongs to a different genus.[24][25] The [mitochondrial genomes](/source/Mitochondrial_genome) of the snow leopard, the leopard and the [lion](/source/Lion) (*P. leo*) are more similar to each other than their [nuclear genomes](/source/Nuclear_genome), indicating that their ancestors [hybridised](/source/Hybridization_(biology)) at some point in their [evolution](/source/Evolution).[26]

The earliest known definitive record of the modern snow leopard is dated to the Late Pleistocene based on a specimen discovered from the Niuyan Cave of China. A [Middle Pleistocene](/source/Middle_Pleistocene) specimen from the [Zhoukoudian Peking Man Site](/source/Zhoukoudian_Peking_Man_Site) which is similar to the modern snow leopard has been referred to as *P.* aff. *uncia*.[20] Putative fossils of the snow leopard found in the Pabbi Hills of Pakistan were dated to the [Early Pleistocene](/source/Early_Pleistocene),[27] but the fossils might instead represent a [leopard](/source/Leopard) or belong to the genus *[Puma](/source/Puma_(genus))*.[28]

It has also been suggested that the snow leopard had European [paleosubspecies](/source/Paleosubspecies) during the Pleistocene epoch. *[Panthera uncia pyrenaica](/source/Panthera_uncia_pyrenaica)* was described in 2022 based on [fossil](/source/Fossil) material found in France that was dated to the early [Middle Pleistocene](/source/Middle_Pleistocene) around [0.57 to 0.53](https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=0.57–0.53) million years ago.[28] *Panthera uncia lusitana* was described in 2025 based on fossil material discovered from Late Pleistocene strata in Portugal, and the describers of *P. u. lusitana* assigned *P. u. pyrenaica* outside the modern snow leopard as *P. pyrenaica* due to the lack of similar traits, though it might represent a basal related species.[20] In the same year, Prat-Vericat and colleagues proposed that both *P. u. pyrenaica* and the Portuguese fossils indicate either the migration of snow leopards into Europe due to the [Mid-Pleistocene Transition](/source/Mid-Pleistocene_Transition) (the so-called "0.9 Ma Event"), or the convergent evolution of European leopards to adapt into rocky habitats that caused their resemblance to the modern snow leopard.[29]

## Characteristics

Snow leopard showing its [canines](/source/Canine_teeth)

Thickly furred tail

The snow leopard's fur is whitish to grey with black spots on the head and neck, with larger [rosettes](/source/Rosette_(zoology)) on the back, [flanks](/source/Flank_(anatomy)) and bushy tail. Its [muzzle](/source/Muzzle_(anatomy)) is short, its forehead domed, and its [nasal cavities](/source/Nasal_cavity) are large. The fur is thick with hairs measuring 5 to 12 cm (2.0 to 4.7 in) in length, and its underbelly is whitish. They are stocky, short-legged, and slightly smaller than other cats of the genus *Panthera*, reaching a shoulder height of 56 cm (22 in), and ranging in head to body size from 75 to 150 cm (30 to 59 in). Its tail is 80 to 105 cm (31 to 41 in) long.[30] Males average 45 to 55 kg (99 to 121 lb), and females 35 to 40 kg (77 to 88 lb); but large males reaching 75 kg (165 lb) and small females under 25 kg (55 lb) have also been recorded.[31] Its [canine teeth](/source/Canine_teeth) are 28.6 mm (1.13 in) long and are more slender than those of the other *Panthera* species.[32]

The snow leopard shows several adaptations for living in cold, mountainous environments. Its small rounded ears help to minimize heat loss, and its broad paws effectively distribute the body weight for walking on snow. Fur on the undersides of the paws enhances its grip on steep and unstable surfaces, and helps to minimize heat loss. Its long and flexible tail helps the cat to balance in rocky terrain. The tail is very thick due to fat storage, and is covered in a thick layer of fur, which allows the cat to use it like a blanket to protect its face when asleep.[33]

The snow leopard differs from the other *Panthera* species by a shorter muzzle, an elevated [forehead](/source/Forehead), a vertical chin and a less developed posterior process of the lower [jaw](/source/Jaw).[8] Despite its partly [ossified](/source/Ossification) [hyoid bone](/source/Hyoid_bone), a snow leopard cannot [roar](/source/Roar), as its 9 mm (0.35 in) short [vocal folds](/source/Vocal_fold) provide little resistance to airflow.[34][35] Its nasal openings are large in relation to the length of its [skull](/source/Skull) and width of its [palate](/source/Palate); thanks to their size the volume of air inhaled with each breath is optimised, and the cold dry air becomes warmer.[36] It is not especially adapted to [high-altitude hypoxia](/source/High-altitude_hypoxia).[37]

## Distribution and habitat

Snow leopard in [Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary](/source/Kibber_Wildlife_Sanctuary)

The snow leopard is distributed from the west of [Lake Baikal](/source/Lake_Baikal) through southern Siberia, in the [Kunlun Mountains](/source/Kunlun_Mountains), Altai Mountains, [Sayan](/source/Sayan_Mountains) and [Tannu-Ola Mountains](/source/Tannu-Ola_Mountains), in the [Tian Shan](/source/Tian_Shan), through [Tajikistan](/source/Tajikistan), [Kyrgyzstan](/source/Kyrgyzstan), [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan) and [Kazakhstan](/source/Kazakhstan) to the [Hindu Kush](/source/Hindu_Kush) in eastern Afghanistan, [Karakoram](/source/Karakoram) in northern [Pakistan](/source/Pakistan), in the [Pamir Mountains](/source/Pamir_Mountains), the Tibetan Plateau and in the high elevations of the [Himalayas](/source/Himalaya) in [India](/source/India), [Nepal](/source/Nepal) and [Bhutan](/source/Bhutan). In Mongolia, it inhabits the Mongolian and Gobi Altai Mountains and the [Khangai Mountains](/source/Khangai_Mountains). In [Tibet](/source/Tibet), it occurs up to the [Altyn-Tagh](/source/Altyn-Tagh) in the north.[38] In northeastern Afghanistan's isolated [Wakhan Corridor](/source/Wakhan_Corridor), it was recorded by [camera traps](/source/Camera_trap) at 16 locations.[39]

The snow leopard inhabits [alpine](/source/Alpine_climate) and [subalpine zones](/source/Subalpine_zone) at elevations of 3,000 to 4,500 m (9,800 to 14,800 ft), but also lives at lower elevations in the northern part of its range.[40] In summer, it usually lives above the [tree line](/source/Tree_line) on [alpine meadows](/source/Alpine_meadow) and in rocky regions at elevations of 2,700 to 6,000 m (8,900 to 19,700 ft). In winter, it descends to elevations around 1,200 to 2,000 m (3,900 to 6,600 ft). It prefers rocky, broken terrain, and can move in 85 cm (33 in) deep snow, but prefers to use existing trails made by other animals.[31]

At the end of 2020, 35 cameras were installed on the outskirts of [Almaty](/source/Almaty) in Kazakhstan in hopes to catch footage of snow leopards. In November 2021, it was announced by the Russian World Wildlife Fund that snow leopards were spotted 65 times on these cameras in the Trans-Ili Alatau mountains since the cameras were installed.[41]

Potential snow leopard habitat in the Indian Himalayas is estimated at less than 90,000 km2 (35,000 sq mi) in [Jammu and Kashmir](/source/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)), [Ladakh](/source/Ladakh), [Uttarakhand](/source/Uttarakhand), [Himachal Pradesh](/source/Himachal_Pradesh), [Sikkim](/source/Sikkim) and [Arunachal Pradesh](/source/Arunachal_Pradesh), of which about 34,000 km2 (13,000 sq mi) is considered good habitat, and 14.4% is protected. In the beginning of the 1990s, the Indian snow leopard population was estimated at 200–600 individuals living across about 25 protected areas.[38]

Video of a snow leopard in Ladakh

### Population estimates

In 2024, the Indian snow leopard population was estimated at 718 individuals, with 124 in [Uttarakhand](/source/Uttarakhand), 51 in Himachal Pradesh, 36 in Arunachal Pradesh, 21 in Sikkim, nine in Jammu and Kashmir.[42] As of 2024, the population in [Ladakh](/source/Ladakh) is estimated at 380–598 individuals, with a [population density](/source/Population_density) ranging from about 0.2 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in [Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary](/source/Changthang_Wildlife_Sanctuary) to about two individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in [Hemis National Park](/source/Hemis_National_Park).[43] In [Himachal Pradesh](/source/Himachal_Pradesh), 83 adult individuals have been estimated following surveys in 2025, with a population density of 0.16–0.53 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi).[44]

Results of survey data from 12 sites on the [Tibetan Plateau](/source/Tibetan_Plateau) collected during 2015–2021 indicate a population density of 0.68–1.21 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi), with 755–1,341 snow leopards estimated in an area of 360,000 km2 (140,000 sq mi).[45] Results of 19 camera trapping surveys between May 2010 and August 2019 covering 13,568 km2 (5,239 sq mi) in the Hindu Kush, Pamir–Karakoram and Himalaya mountain ranges of Pakistan indicate an estimated mean population density of 0.10–0.24 individuals per 100 km2 (39 sq mi) in this region; the population is estimated to comprise 100–239 snow leopards including 96–140 individuals in the Pamir–Karakoram, 12–36 individuals in the Hindu Kush and 3–22 individuals in the Himalayas.[46]

## Behavior and ecology

Walking on snow

The snow leopard is [solitary](/source/Solitary_animal) and mostly active at dawn till early morning, and again in afternoons and early evenings. They mostly rest near cliffs and ridges that provide vantage points and shade. In Nepal's [Shey Phoksundo National Park](/source/Shey_Phoksundo_National_Park), the home ranges of five adult [radio-collared](/source/Radio_telemetry) snow leopards largely overlapped, though they rarely met. Their individual home ranges ranged from 12 to 39 km2 (4.6 to 15.1 sq mi). Males moved between 0.5 and 5.45 km (0.31 and 3.39 mi) per day, and females between 0.2 and 2.25 km (0.12 and 1.40 mi), measured in straight lines between survey points. Since they often zigzagged in the precipitous terrain, they actually moved up to 7 km (4.3 mi) in a single night.[47] Up to 10 individuals inhabit an area of 100 km2 (39 sq mi); in habitats with sparse prey, an area of 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) usually supports only five individuals.[48] The snow leopard's vocalizations include [meowing](/source/Meow), grunting, [prusten](/source/Prusten) and moaning. It can [purr](/source/Purr) when exhaling.[30]

[Scent rubbing](/source/Scent_rubbing)

A study in the [Gobi Desert](/source/Gobi_Desert) from 2008 to 2014 revealed that adult males used a mean home range of 144–270 km2 (56–104 sq mi), while adult females ranged in areas of 83–165 km2 (32–64 sq mi). Their home ranges overlapped less than 20%. These results indicate that about 40% of the 170 protected areas in their range countries are smaller than the home range of a single male snow leopard.[49]

Snow leopards leave [scent marks](/source/Scent_mark) to indicate their territories and common travel routes. They scrape the ground with the hind feet before depositing [urine](/source/Urine) or [feces](/source/Feces), but also [spray](/source/Spraying_(animal_behavior)) urine onto rocks.[31] Their urine contains many characteristic low molecular weight compounds with diverse functional groups including [pentanol](/source/Pentanol), [hexanol](/source/Hexanol), [heptanol](/source/Heptanol), [3-octanone](/source/3-octanone), [nonanal](/source/Nonanal) and [indole](/source/Indole), which possibly play a role in chemical communication.[50]

### Hunting and diet

Snow leopard with a hunted [gray marmot](/source/Gray_marmot)

The snow leopard is a [carnivore](/source/Carnivore) and actively [hunts](/source/Hunting) its [prey](/source/Prey). Its preferred wild prey species are [Himalayan blue sheep](/source/Himalayan_blue_sheep) (*Pseudois nayaur*), [Himalayan tahr](/source/Himalayan_tahr) (*Hemitragus jemlahicus*), [argali](/source/Argali) (*Ovis ammon*), [markhor](/source/Markhor) (*Capra falconeri*) and [wild goat](/source/Wild_goat) (*C. aegagrus*). It also preys on domestic livestock.[51][52] It prefers prey ranging in weight from 36 to 76 kg (79 to 168 lb), but also hunts smaller mammals such as [Himalayan marmot](/source/Himalayan_marmot) (*Marmota himalayana*), [pika](/source/Pika) and [vole](/source/Vole) species. Its diet depends on prey availability and varies across its range and season. In the Himalayas, it preys mostly on Himalayan blue sheep, [Siberian ibex](/source/Siberian_ibex) (*C. sibirica*), [white-bellied musk deer](/source/White-bellied_musk_deer) (*Moschus leucogaster*) and [wild boar](/source/Wild_boar) (*Sus scrofa*). In the [Karakoram](/source/Karakoram), [Tian Shan](/source/Tian_Shan), Altai and Mongolia's Tost Mountains, its main prey consists of Siberian ibex, [Thorold's deer](/source/Thorold's_deer) (*Cervus albirostris*), [Siberian roe deer](/source/Siberian_roe_deer) (*Capreolus pygargus*) and argali.[53][54]

Snow leopard feces collected in northern Pakistan also contained remains of [rhesus macaque](/source/Rhesus_macaque) (*Macaca mulatta*), [masked palm civet](/source/Masked_palm_civet) (*Paguma larvata*), [Cape hare](/source/Cape_hare) (*Lepus capensis*), [house mouse](/source/House_mouse) (*Mus musculus*), [Kashmir field mouse](/source/Kashmir_field_mouse) (*Apodemus rusiges*), [grey dwarf hamster](/source/Grey_dwarf_hamster) (*Cricetulus migratorius*) and [Turkestan rat](/source/Turkestan_rat) (*Rattus pyctoris*).[55] In 2017, a snow leopard was photographed carrying a freshly killed [woolly flying squirrel](/source/Woolly_flying_squirrel) (*Eupetaurus cinereus*) near [Gangotri National Park](/source/Gangotri_National_Park).[56] In Mongolia, [domestic sheep](/source/Domestic_sheep) comprises less than 20% of its diet, although wild prey has been reduced and interactions with people are common.[54] It is capable of killing most ungulates in its habitat, with the probable exception of the adult male [wild yak](/source/Wild_yak). It also eats grass and twigs.[31]

The snow leopard actively pursues prey down steep mountainsides, using the momentum of its initial leap to chase animals for up to 300 m (980 ft). Then it drags the prey to a safe location and consumes all edible parts of the carcass. It can survive on a single Himalayan blue sheep for two weeks before hunting again, and one adult individual apparently needs 20–30 adult blue sheep per year.[1][31] Snow leopards have been recorded to hunt successfully in pairs, especially mating pairs.[57]

The snow leopard is easily driven away from livestock and readily abandons kills, often without defending itself.[31] Only three attacks on humans have been reported, and none were fatal. In 1940, a [rabid](/source/Rabies) snow leopard attacked two men, and an old, toothless [emaciated](/source/Emaciated) individual attacked a person passing by. Both incidents occurred near [Almaty](/source/Almaty), [Kazakh SSR](/source/Kazakh_SSR).[58][59] In 2026, a tourist in [Koktokay](/source/Koktokay), China, was mauled after approaching a snow leopard in an attempt to take a photo with it. The tourist was admitted to the hospital in stable condition.[60]

### Reproduction and life cycle

Cubs at the [Cat Survival Trust](/source/Cat_Survival_Trust) in [Welwyn](/source/Welwyn)

Snow leopards become [sexually mature](/source/Sexually_mature) at two to three years, and normally live for 15–18 years in the wild. In captivity they can live for up to 25 years. [Oestrus](/source/Oestrus) typically lasts five to eight days, and males tend not to seek out another partner after mating, probably because the short mating season does not allow sufficient time. Paired snow leopards mate in [the usual felid posture](/source/Lordosis_behavior), from 12 to 36 times a day. They are unusual among large cats in that they have a well-defined birth peak. They usually [mate](/source/Mating) in late winter, marked by a noticeable increase in marking and calling. Females have a [gestation period](/source/Gestation_period) of 90–100 days, and the cubs are born between April and June.[31] A [litter](/source/Litter_(animal)) usually consists of two to three cubs, in exceptional cases there can be up to seven.[58]

The female gives birth in a rocky den or crevice lined with fur shed from her underside. The cubs are born blind and helpless, although already with a thick coat of fur, and weigh 320 to 567 g (11.3 to 20.0 oz). Their eyes open at around seven days, and the cubs can walk at five weeks and are fully weaned by 10 weeks. The cubs leave the den when they are around two to four months of age.[31] Three radio-collared snow leopards in Mongolia's Tost Mountains gave birth between late April and late June. Two female cubs started to part from their mothers at the age of 20 to 21 months, but reunited with them several times for a few days over a period of 4–7 months. One male cub separated from his mother at the age of about 22 months, but stayed in her vicinity for a month and moved out of his natal range at 23 months of age.[61] The snow leopard has a [generation length](/source/Generation_time) of eight years.[62]

## Threats

Anti-poaching sign featuring a snow leopard at [Khunjerab National Park](/source/Khunjerab_National_Park)

Major threats to the population include poaching and illegal trade of its skins and body parts.[1] Between 1999 and 2002, three live snow leopard cubs and 16 skins were [confiscated](/source/Confiscated), 330 [traps](/source/Trapping) were destroyed and 110 poachers were arrested in Kyrgyzstan. [Undercover operations](/source/Undercover_operation) in the country revealed an illegal trade network with links to Russia and China via Kazakhstan. The major skin trade center in the region is the city of [Kashgar](/source/Kashgar) in [Xinjiang](/source/Xinjiang).[63] In Tibet and Mongolia, skins are used for traditional dresses, and meat in [traditional Tibetan medicine](/source/Traditional_Tibetan_medicine) to cure [kidney](/source/Kidney) problems; bones are used in [traditional Chinese](/source/Traditional_Chinese_medicine) and [Mongolian medicine](/source/Traditional_Mongolian_medicine) for treating [rheumatism](/source/Rheumatism), injuries and pain of human bones and [tendons](/source/Tendon). Between 1996 and 2002, 37 skins were found in wildlife markets and tourist shops in Mongolia.[64] Between 2003 and 2016, 710 skins were traded, of which 288 skins were confiscated. In China, an estimated 103 to 236 animals are poached every year, in Mongolia between 34 and 53, in Pakistan between 23 and 53, in India from 21 to 45, and in Tajikistan 20 to 25. In 2016, a survey of Chinese websites revealed 15 advertisements for 44 snow leopard products; the dealers offered skins, canine teeth, claws and a tongue.[65] In September 2014, nine snow leopard skins were found during a market survey in Afghanistan.[66] As per a 2012 report, increasing [Greenhouse gas](/source/Greenhouse_gas) emissions are expected to cause a shift of the [treeline](/source/Treeline) in the Himalayas and a shrinking of the alpine zone, which may reduce the snow leopard habitat by an estimated 30%.[67]

Where snow leopards prey on domestic [livestock](/source/Livestock), they are subject to [human–wildlife conflict](/source/Human%E2%80%93wildlife_conflict).[1] The loss of natural prey due to overgrazing by livestock, poaching, and defense of livestock are the major drivers for the ever decreasing snow leopard population.[31] Livestock also cause habitat degradation, which, alongside the increasing use of forests for fuel, reduces snow leopard habitat.[68]

## Conservation

Global snow leopard population Country Year Estimate Afghanistan 2016 50–200[69] Bhutan 2023 134[70] China 2016 4,500[71] India 2024 718[72] Kazakhstan 2016 100–120[73] Kyrgyzstan 2016 300–400[74] Mongolia 2016 1,000[75] Nepal 2016 301–400[76] Pakistan 2016 250–420[77] Russia 2016 70–90[78] Tajikistan 2016 250–280[79] Uzbekistan 2016 30–120[80]

The snow leopard is listed in [CITES Appendix I](/source/CITES_Appendix_I).[1] It has been listed as threatened with extinction in Schedule I of the [Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals](/source/Convention_on_the_Conservation_of_Migratory_Species_of_Wild_Animals) since 1985.[64]

Hunting of the snow leopard has been prohibited in Kyrgyzstan since the 1950s.[63] In India, it has been granted the highest level of protection under the [Wildlife Protection Act, 1972](/source/Wildlife_Protection_Act%2C_1972), and hunting is punishable with a [imprisonment](/source/Imprisonment) of three to seven years.[81] In Nepal, it has been legally protected since 1973, with penalties of 5–15 years in prison and a [fine](/source/Fine_(penalty)) for poaching and trading it.[82]

Since 1978, the snow leopard has been listed in the [Soviet Union](/source/Soviet_Union)'s Red Book and is still inscribed today in the [Red Data Book of the Russian Federation](/source/Red_Data_Book_of_the_Russian_Federation) as threatened with extinction. Hunting snow leopards is only permitted for the purposes of conservation and monitoring, and to eliminate a threat to the life of humans and livestock. [Smuggling](/source/Smuggling) of snow leopard body parts is punishable with imprisonment and a fine.[83] Hunting snow leopards has been prohibited in Afghanistan since 1986.[66]

In China, the snow leopard has been protected by law since 1989; hunting it and trading its body parts constitute a criminal offence that is punishable by the [confiscation](/source/Confiscation) of property, a fine and a [sentence](/source/Sentence_(law)) of at least 10 years in prison.[84][85] The species has been protected in Bhutan since 1995.[86]

In 2013, government leaders and officials from all 12 countries encompassing the snow leopard's range (Afghanistan, Bhutan, China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan) and other agencies like the [Snow Leopard Conservancy](/source/Snow_Leopard_Conservancy), the [Snow Leopard Trust](/source/Snow_Leopard_Trust), the [Nature and Biodiversity Conservation Union](/source/Nature_and_Biodiversity_Conservation_Union), the [World Bank](/source/World_Bank)'s [Global Tiger Initiative](/source/Global_Tiger_Initiative), the [United Nations Development Programme](/source/United_Nations_Development_Programme), the [World Wild Fund for Nature](/source/World_Wild_Fund_for_Nature), the [United States Agency for International Development](/source/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development), and [Global Environment Facility](/source/Global_Environment_Facility) came together at the Global Snow Leopard Forum organized by the [Government of Kyrgyzstan](/source/Government_of_Kyrgyzstan) at [Bishkek](/source/Bishkek). In the meeting, it was agreed that the snow leopard and the high mountain habitat need trans-boundary support to ensure a viable future for snow leopard populations, and to safeguard its fragile environment.[87]

### In captivity

At the [San Diego Zoo](/source/San_Diego_Zoo)

The [Moscow Zoo](/source/Moscow_Zoo) exhibited the first captive snow leopard in 1872 that had been caught in [Turkestan](/source/Turkestan).[58] The [Bronx Zoo](/source/Bronx_Zoo) housed a live snow leopard in 1903, and this was the first ever specimen exhibited in a North American zoo.[88] The first [captive bred](/source/Captive_breeding) snow leopard cubs were born in the 1990s in the [Beijing Zoo](/source/Beijing_Zoo).[63]

The snow leopard [Species Survival Plan](/source/Species_Survival_Plan) was initiated in 1984, and by 1986, [American zoos](/source/List_of_zoos_in_the_United_States) held 234 individuals.[89][90]

## Cultural significance

Snow leopard on the old 10,000-Kazakhstani [tenge](/source/Tenge) banknote

The snow leopard is widely used in [heraldry](/source/Heraldry) and as an emblem in Central Asia. The *[Aq Bars](/source/Aq_Bars)* ('White Leopard') is a political symbol of the [Tatars](/source/Tatars), [Kazakhs](/source/Kazakhs), and [Bulgars](/source/Bulgars). A mythical winged *Aq Bars* is depicted on the national [coat of arms of Tatarstan](/source/Coat_of_arms_of_Tatarstan), the seal of the city of [Samarqand](/source/Samarqand), Uzbekistan and the old coat of arms of [Astana](/source/Astana). A snow leopard is depicted on the official seal of [Almaty](/source/Almaty) and on the former 10,000 [Kazakhstani tenge](/source/Kazakhstani_tenge) banknote. In Kyrgyzstan, it is used in highly stylized form in the modern emblem of the capital [Bishkek](/source/Bishkek), and the same art has been integrated into the badge of the [Kyrgyzstan Girl Scouts Association](/source/Scouting_in_Kyrgyzstan#Kyrgyzstan_Girl_Scouts_Association). It is also considered to be a sacred creature by the [Kyrgyz people](/source/Kyrgyz_people). A crowned snow leopard features in the arms of [Shushensky District](/source/Shushensky_District) in Russia. It is the [state animal](/source/List_of_Indian_state_animals) of [Ladakh](/source/Ladakh) and [Himachal Pradesh](/source/Himachal_Pradesh) in India.[91][92]

The 1978 book *[The Snow Leopard](/source/The_Snow_Leopard)* is an account by [Peter Matthiessen](/source/Peter_Matthiessen) about his two-month journey through the [Dolpo](/source/Dolpo) region of the Nepal Himalayas in search of the snow leopard.[93]

## See also

- [List of largest cats](/source/List_of_largest_cats)

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-59)** Ostrowski, S. & Gilbert, M. (2016). "Diseases of Free-Ranging Snow Leopards and Primary Prey Species". In Nyhus, P.J. (ed.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam: Academic Press. pp. 97–112. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/B978-0-12-802213-9.00009-2](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-802213-9.00009-2). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802213-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802213-9). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [7149802](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7149802).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** Yeung, Jessie (January 27, 2026). ["Snow leopard mauls skier in China's Xinjiang region"](https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/27/china/snow-leopard-attack-tourist-xinjiang-intl-hnk). *[CNN](/source/CNN)*. Retrieved January 28, 2026.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Dexel2002_63-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Dexel2002_63-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Dexel2002_63-2) Dexel, B. (2002). *The Illegal Trade in Snow Leopards – A Global Perspective*. Berlin: German Society for Nature Conservation. [CiteSeerX](/source/CiteSeerX_(identifier)) [10.1.1.498.7184](https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.498.7184).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Theile2003_64-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Theile2003_64-1) Theile, S. (2003). [*Fading footprints; the killing and trade of snow leopards*](https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/4012/fading_footprints.pdf) (PDF). Cambridge, UK: TRAFFIC International. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [1-85850-201-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85850-201-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210420080149/https://www.traffic.org/site/assets/files/4012/fading_footprints.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 2021-04-20. Retrieved 2021-04-20.

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1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Maheshwari_al2016_66-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Maheshwari_al2016_66-1) Maheshwari, A.; Niraj, S. K.; Sathyakumar, S.; Thakur, M. & Sharma, L. K. (2016). "Snow leopard illegal trade in Afghanistan: A rapid survey". *Cat News* (64): 22–23.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-67)** Forrest, J. L.; Wikramanayake, E.; Shrestha, R.; Areendran, G.; Gyeltshen, K.; Maheshwari, A.; Mazumdar, S.; Naidoo, R.; Thapa, G. J. & Thapa, K. (2012). ["Conservation and climate change: Assessing the vulnerability of snow leopard habitat to treeline shift in the Himalaya"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170809022320/http://www.snowleopardnetwork.org/bibliography/Forrest%20J.%20L%20et%20al_2012.pdf) (PDF). *Biological Conservation*. **150** (1): 129–135. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2012BCons.150..129F](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012BCons.150..129F). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.biocon.2012.03.001](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biocon.2012.03.001). Archived from [the original](http://snowleopardnetwork.org/bibliography/Forrest%20J.%20L%20et%20al_2012.pdf) (PDF) on 2017-08-09. Retrieved 2019-05-24.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-68)** ["What water means to snow leopards"](https://undp-biodiversity.exposure.co/what-water-means-to-snow-leopards). UNDP. 2 June 2022. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20220601223215/https://undp-biodiversity.exposure.co/what-water-means-to-snow-leopards) from the original on 1 June 2022. Retrieved 6 August 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Moheb, Z. & Paley, R. (2016). "Central Asia: Afghanistan". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 409–417. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-70)** ["The National Snow Leopard Survey 2022-23 Confirms 134 snow leopards in the country"](https://www.moenr.gov.bt/?p=13349#:~:text=The%20survey%20confirmed%20the%20presence,leopards%20per%20100%20km%20sq). *Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources*. Thimphu, Bhutan. 2023. Retrieved 2024-11-21.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-71)** Liu, Y.; Weckworth, B.; Li, J.; Xiao, L.; Zhao, X. & Lu, Z. (2016). "China: The Tibetan Plateau, Sanjiangyuan Region". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 513–521. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** Das, B. (2024). "First baseline estimate of India's snow leopard numbers". *Nature India*. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1038/d44151-024-00015-9](https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd44151-024-00015-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-73)** Loginov, O. (2016). "Central Asia: Kazakhstan". In McCarthy, T.; Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 427–430. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-74)** Daveltbakov, A.; Rosen, T.; Anarbaev, M.; Kubanychbekov, Z.; Jumabai uulu, K.; Samanchina, J. & Sharma, K. (2016). "Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 419–425. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-75)** Munkhtsok, B.; Purevjav, L.; McCarthy, T. & Bayrakçismith, R. (2016). "Northern Range: Mongolia". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 493–500. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-76)** Ale, S.; Shah, K. B.; Jackson, R. M. & Rosen, T. (2016). "South Asia: Nepal". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 471–479. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Khan, A. (2016). "South Asia: Pakistan". In McCarthy, T.; Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 481–491. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-78)** Paltsyn, M.; Poyarkov, A.; Spitsyn, S.; Kuksin, A.; Istomov, S.; Gibbs, J.P.; Jackson, R. M.; Castner, J.; Kozlova, S.; Karnaukhov, A. & Malykh, S. (2016). ["Northern Range: Russia"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA501). In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 501–511. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230210100514/https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA501) from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2020-12-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Saidov, A.; Karimov, K.; Amirov, Z. & Rosen, T. (2016). "Central Asia: Tajikistan". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 433–437. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Esipov, A.; Bykova, E.; Protas, Y. & Aromov, B. (2016). ["Central Asia: Uzbekistan"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA439). In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 439–447. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230210100451/https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA439) from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2020-12-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Bhatnagar_al2016_81-0)** Bhatnagar, Y. V.; Mathur, V. B.; Sathyakumar, S.; Ghoshal, A.; Sharma, R. K.; Bijoor, A.; Raghunath, R.; Timbadia, R. & Lal, P. (2016). "South Asia: India". In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards. Biodiversity of the World: Conservation from Genes to Landscapes*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 457–470. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-82)** Kattel, B. & Bajiimaya, S. (1995). "Status and conservation of Snow Leopard in Nepal". In Jackson, R. & Ahmad, A. A. (eds.). *Proceedings of the Eighth International Snow Leopard Symposium, 12–16 November 1995, Islamabad, Pakistan*. Islamabad, Pakistan: International Snow Leopard Trust. pp. 21–27.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** Paltsyn, M.Y.; Spitsyn, S.V.; Kuksin, A.N. & Istomov, S.V. (2012). [Snow Leopard Conservation in Russia – Data for Conservation Strategy for Snow Leopard in Russia](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312300841) (Report). Krasnoyarsk: WWF Russia.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** Riordan, P. & Kun, S. (2010). ["The Snow Leopard in China"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274340237). *Cat News* (Special Issue 5): 14–17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** Liu, Y.; Weckworth, B.; Li, J.; Xiao, L.; Zhao, X. & Lu, Z. (2016). ["China: The Tibetan Plateau, Sanjiangyuan Region"](https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA513). In McCarthy, T. & Mallon, D. (eds.). *Snow Leopards*. Amsterdam, Boston, Heidelberg, London, New York: Academic Press. pp. 513–521. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802496-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802496-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20230210100452/https://books.google.com/books?id=nAvSBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA513) from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2020-12-12.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Lham_al2016_86-0)** Lham, D.; Thinley, P.; Wangchuk, S.; Wangchuk, N.; Lham, K.; Namgay, T.; Tharchen, L. & Wangchuck, T. (2016). National Snow Leopard Survey of Bhutan – Phase II: Camera Trap Survey for Population Estimation (Report). Thimphu, Bhutan: Wildlife Conservation Division, Department of Forests and Park Services.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-87)** ["Global Snow Leopard Conservation Forum"](https://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2013/10/02/global-snow-leopard-conservation-forum). *[World Bank](/source/World_Bank)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20210417150126/https://www.worldbank.org/en/events/2013/10/02/global-snow-leopard-conservation-forum) from the original on 2021-04-17. Retrieved 2021-04-17.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-88)** Foderaro, L. W. (2013). ["Almost 5 Months Old, Bronx Native Makes Zoo Debut"](https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/nyregion/baby-snow-leopard-born-at-bronx-zoo-is-now-on-display.html). *[The New York Times](/source/The_New_York_Times)*. [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0362-4331](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130828204827/http://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/27/nyregion/baby-snow-leopard-born-at-bronx-zoo-is-now-on-display.html) from the original on 2013-08-28. Retrieved 2023-05-15.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Wharton, D. & Freeman, H. (1988). "The Snow Leopard in North America: Captive Breeding Under the Species Survival Plan". In Freeman, H. (ed.). *Proceedings of the Fifth International Snow Leopard Symposium*. Seattle and Dehra Dun: International Snow Leopard Trust and Wildlife Institute of India. pp. 131–136.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-90)** McCarthy, T.; Mallon, D., eds. (2016). ["Chapter 23 - The Role of Zoos in Snow Leopard Conservation: Captive Snow Leopards as Ambassadors of Wild Kin"](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128022139000237). *Snow Leopards*. Academic Press. pp. 311–322. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/B978-0-12-802213-9.00023-7](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-802213-9.00023-7). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802213-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802213-9). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20240505145525/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128022139000237) from the original on 2024-05-05.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-91)** McCarthy, T.; Mallon, D., eds. (2016). "Religion and Cultural Impacts on Snow Leopard Conservation". *Snow Leopards*. Cambridge: Academic Press. pp. 197–217. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/B978-0-12-802213-9.00015-8](https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-802213-9.00015-8). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-12-802213-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-802213-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-92)** Hussain, S. (2019). [*The Snow Leopard and the Goat: Politics of Conservation in the Western Himalayas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GlbHDwAAQBAJ). University of Washington Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-295-74658-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-74658-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20231108185431/https://books.google.com/books?id=GlbHDwAAQBAJ) from the original on 2023-11-08. Retrieved 2023-06-25.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-93)** Matthiessen, P. (1978). *The Snow Leopard*. New York: Viking Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-670-65374-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-670-65374-8).

## Further reading

- Jackson, R.; Hillard, D. (June 1986). "Tracking the Elusive Snow Leopard". *[National Geographic](/source/National_Geographic_(magazine))*. Vol. 169, no. 6. pp. 793–809. [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [643483454](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/643483454).

- Janczewski, D. N.; Modi, W. S.; Stephens, J. C.; O'Brien, S. J. (July 1995). ["Molecular Evolution of Mitochondrial 12S RNA and Cytochrome b Sequences in the Pantherine Lineage of Felidae"](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a040232). *Molecular Biology and Evolution*. **12** (4): 690–707. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040232](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordjournals.molbev.a040232). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [7544865](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7544865).

## External links

[Wikimedia Commons](/source/Wikimedia_Commons) has media related to:

[Panthera uncia](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Panthera_uncia) ([category](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Panthera_uncia))

- ["The Snow Leopard Network"](http://www.snowleopardnetwork.org/). *Snow Leopard Network*.

- ["Ensuring Snow Leopard survival and conserving mountain landscapes by expanding environmental awareness and sharing innovative practices through community stewardship and partnerships"](http://www.snowleopardconservancy.org/). *Snow Leopard Conservancy*.

- ["Snow Leopard Program"](https://web.archive.org/web/20151007030610/http://www.panthera.org/species/snow-leopard/). *Panthera*. Archived from [the original](http://www.panthera.org/species/snow-leopard/) on 2015-10-07. Retrieved 2015-02-27.

- ["Snow Leopard"](http://www.catsg.org/index.php?id=100). *IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group*.

v t e Extant Carnivora species Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Laurasiatheria Feliformia ("cat-like" carnivorans) Feliformia African palm civet (Nandinia binotata) Feloidea Prionodon (Asiatic linsangs) Banded linsang (P. linsang) Spotted linsang (P. pardicolor) Felidae (cats) Pantherinae Neofelis Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi) Clouded leopard (N. nebulosa) Panthera Snow leopard (P. uncia) Tiger (P. tigris) Jaguar (P. onca) Lion (P. leo) Leopard (P. pardus) Felinae sensu stricto Bay cat lineage Pardofelis Marbled cat (P. marmorata) Catopuma Bay cat (C. badia) Asian golden cat (C. temminckii) Caracal lineage Serval (Leptailurus serval) Caracal African golden cat (C. aurata) Caracal (C. caracal) Leopardus Pampas cat (L. colocola) Geoffroy's cat (L. geoffroyi) Kodkod (L. guigna) Southern tiger cat (L. guttulus) Andean mountain cat (L. jacobita) Ocelot (L. pardalis) Clouded tiger cat (L. pardinoides) Oncilla (L. tigrinus) Margay (L. wiedii) Lynx Canada lynx (L. canadensis) Eurasian lynx (L. lynx) Iberian lynx (L. pardinus) Bobcat (L. rufus) Puma lineage Acinonyx Cheetah (A. jubatus) Jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi) Puma Cougar (P. concolor) Leopard cat lineage Pallas's cat (Otocolobus manul) Prionailurus Leopard cat (P. bengalensis) Sunda leopard cat (P. javanensis) Flat-headed cat (P. planiceps) Rusty-spotted cat (P. rubiginosus) Fishing cat (P. viverrinus) Felis Chinese mountain cat (F. bieti) Domestic cat (F. catus) Jungle cat (F. chaus) African wildcat (F. lybica) Sand cat (F. margarita) Black-footed cat (F. nigripes) European wildcat (F. silvestris) Viverroidea see below↓ Viverroidea Viverridae Palm civets Hemigalinae Owston's palm civet (Chrotogale owstoni) Otter civet (Cynogale bennettii) Hose's palm civet (Diplogale hosei) Banded palm civet (Hemigalus derbyanus) Paradoxurinae Binturong (Arctictis binturong) Small-toothed palm civet (Arctogalidia trivirgata) Sulawesi palm civet (Macrogalidia musschenbroekii) Masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) Paradoxurus Asian palm civet (P. hermaphroditus) Brown palm civet (P. jerdoni) Golden palm civet (P. zeylonensis) Viverrinae sensu lato Viverrinae sensu stricto Small Indian civet (Viverricula indica) African civet (Civettictis civetta) Viverra Malabar large-spotted civet (V. civettina) Large-spotted civet (V. megaspila) Malayan civet (V. tangalunga) Large Indian civet (V. zibetha) Genettinae Poiana (African linsangs) Central African oyan (P. richardsonii) West African oyan (P. leightoni) Genetta (genets) Abyssinian genet (G. abyssinica) Angolan genet (G. angolensis) Bourlon's genet (G. bourloni) Crested servaline genet (G. cristata) South African small-spotted genet (G. felina) Common genet (G. genetta) Johnston's genet (G. johnstoni) Letaba genet (G. letabae) Rusty-spotted genet (G. maculata) Pardine genet (G. pardina) Aquatic genet (G. piscivora) King genet (G. poensis) Schouteden's genet (G. schoutedeni) Servaline genet (G. servalina) Hausa genet (G. thierryi) Cape genet (G. tigrina) Giant forest genet (G. victoriae) Herpestoidea see below↓ Herpestoidea Hyaenidae (hyenas) Proteles Aardwolf (P. cristata) Hyaeninae (bone-crushing hyenas) Striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) Brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) Crocuta Spotted hyena (C. crocuta) Herpestidae sensu lato Eupleridae (Malagasy carnivorans) Euplerinae (Malagasy civets) Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox) Malagasy civet (Fossa fossana) Eupleres (falanoucs) Eastern falanouc (E. goudotii) Western falanouc (E. major) Galidiinae (vontsira) Ring-tailed vontsira (Galidia elegans) Galidictis Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose (G. fasciata) Grandidier's mongoose (G. grandidieri) Narrow-striped mongoose (Mungotictis decemlineata) Salanoia Brown-tailed mongoose (S. concolor) Durrell's vontsira (S. durrelli) Herpestidae sensu stricto (mongooses) Mungotinae Suricata Meerkat (S. suricatta) Liberian mongoose (Liberiictus kuhni) Mungos Gambian mongoose (M. gambianus) Banded mongoose (M. mungo) Pousargues's mongoose (Dologale dybowskii) Helogale Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (H. hirtula) Common dwarf mongoose (H. parvula) Crossarchus (kusimanses) Alexander's kusimanse (C. alexandri) Angolan kusimanse (C. ansorgei) Common kusimanse (C. obscurus) Flat-headed kusimanse (C. platycephalus) Herpestinae Marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) Long-nosed mongoose (Xenogale naso) Urva (Asian mongooses) Small Indian mongoose (U. auropunctata) Short-tailed mongoose (U. brachyura) Indian grey mongoose (U. edwardsii) Indian brown mongoose (U. fusca) Javan mongoose (U. javanica) Collared mongoose (U. semitorquata) Ruddy mongoose (U. smithii) Crab-eating mongoose (U. urva) Stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticolla) White-tailed mongoose (Ichneumia albicauda) Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata) Selous's mongoose (Paracynictis selousi) Meller's mongoose (Rhynchogale melleri) Bdeogale Bushy-tailed mongoose (B. crassicauda) Jackson's mongoose (B. jacksoni) Black-footed mongoose (B. nigripes) Herpestes (slender mongooses) Angolan slender mongoose (H. flavescens) Egyptian mongoose (H. ichneumon) Somalian slender mongoose (H. ochracea) Cape gray mongoose (H. pulverulenta) Common slender mongoose (H. sanguinea) Caniformia ("dog-like" carnivorans) Canidae (dogs) Urocyon Gray fox (U. cinereoargenteus) Island fox (U. littoralis) Vulpini Bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) Nyctereutes (raccoon dogs) Common raccoon dog (N. procyonoides) Japanese raccoon dog (N. viverrinus) Vulpes (true foxes) Bengal fox (V. bengalensis) Blanford's fox (V. cana) Cape fox (V. chama) Corsac fox (V. corsac) Tibetan fox (V. ferrilata) Arctic fox (V. lagopus) Kit fox (V. macrotis) Pale fox (V. pallida) Rüppell's fox (V. rueppelli) Swift fox (V. velox) Red fox (V. vulpes) Fennec fox (V. zerda) Canini (true dogs) Cerdocyonina (zorro) Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus) Speothos Bush dog (S. venaticus) Short-eared dog (Atelocynus microtis) Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) Lycalopex (South American foxes) Culpeo (L. culpaeus) Darwin's fox (L. fulvipes) South American gray fox (L. griseus) Pampas fox (L. gymnocercus) Sechuran fox (L. sechurae) Hoary fox (L. vetulus) Canina (wolf-like canids) Lupulella Side-striped jackal (L. adustus) Black-backed jackal (L. mesomelas) Lycaon African wild dog (L. pictus) Dhole (Cuon alpinus) Canis Golden jackal (C. aureus) Domestic dog (C. familiaris) Coyote (C. latrans) African wolf (C. lupaster) Wolf (C. lupus) Eastern wolf (C. lycaon) Red wolf (C. rufus) Ethiopian wolf (C. simensis) Arctoidea Ursidae (bears) Ailuropoda Giant panda (A. melanoleuca) Tremarctos Spectacled bear (T. ornatus) Ursinae Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Ursus American black bear (U. americanus) Asian black bear (U. thibetanus) Brown bear (U. arctos) Polar bear (U. maritimus) Mustelida Pinnipedia (seals) see below↓ Musteloidea see below↓ Pinnipedia (seals) Odobenidae Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) Otariidae (eared seals) Callorhinus (northern fur seals) Northern fur seal (C. ursinus) Otariinae (sea lions) Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) Zalophus California sea lion (Z. californianus) Galápagos sea lion (Z. wollebaeki) South American sea lion (Otaria flavescens) Neophoca Australian sea lion (N. cinerea) New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) Arctocephalus (southern fur seals) South American fur seal (A. australis) Australasian fur seal (A. forsteri) Galápagos fur seal (A. galapagoensis) Antarctic fur seal (A. gazella) Juan Fernández fur seal (A. philippii) Brown fur seal (A. pusillus) Guadalupe fur seal (A. townsendi) Subantarctic fur seal (A. tropicalis) Phocidae (earless seals or true seals) Phocinae ("northern seals") Bearded seal (Erignathus barbatus) Hooded seal (Cystophora cristata) Phocini Harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) Ribbon seal (Histriophoca fasciata) Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) Phoca Spotted seal (P. largha) Harbor seal (P. vitulina) Pusa Caspian seal (P. caspica) Ringed seal (P. hispida) Baikal seal (P. sibirica) Monachinae ("southern seals") Monachini (monk seals) Mediterranean monk seal (Monachus monachus) Neomonachus Hawaiian monk seal (N. schauinslandi) Mirounga (elephant seals) Northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris) Southern elephant seal (M. leonina) Lobodontini (Antarctic seals) Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) Weddell seal (Leptonychotes weddellii) Crabeater seal (Lobodon carcinophagus) Ross seal (Ommatophoca rossi) Musteloidea Ailuridae Red panda (Ailurus fulgens) Mephitidae (skunks) Conepatus (hog-nosed skunks) Molina's hog-nosed skunk (C. chinga) Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk (C. humboldtii) American hog-nosed skunk (C. leuconotus) Striped hog-nosed skunk (C. semistriatus) Mephitis Hooded skunk (M. macroura) Striped skunk (M. mephitis) Mydaus (stink badgers) Sunda stink badger (M. javanensis) Palawan stink badger (M. marchei) Spilogale (spotted skunks) Southern spotted skunk (S. angustifrons) Western spotted skunk (S. gracilis) Eastern spotted skunk (S. putorius) Pygmy spotted skunk (S. pygmaea) Procyonidae Kinkajou (Potos flavus) Bassariscus Ringtail (B. astutus) Cacomistle (B. sumichrasti) Procyon (raccoons) Crab-eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus) Raccoon (P. lotor) Cozumel raccoon (P. pygmaeus) Bassaricyon (olingos) Eastern lowland olingo (B. alleni) Northern olingo (B. gabbii) Western lowland olingo (B. medius) Olinguito (B. neblina) Nasuina (coatis) Nasua White-nosed coati (N. narica) South American coati (N. nasua) Nasuella (mountain coatis) Eastern mountain coati (N. meridensis) Western mountain coati (N. olivacea) Mustelidae see below↓ Mustelidae Mustelidae American badger (Taxidea taxus) Mellivora Honey badger (M. capensis) Melinae Arctonyx (hog badgers) Northern hog badger (A. albogularis) Greater hog badger (A. collaris) Sumatran hog badger (A. hoevenii) Meles (Eurasian badgers) Japanese badger (M. anakuma) Caucasian badger (M. canescens) Asian badger (M. leucurus) European badger (M. meles) Melogale (ferret-badgers) Vietnam ferret-badger (M. cucphuongensis) Bornean ferret badger (M. everetti) Chinese ferret-badger (M. moschata) Javan ferret-badger (M. orientalis) Burmese ferret-badger (M. personata) Formosan ferret-badger (M. subaurantiaca) Guloninae Tayra (Eira barbara) Pekania Fisher (P. pennanti) Gulo Wolverine (G. gulo) Martes (martens) American marten (M. americana) Pacific marten (M. caurina) Yellow-throated marten (M. flavigula) Beech marten (M. foina) Nilgiri marten (M. gwatkinsii) European pine marten (M. martes) Japanese marten (M. melampus) Sable (M. zibellina) Ictonychinae Lyncodontini Patagonian weasel (Lyncodon patagonicus) Galictis (grisons) Lesser grison (G. cuja) Greater grison (G. vittata) Ictonychini (African polecats) Vormela Marbled polecat (V. peregusna) African striped weasel (Poecilogale albinucha) Ictonyx Saharan striped polecat (I. libycus) Striped polecat (I. striatus) Lutrinae (otters) Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) Lontra North American river otter (L. canadensis) Marine otter (L. felina) Neotropical otter (L. longicaudis) Southern river otter (L. provocax) Enhydra Sea otter (E. lutris) Spotted-necked otter (Hydrictis maculicollis) Lutra Eurasian otter (L. lutra) Hairy-nosed otter (L. sumatrana) Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter (L. perspicillata) Aonyx African clawless otter (A. capensis) Asian small-clawed otter (A. cinereus) Congo clawless otter (A. congicus) Mustelinae Neogale (New World weasels) Amazon weasel (N. africana) Colombian weasel (N. felipei) Long-tailed weasel (N. frenata) American mink (N. vison) Mustela (weasels) subgenus Mustela (paraphyletic) Sichuan weasel (M. aistoodonnivalis) Mountain weasel (M. altaica) Stoat/Beringian ermine (M. erminea) Haida ermine (M. haidarum) Yellow-bellied weasel (M. kathiah) Least weasel (M. nivalis) American ermine (M. richardsonii) subgenus Lutreola (paraphyletic) Japanese weasel (M. itatsi) European mink (M. lutreola) Indonesian mountain weasel (M. lutreolina) Malayan weasel (M. nudipes) Siberian weasel (M. sibirica) Back-striped weasel (M. strigidorsa) subgenus Putorius Steppe polecat (M. eversmannii) Ferret (M. furo) Black-footed ferret (M. nigripes) European polecat (M. putorius) See also: Mink Polecat

v t e Big cats on the Indian subcontinent Extant in the wild Asiatic lion (Panthera leo leo) Bengal tiger (P. tigris tigris) Indian leopard (P. pardus fusca) Snow leopard (P. uncia) Clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa) Extirpated from India Asiatic cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus venaticus) Under reintroduction Asiatic lion in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary South African cheetah (A. jubatus jubatus) in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary

Taxon identifiers Panthera uncia Wikidata: Q30197 Wikispecies: Panthera uncia ADW: Uncia BOLD: 741526 CoL: 4CGXT ECOS: 771 EoL: 328676 EPPO: UNCAUN GBIF: 5787213 iNaturalist: 74831 IRMNG: 11902465 ISC: 70721 ITIS: 933420 IUCN: 22732 MDD: 1006024 NCBI: 29064 Observation.org: 200999 Open Tree of Life: 532117 Paleobiology Database: 224097 Species+: 32743 Xeno-canto: Panthera-uncia Felis uncia Wikidata: Q24284231 GBIF: 9406202 ZooBank: BBF6DF0B-2B46-42A7-A788-CCD022D158C6

Authority control databases International GND National United States France BnF data Israel Other Yale LUX

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Snow leopard](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_leopard) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_leopard?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.