# Skull

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Bony structure that forms the head in vertebrates

This article is about the skulls of all animals including humans. For other uses, see [Skull (disambiguation)](/source/Skull_(disambiguation)) and [Cranium (disambiguation)](/source/Cranium_(disambiguation)).

Not to be confused with [Scull](/source/Scull) or [Sköll](/source/Sk%C3%B6ll).

Skull Volume rendering of a mouse skull Details System Skeletal system Identifiers MeSH D012886 FMA 54964 Anatomical terminology [edit on Wikidata]

The **skull**, or **cranium**, is typically a [bony](/source/Bone) enclosure around the [brain](/source/Brain) of a [vertebrate](/source/Vertebrate).[1][2] In some [fish](/source/Fish) and [amphibians](/source/Amphibian), the skull is of [cartilage](/source/Cartilage). The skull is at the [head](/source/Head) end of the vertebrate.

In a human, the skull comprises two prominent parts: the [neurocranium](/source/Neurocranium) and the [facial skeleton](/source/Facial_skeleton),[3] which [evolved](/source/Evolution) from the [first pharyngeal arch](/source/First_pharyngeal_arch). The skull forms the frontmost portion of the [axial skeleton](/source/Axial_skeleton) and is a product of [cephalization](/source/Cephalization) and [vesicular enlargement](/source/Brain_vesicle) of the brain, with several [special senses](/source/Special_senses) structures such as the [eyes](/source/Eye), [ears](/source/Ear), [nose](/source/Nose), [tongue](/source/Tongue) and, in fish, specialized [tactile](/source/Touch) [organs](/source/Organ_(biology)) such as [barbels](/source/Barbel_(zoology)) near the mouth.[4]

The skull is composed of three types of bone: cranial bones, [facial bones](/source/Facial_bone) and [ossicles](/source/Ossicle), which is made up of a number of fused [flat](/source/Flat_bone) and [irregular bones](/source/Irregular_bone). The cranial bones are joined at firm fibrous junctions called [sutures](/source/Suture_(joint)) and contains many [foramina](/source/Foramina), [fossae](/source/Fossa_(anatomy)), [processes](/source/Process_(anatomy)), and [sinuses](/source/Sinus_(anatomy)). In [zoology](/source/Zoology), the openings in the skull are called [fenestrae](/source/Fenestra), the most prominent of which is the [foramen magnum](/source/Foramen_magnum), where the [brainstem](/source/Brainstem) goes through to join the [spinal cord](/source/Spinal_cord).

In [human anatomy](/source/Human_anatomy), the neurocranium (or braincase), is further divided into the [calvaria](/source/Calvaria_(skull)) and the [endocranium](/source/Endocranium), together forming a [cranial cavity](/source/Cranial_cavity) that houses the brain. The interior [periosteum](/source/Periosteum) forms part of the [dura mater](/source/Dura_mater), the facial skeleton and [splanchnocranium](/source/Splanchnocranium) with the mandible being its largest bone. The mandible [articulates](/source/Joint) with the [temporal bones](/source/Temporal_bone) of the neurocranium at the paired [temporomandibular joints](/source/Temporomandibular_joint). The skull itself articulates with the [spinal column](/source/Spinal_column) at the [atlanto-occipital joint](/source/Atlanto-occipital_joint). The human skull fully develops two years after birth.

Functions of the skull include physical protection for the brain, providing attachments for [neck](/source/Neck) [muscles](/source/Muscle), [facial muscles](/source/Facial_muscles) and [muscles of mastication](/source/Muscles_of_mastication), providing fixed [eye sockets](/source/Eye_socket) and [outer ears](/source/Outer_ear) ([ear canals](/source/Ear_canal) and [auricles](/source/Auricle_(anatomy))) to enable [stereoscopic vision](/source/Stereoscopic_vision) and [sound localisation](/source/Sound_localisation), forming [nasal](/source/Nasal_cavity) and [oral cavities](/source/Oral_cavity) that allow better [olfaction](/source/Olfaction), [taste](/source/Taste) and [digestion](/source/Digestion), and contributing to [phonation](/source/List_of_animal_sounds) by [acoustic resonance](/source/Acoustic_resonance) within the cavities and sinuses. In some animals such as [ungulates](/source/Ungulate) and [elephants](/source/Elephant), the skull also has a function in [anti-predator defense](/source/Anti-predator_defense) and [sexual selection](/source/Sexual_selection) by providing the foundation for [horns](/source/Horn_(anatomy)), [antlers](/source/Antler) and [tusks](/source/Tusk).

The English word *skull* is probably derived from [Old Norse](/source/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin) *skulle*,[5] while the [Latin](/source/Latin) word *cranium* comes from the [Greek root](/source/Greek_and_Latin_roots_in_English) κρανίον (*kranion*).

## Structure

### Humans

For details and the constituent bones, see [Neurocranium](/source/Neurocranium) and [Facial skeleton](/source/Facial_skeleton).

Skull in situ

Human head skull from side

Anatomy of a flat bone – the periosteum of the neurocranium is known as the [pericranium](/source/Periosteum)

Human skull from the front

Side bones of skull

The **human skull** is the bone structure that forms the [head](/source/Human_head) in the [human skeleton](/source/Human_skeleton). It supports the structures of the [face](/source/Face) and forms a cavity for the [brain](/source/Human_brain). Like the skulls of other vertebrates, it protects the brain from injury.[6]

The skull consists of three parts, of different [embryological](/source/Embryology) origin—the [neurocranium](/source/Neurocranium), the [sutures](/source/Fibrous_joint#Sutures), and the [facial skeleton](/source/Facial_skeleton). The neurocranium (or *braincase*) forms the protective [cranial cavity](/source/Cranial_cavity) that surrounds and houses the brain and [brainstem](/source/Brainstem).[7] The upper areas of the cranial bones form the [calvaria](/source/Calvaria_(skull)) (skullcap). The facial skeleton (membranous viscerocranium) is formed by the bones supporting the face, and includes the [mandible](/source/Mandible).

The bones of the skull are joined by [fibrous joints](/source/Fibrous_joint) known as sutures—[synarthrodial](/source/Synarthrodial) (immovable) [joints](/source/Joint) formed by bony [ossification](/source/Ossification), with [Sharpey's fibres](/source/Sharpey's_fibres) permitting some flexibility. Sometimes there can be extra bone pieces within the suture known as [Wormian bones](/source/Wormian_bone) or *sutural bones*. Most commonly these are found in the course of the [lambdoid suture](/source/Lambdoid_suture).

#### Bones

Main article: [Bone](/source/Bone)

The human skull is generally considered to consist of 22 bones—eight cranial bones and fourteen facial skeleton bones. In the neurocranium these are the [occipital bone](/source/Occipital_bone), two [temporal bones](/source/Temporal_bone), two [parietal bones](/source/Parietal_bone), the [sphenoid](/source/Sphenoid_bone), [ethmoid](/source/Ethmoid_bone) and [frontal bones](/source/Frontal_bone).

The bones of the [facial skeleton](/source/Facial_skeleton) (14) are the [vomer](/source/Vomer), two [inferior nasal conchae](/source/Inferior_nasal_concha), two [nasal bones](/source/Nasal_bone), two [maxilla](/source/Maxilla), the mandible, two [palatine bones](/source/Palatine_bone), two [zygomatic bones](/source/Zygomatic_bone), and two [lacrimal bones](/source/Lacrimal_bone). Some sources count a paired bone as one, or the maxilla as having two bones (as its parts); some sources include the [hyoid bone](/source/Hyoid_bone) or the three [ossicles](/source/Ossicles) of the [middle ear](/source/Middle_ear), the malleus, incus, and stapes, but the overall general consensus of the number of bones in the human skull is the stated twenty-two.

Some of these bones—the occipital, parietal, frontal, in the neurocranium, and the nasal, lacrimal, and vomer, in the facial skeleton are [flat bones](/source/Flat_bone).

#### Cavities and foramina

CT scan of a human skull in 3D

The skull also contains [sinuses](/source/Sinus_(anatomy)), air-filled cavities known as [paranasal sinuses](/source/Paranasal_sinuses), and numerous [foramina](/source/List_of_foramina_in_the_human_body#Skull). The sinuses are lined with [respiratory epithelium](/source/Respiratory_epithelium). Their known functions are the lessening of the weight of the skull, the aiding of resonance to the voice and the warming and moistening of the air drawn into the [nasal cavity](/source/Nasal_cavity).

The foramina are openings in the skull. The largest of these is the [foramen magnum](/source/Foramen_magnum), of the occipital bone, that allows the passage of the [spinal cord](/source/Spinal_cord) as well as [nerves](/source/Nerve) and [blood vessels](/source/Blood_vessel).

#### Processes

The many [processes](/source/Process_(anatomy)#Examples) of the skull include the [mastoid process](/source/Mastoid_process) and the [zygomatic processes](/source/Zygomatic_process).

### Other vertebrates

#### Fenestrae

Chimpanzee skull

The fenestrae (from Latin, meaning windows) are openings in the skull. Antorbital fenestra Mandibular fenestra Quadratojugal fenestra Subsquamosal fenestra, an opening between two parts of the squamosal bone in some rodents Temporal fenestra

#### Bones

The [jugal](/source/Jugal) is a skull bone that is found in most of the reptiles, amphibians and birds. In mammals, the jugal is often called the zygomatic bone or malar bone.[8]

The [prefrontal bone](/source/Prefrontal_bone) is a bone that separates the lacrimal and frontal bones in many tetrapod skulls.

#### Fish

Fish head parts, 1889, Fauna of British India, Sir Francis Day

The skull of fish is formed from a series of only loosely connected bones. [Lampreys](/source/Lamprey) and [sharks](/source/Shark) only possess a cartilaginous endocranium, with both the upper jaw and the lower [jaws](/source/Jaw) being separate elements. Bony fishes have additional [dermal bone](/source/Dermal_bone), forming a more or less coherent [skull roof](/source/Skull_roof) in [lungfish](/source/Lungfish) and [holost](/source/Holost) fish. The lower jaw defines the chin.

The simpler structure is found in [jawless fish](/source/Jawless_fish), in which the cranium is normally represented by a trough-like basket of cartilaginous elements only partially enclosing the brain, and associated with the capsules for the inner ears and the single nostril. Distinctively, these fish have no jaws.[9]

[Cartilaginous fish](/source/Cartilaginous_fish), such as sharks and rays, have also simple, and presumably primitive, skull structures. The cranium is a single structure forming a case around the brain, enclosing the lower surface and the sides, but always at least partially open at the top as a large [fontanelle](/source/Fontanelle). The most anterior part of the cranium includes a forward plate of cartilage, the [rostrum](/source/Rostrum_(anatomy)), and capsules to enclose the [olfactory](/source/Olfactory) organs. Behind these are the orbits, and then an additional pair of capsules enclosing the structure of the [inner ear](/source/Inner_ear). Finally, the skull tapers towards the rear, where the foramen magnum lies immediately above a single [condyle](/source/Condyle_(anatomy)), articulating with the first [vertebra](/source/Vertebra). There are, in addition, at various points throughout the cranium, smaller [foramina](/source/Foramina_of_skull) for the cranial nerves. The jaws consist of separate hoops of cartilage, almost always distinct from the cranium proper.[9]

Skull of a [swordfish](/source/Swordfish)

In [ray-finned fish](/source/Ray-finned_fish), there has also been considerable modification from the primitive pattern. The roof of the skull is generally well formed, and although the exact relationship of its bones to those of tetrapods is unclear, they are usually given similar names for convenience. Other elements of the skull, however, may be reduced; there is little cheek region behind the enlarged orbits, and little, if any bone in between them. The upper jaw is often formed largely from the [premaxilla](/source/Premaxilla), with the maxilla itself located further back, and an additional bone, the symplectic, linking the jaw to the rest of the cranium.[10]

Although the skulls of fossil lobe-finned fish resemble those of the early tetrapods, the same cannot be said of those of the living [lungfishes](/source/Lungfish). The [skull roof](/source/Skull_roof) is not fully formed, and consists of multiple, somewhat irregularly shaped bones with no direct relationship to those of tetrapods. The upper jaw is formed from the [pterygoids](/source/Pterygoid_bone) and [vomers](/source/Vomer) alone, all of which bear teeth. Much of the skull is formed from [cartilage](/source/Cartilage), and its overall structure is reduced.[10]

### Tetrapods

The skulls of the earliest [tetrapods](/source/Tetrapod) closely resembled those of their [ancestors](/source/Ancestor) amongst the [lobe-finned fishes](/source/Lobe-finned_fish). The [skull roof](/source/Skull_roof) is formed of a series of plate-like bones, including the maxilla, [frontals](/source/Frontal_bone), [parietals](/source/Parietal_bone), and [lacrimals](/source/Lacrimal_bone), among others. It is overlaying the [endocranium](/source/Endocranium), corresponding to the cartilaginous skull in sharks and [rays](/source/Batoidea). The various separate bones that compose the temporal bone of humans are also part of the skull roof series. A further plate composed of four pairs of bones forms the roof of the mouth; these include the [vomer](/source/Vomer) and [palatine bones](/source/Palatine_bone). The base of the cranium is formed from several bones and many of these are [homologous](/source/Homology_(biology)) with parts of the [sphenoid](/source/Sphenoid_bone) and [occipital](/source/Occipital_bone) bones in mammals. Finally, the lower jaw is composed of multiple bones, only the most anterior of which (the dentary) is homologous with the mammalian mandible.[10]

In living tetrapods, a great many of the original bones have either disappeared or fused into one another in various arrangements.

#### Birds

Cuckoo skull

[Birds](/source/Bird) have a [diapsid](/source/Diapsid) skull, as in reptiles, with a prelacrimal fossa (present in some reptiles). The skull has a single occipital condyle.[11] The skull consists of five major bones: the frontal (top of head), parietal (back of head), premaxillary and nasal (top beak), and the mandible (bottom beak). The skull of a normal bird usually weighs about 1% of the bird's total bodyweight. The eye occupies a considerable amount of the skull and is surrounded by a sclerotic eye-ring, a ring of tiny bones. This characteristic is also seen in reptiles.

#### Amphibians

Amphibians' skulls, Hans Gadow, 1909 *Amphibia and Reptiles*

Living [amphibians](/source/Amphibian) typically have greatly reduced skulls, with many of the bones either absent or wholly or partly replaced by cartilage.[10] In mammals and birds, in particular, modifications of the skull occurred to allow for the expansion of the brain. The fusion between the various bones is especially notable in birds, in which the individual structures may be difficult to identify.

## Development

Skull of a new-born child from the side

The skull is a complex structure; its bones are formed both by [intramembranous](/source/Intramembranous_ossification) and [endochondral ossification](/source/Endochondral_ossification). The [skull roof](/source/Skull_roof) bones, comprising the bones of the facial skeleton and the sides and roof of the neurocranium, are [dermal bones](/source/Dermal_bone) formed by intramembranous ossification, though the temporal bones are formed by endochondral ossification. The [endocranium](/source/Endocranium), the bones supporting the brain (the occipital, [sphenoid](/source/Sphenoid_bone), and [ethmoid](/source/Ethmoid_bone)) are largely formed by endochondral ossification. Thus frontal and parietal bones are purely membranous.[12] The geometry of the [skull base](/source/Base_of_skull) and its [fossae](/source/Fossa_(anatomy)), the [anterior](/source/Anterior_cranial_fossa), [middle](/source/Middle_cranial_fossa) and [posterior cranial fossae](/source/Posterior_cranial_fossa) changes rapidly. The anterior cranial fossa changes especially during the [first trimester](/source/Pregnancy) of pregnancy and skull defects can often develop during this time.[13] The prenatal growth of the anterior cranial fossa is not uniform. During the first trimester, there is allometric growth, with the longitudinal dimension increasing from 5 to 17 millimeters between the 8th and 14th week of fetal life. At the same time, the angle of the anterior cranial fossa decreases, and its depth increases towards the middle cranial fossa. In the second trimester, growth continues but becomes more uniform, with only slight changes in the angle of the anterior cranial fossa. There is a gradual decrease in the angle between the lesser wings of the sphenoid bone as the depth of the anterior cranial fossa increases in the frontal plane.[14]

At birth, the human skull is made up of 44 separate bony elements. During development, many of these bony elements gradually fuse together into solid bone (for example, the [frontal bone](/source/Frontal_bone)). The bones of the [roof of the skull](/source/Skull_roof) are initially separated by regions of dense [connective tissue](/source/Connective_tissue) called [fontanelles](/source/Fontanelles). There are six fontanelles: one anterior (or frontal), one posterior (or occipital), two sphenoid (or anterolateral), and two mastoid (or posterolateral). At birth, these regions are fibrous and moveable, necessary for birth and later growth. This growth can put a large amount of tension on the "obstetrical hinge", which is where the [squamous](/source/Squama_occipitalis) and [lateral parts](/source/Lateral_parts_of_occipital_bone) of the occipital bone meet. A possible complication of this tension is rupture of the [great cerebral vein](/source/Great_cerebral_vein). As growth and ossification progress, the connective tissue of the fontanelles is invaded and replaced by bone creating [sutures](/source/Suture_(anatomical)). The five sutures are the two [squamous sutures](/source/Squamosal_suture), one [coronal](/source/Coronal_suture), one [lambdoid](/source/Lambdoid_suture), and one [sagittal suture](/source/Sagittal_suture). The posterior fontanelle usually closes by eight weeks, but the anterior fontanel can remain open up to eighteen months. The anterior fontanelle is located at the junction of the frontal and parietal bones; it is a "soft spot" on a baby's forehead. Careful observation will show that you can count a baby's heart rate by observing the pulse pulsing softly through the anterior fontanelle.

The skull in the [neonate](/source/Neonate) is large in proportion to other parts of the body. The facial skeleton is one seventh of the size of the [calvaria](/source/Calvaria_(skull)). (In the adult it is half the size). The [base of the skull](/source/Base_of_the_skull) is short and narrow, though the [inner ear](/source/Inner_ear) is almost adult size.[15]

## Clinical significance

[Craniosynostosis](/source/Craniosynostosis) is a condition in which one or more of the fibrous [sutures](/source/Suture_(joint)) in an infant skull prematurely fuses,[16] and changes the growth pattern of the skull.[17] Because the skull cannot expand perpendicular to the fused suture, it grows more in the parallel direction.[17] Sometimes the resulting growth pattern provides the necessary space for the growing brain, but results in an abnormal head shape and abnormal facial features.[17] In cases in which the compensation does not effectively provide enough space for the growing brain, craniosynostosis results in increased [intracranial pressure](/source/Intracranial_pressure) leading possibly to visual impairment, sleeping impairment, eating difficulties, or an impairment of mental development.[18]

A [copper beaten skull](/source/Copper_beaten_skull) is a phenomenon wherein intense intracranial pressure disfigures the internal surface of the skull.[19] The name comes from the fact that the inner skull has the appearance of having been beaten with a [ball-peen hammer](/source/Ball-peen_hammer), such as is often used by [coppersmiths](/source/Coppersmith). The condition is most common in children.

### Injuries and treatment

Injuries to the brain can be life-threatening. Normally the skull protects the brain from damage through its high resistance to deformation; the skull is one of the least deformable structures found in nature, needing the force of about 1 ton to reduce its diameter by 1 cm.[20] In some cases of [head injury](/source/Head_injury), however, there can be raised [intracranial pressure](/source/Intracranial_pressure) through mechanisms such as a [subdural haematoma](/source/Subdural_haematoma). In these cases, the raised intracranial pressure can cause herniation of the brain out of the foramen magnum ("coning") because there is no space for the brain to expand; this can result in significant [brain damage](/source/Brain_damage) or death unless an urgent operation is performed to relieve the pressure. This is why patients with [concussion](/source/Concussion) must be watched extremely carefully. Repeated concussions can activate the structure of skull bones as the brain's protective covering.[21]

Dating back to [Neolithic](/source/Neolithic) times, a skull operation called [trepanning](/source/Trepanning) was sometimes performed. This involved drilling a *burr* hole in the cranium. Examination of skulls from this period reveals that the patients sometimes survived for many years afterward. It seems likely that trepanning was also performed purely for ritualistic or religious reasons. Nowadays this procedure is still used but is normally called a [craniectomy](/source/Craniectomy).

In March 2013, for the first time in the U.S., researchers replaced a large percentage of a patient's skull with a precision, [3D-printed](/source/3D_printing) [polymer](/source/Polymer) [implant](/source/Implant_(medicine)).[22] About 9 months later, the first complete cranium replacement with a 3D-printed plastic insert was performed on a Dutch woman. She had been suffering from [hyperostosis](/source/Hyperostosis), which increased the thickness of her skull and compressed her brain.[23]

A study conducted in 2018 by the researchers of [Harvard Medical School](/source/Harvard_Medical_School) in Boston, funded by [National Institutes of Health](/source/National_Institutes_of_Health) (NIH), suggested that instead of travelling via [blood](/source/Blood), there are "tiny channels" in the skull through which the [immune cells](/source/White_blood_cell) combined with the [bone marrow](/source/Bone_marrow) reach the areas of [inflammation](/source/Inflammation) after an injury to the brain tissues.[24]

### Transgender procedures

Surgical alteration of [sexually dimorphic](/source/Sexual_dimorphism) skull features may be carried out as a part of [facial feminization surgery](/source/Facial_feminization_surgery) or [facial masculinization surgery](/source/Facial_masculinization_surgery), these reconstructive surgical procedures that can alter sexually dimorphic facial features to bring them closer in shape and size to facial features of the desired sex.[25][26] These procedures can be an important part of the treatment of [transgender](/source/Transgender) people for [gender dysphoria](/source/Gender_dysphoria).[27][28]

## Society and culture

Adam was believed to have been buried on [Mount Calvary](/source/Mount_Calvary). Silk embroidery (17th century).

[Artificial cranial deformation](/source/Artificial_cranial_deformation) is a largely historical practice of some cultures. Cords and wooden boards would be used to apply pressure to an infant's skull and alter its shape, sometimes quite significantly. This procedure would begin just after birth and would be carried on for several years.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Osteology

Like the face, the skull and teeth can also indicate a person's life history and origin. [Forensic](/source/Forensics) scientists and [archaeologists](/source/Archeology) use quantitative and qualitative traits to estimate what the bearer of the skull looked like. When a significant amount of bones are found, such as at [Spitalfields](/source/Spitalfields) in the UK and [Jōmon](/source/J%C5%8Dmon) [shell mounds](/source/Shell_mound) in Japan, [osteologists](/source/Osteology) can use traits, such as the proportions of length, height and width, to know the relationships of the population of the study with other living or extinct populations.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

The German physician [Franz Joseph Gall](/source/Franz_Joseph_Gall) in around 1800 formulated the theory of [phrenology](/source/Phrenology), which attempted to show that specific features of the skull are associated with certain personality traits or intellectual capabilities of its owner. His theory is now considered to be [pseudoscientific](/source/Pseudoscience).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

### Sexual dimorphism

Main article: [Sexual dimorphism](/source/Sexual_dimorphism)

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In the mid-nineteenth century, [anthropologists](/source/Anthropologist) found it crucial to distinguish between male and female skulls. An anthropologist of the time, [James McGrigor Allan](/source/James_McGrigor_Allan), argued that the female brain was similar to that of an animal.[29] This allowed anthropologists to declare that women were in fact more emotional and less rational than men. McGrigor then concluded that women's brains were more analogous to infants, thus deeming them inferior at the time.[29] To further these claims of female inferiority and silence the feminists of the time, other anthropologists joined in on the studies of the female skull. These cranial measurements are the basis of what is known as [craniology](/source/Craniology). These cranial measurements were also used to draw a connection between women and black people.[29]

Research has shown that while in early life there is little difference between male and female skulls, in adulthood male skulls tend to be larger and more robust than female skulls, which are lighter and smaller, with a cranial capacity about 10 percent less than that of the male.[30] However, later studies show that women's skulls are slightly thicker and thus men may be more susceptible to head injury than women.[31] However, other studies shows that men's skulls are slightly thicker in certain areas.[32] Some studies show that females are more susceptible to concussion than males.[33] Men's skulls have also been shown to maintain density with age, which may aid in preventing head injury, while women's skull density slightly decreases with age.[34][35]

Male skulls can all have more prominent [supraorbital ridges](/source/Supraorbital_ridge), [glabella](/source/Glabella), and [temporal lines](/source/Parietal_bone). Female skulls generally have rounder [orbits](/source/Orbit_(anatomy)) and narrower jaws. Male skulls on average have larger, broader [palates](/source/Palate), squarer orbits, larger [mastoid processes](/source/Mastoid_process), larger [sinuses](/source/Paranasal_sinus), and larger [occipital condyles](/source/Occipital_condyle) than those of females. Male mandibles typically have squarer chins and thicker, rougher muscle attachments than female mandibles.[36]

### Craniometry

The [cephalic index](/source/Cephalic_index) is the ratio of the width of the head, multiplied by 100 and divided by its length (front to back). The index is also used to categorize animals, especially dogs and cats. The width is usually measured just below the [parietal eminence](/source/Parietal_eminence), and the length from the [glabella](/source/Glabella) to the occipital point.

Humans may be:

- *Dolichocephalic* — long-headed

- *Mesaticephalic* — medium-headed

- *Brachycephalic* — short-headed[15]

The [*vertical* cephalic index](/source/Cephalic_index#Vertical_cephalic_index) refers to the ratio between the height of the head multiplied by 100 and divided by the length of the head.

Humans may be:

- *Chamaecranic* — low-skulled

- *Orthocranic* — medium high-skulled

- *Hypsicranic* — high-skulled

## Terminology

- [Chondrocranium](/source/Chondrocranium), a primitive cartilaginous skeletal structure

- [Endocranium](/source/Endocranium)

- [Epicranium](/source/Epicranium)

- [Pericranium](/source/Pericranium), a membrane that lines the outer surface of the cranium

## History

[Trepanning](/source/Trepanning), a practice in which a hole is created in the skull, has been described as the oldest surgical procedure for which there is [archaeological](/source/Archaeological) evidence,[37] found in the forms of cave paintings and human remains. At one burial site in [France](/source/France) dated to 6500 BCE, 40 out of 120 [prehistoric](/source/Prehistoric_France) skulls found had trepanation holes.[38]

## Additional images

		- [African elephant](/source/African_elephant) skull in the [Cleveland Museum of Natural History](/source/Cleveland_Museum_of_Natural_History)

		- [Vulture](/source/Vulture) skull

		- [King cobra](/source/King_cobra) skull

		- Goat skull

		- Skull of *[Tiktaalik](/source/Tiktaalik)*, an extinct genus transitional between [lobe-finned fish](/source/Lobe-finned_fish) and early tetrapods

		- *[Centrosaurus](/source/Centrosaurus)* skull

## See also

This article uses [anatomical terminology](/source/Anatomical_terminology).

- [Craniometry](/source/Craniometry)

- [Crystal skull](/source/Crystal_skull)

- [Head and neck anatomy](/source/Head_and_neck_anatomy)

- [Human skull symbolism](/source/Human_skull_symbolism)

- [Memento mori](/source/Memento_mori)

- [Plagiocephaly](/source/Plagiocephaly), the abnormal flattening of one side of the skull

- [Skull and crossbones (disambiguation)](/source/Skull_and_crossbones_(disambiguation))

- [Teshik-Tash](/source/Teshik-Tash#The_skull)

- [Totenkopf](/source/Totenkopf)

- [Yorick](/source/Yorick)

- [Overmodelled skull](/source/Overmodelled_skull)

- [Diploë](/source/Diplo%C3%AB)

## References

*This article incorporates text in the [public domain](/source/Public_domain) from [page 128](https://archive.org/stream/anatomyofhumanbo1918gray#page/128/mode/2up) of the 20th edition of* [Gray's Anatomy](/source/Gray's_Anatomy) *(1918)*

*As of [this edit](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:PermanentLink/1291217525), this article uses content from*["Morphometric evaluation of the anterior cranial fossa during the prenatal stage in humans and its clinical implications"](https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0309184)*, authored by Wojciech Derkowski, Alicja Kędzia, Krzysztof Dudek, Michał Glonek, which is licensed in a way that permits reuse under the [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License), but not under the [GFDL](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_GNU_Free_Documentation_License). All relevant terms must be followed.*

1. **[^](#cite_ref-NCI2024_1-0)** ["Cranium"](https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/cranium). *www.cancer.gov*. 2 February 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2024.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["Cephalization: Biology"](https://www.britannica.com/science/cephalization). *[Encyclopædia Britannica](/source/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica)*. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160502000749/http://www.britannica.com/science/cephalization) from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2016.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Derkowski, Wojciech; Kędzia, Alicja; Dudek, Krzysztof; Glonek, Michał (27 December 2024). ["Morphometric evaluation of the anterior cranial fossa during the prenatal stage in humans and its clinical implications"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11676864). *PLOS ONE*. **19** (12) e0309184. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2024PLoSO..1909184D](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024PLoSO..1909184D). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1371/journal.pone.0309184](https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0309184). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1932-6203](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1932-6203). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [11676864](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11676864). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [39729454](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39729454).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Human_Anatomy_Volume_3_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Human_Anatomy_Volume_3_15-1) Chaurasia, B. D. (2013). *BD Chaurasia's Human Anatomy: Regional and Applied Dissection and Clinical*. Vol. 3: Head–Neck Brain (Sixth ed.). CBS Publishers & Distributors. pp. 29–30. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-239-2332-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-239-2332-1).

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** ["Repeated Concussions Can Thicken the Skull"](https://neurosciencenews.com/concussion-skull-thickening-21352/). 2 September 2022.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-22)** ["3D-Printed Polymer Skull Implant Used For First Time in US"](https://www.medicaldaily.com/3d-printed-polymer-skull-implant-used-first-time-us-244583). *Medical Daily*. 7 March 2013. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20130928042619/http://www.medicaldaily.com/3d-printed-polymer-skull-implant-used-first-time-us-244583) from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 24 September 2013.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-23)** ["Dutch hospital gives patient new plastic skull, made by 3D printer"](https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2014/03/dutch_hospital_gives_patient_n/). *DutchNews.nl*. 26 March 2014. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140328121216/http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2014/03/dutch_hospital_gives_patient_n.php) from the original on 28 March 2014.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-24)** Cohut, Maria (29 August 2018). ["Newly discovered skull channels play role in immunity"](https://web.archive.org/web/20180829142649/https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322901.php). *[Medical News Today](/source/Medical_News_Today)*. Archived from [the original](https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322901.php) on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 30 August 2018.

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1. **[^](#cite_ref-32)** Lynnerup, Niels; Astrup, Jacob G.; Sejrsen, Birgitte (2005). ["Thickness of the human cranial diploe in relation to age, sex and general body build"](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351187). *Head & Face Medicine*. **1** 13. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1186/1746-160X-1-13](https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1746-160X-1-13). [PMC](/source/PMC_(identifier)) [1351187](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351187). [PMID](/source/PMID_(identifier)) [16364185](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16364185).

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## External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to ***[Animal skulls](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Animal_skulls)*** and ***[Human skulls](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_skulls)***.

Look up ***[skull](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/skull)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

- [Skull Module](https://web.archive.org/web/20180430094506/http://www.csuchico.edu/anth/Module/skull.html) ([California State University](/source/California_State_University) Department of Anthology)

- [Skull Anatomy Tutorial.](https://web.archive.org/web/20170702211244/http://www.gwc.maricopa.edu/class/bio201/skull/skulltt.htm) ([GateWay Community College](/source/GateWay_Community_College))

- [Bird Skull Collection](https://www.skullsite.com) Bird skull database with very large collection of skulls (Agricultural University of Wageningen)

- [Human skull base](http://www.drjastrow.de/WAI/bones/skullbase.html) (in German)

- [Human Skulls / Anthropological Skulls / Comparison of Skulls of Vertebrates](https://web.archive.org/web/20111119200906/http://www.somso.de/img/schaedel_en.pdf) (PDF; 502 kB)

v t e Fibrous joints of the human skull Syndesmosis Pterygospinous ligament Stylohyoid ligament Sutures Involving the frontal bone frontoethmoidal suture frontal suture coronal suture occipitomastoid lambdoid sagittal Involving the sphenoid bone sphenoethmoidal with frontal bone with parietal bone sphenosquamosal Involving the Petrous part of the temporal bone sphenopetrosal petrosquamous squamosal Facial: palatomaxillary suture Involving the zygomatic process with sphenoid bone with temporal bone with frontal bone Mouth Gomphosis Periodontal fiber Periodontium Dental alveolus Gingiva Cementum

v t e Neurocranium of the skull Occipital Squamous part external Inion/External occipital protuberance Occipital bun External occipital crest Nuchal lines Suprainiac fossa planes Occipital Nuchal internal Cruciform eminence Internal occipital protuberance Internal occipital crest Groove for transverse sinus Lateral parts Condyle Condyloid fossa Condylar canal Hypoglossal canal jugular Jugular process Jugular tubercle Basilar part Pharyngeal tubercle Clivus Other Foramen magnum Basion Opisthion Parietal Parietal eminence Temporal line Parietal foramen Sagittal sulcus Sagittal keel Sagittal crest Frontal Squamous part Frontal suture Frontal eminence external Superciliary arches Glabella foramina Supraorbital foramen Brow ridge Foramen cecum Zygomatic process internal Sagittal sulcus Frontal crest Orbital part Ethmoidal notch Fossa for lacrimal gland Trochlear fovea Frontal sinus Frontonasal duct Temporal Squamous part Articular tubercle Suprameatal triangle Mandibular fossa Petrotympanic fissure Zygomatic process Mastoid part Mastoid foramen Mastoid process (Mastoid cells) Mastoid notch Occipital groove Sigmoid sulcus Mastoid antrum (Aditus) Petrous part Carotid canal Facial canal Hiatus Internal auditory meatus Cochlear aqueduct Stylomastoid foramen fossae Subarcuate fossa Jugular fossa canaliculi Inferior tympanic Mastoid Styloid process Petrosquamous suture (note: ossicles in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone) Tympanic part Suprameatal spine Sphenoid Surfaces Superior surface: Sella turcica Dorsum sellae Tuberculum sellae Hypophysial fossa Posterior clinoid processes Ethmoidal spine Chiasmatic groove Middle clinoid process Petrosal process Clivus Lateral surface: Carotid groove Sphenoidal lingula Anterior surface: Sphenoidal sinuses Great wings foramina Rotundum Ovale Vesalii Spinosum Spine Infratemporal crest Sulcus of auditory tube Small wings Superior orbital fissure Anterior clinoid process Optic canal Pterygoid processes fossae Pterygoid Scaphoid pterygoid plates Lateral Medial Pterygoid canal Hamulus Other Body Sphenoidal conchae Ethmoid Plates Cribriform plate Crista galli Olfactory foramina Perpendicular plate Surfaces Lateral surface Orbital lamina Uncinate process Medial surface Supreme nasal concha Superior nasal concha Superior meatus Middle nasal concha Middle meatus Labyrinth Ethmoid sinus ethmoidal foramina Posterior Anterior

v t e The facial skeleton of the skull Maxilla Surfaces Anterior: fossae (Incisive fossa, Canine fossa) Infraorbital foramen Orbital bones Anterior nasal spine Infratemporal: Alveolar canals Maxillary tuberosity Orbital: Infraorbital groove Infraorbital canal Nasal: Greater palatine canal Processes Zygomatic process Frontal process (Agger nasi, Anterior lacrimal crest) Alveolar process Palatine process (Incisive foramen, Incisive canals, Foramina of Scarpa, Incisive bone, Anterior nasal spine) Other Body of maxilla Maxillary sinus Zygomatic Orbital process (Zygomatico-orbital) Temporal process (Zygomaticotemporal) Lateral process (Zygomaticofacial) Palatine Fossae Pterygopalatine fossa Pterygoid fossa Plates Horizontal plate (Posterior nasal spine) Perpendicular plate (Greater palatine canal, Sphenopalatine foramen) Hard palate Processes Pyramidal Orbital Sphenoidal Mandible Body external surface (Chin, Jaw, Mandibular prominence, Mandibular symphysis, Lingual foramen, Mental protuberance, Mental foramen, Mandibular incisive canal) internal surface (Mental spine, Mylohyoid line, Sublingual fovea, Submandibular fovea) Alveolar part Ramus Mylohyoid groove Mandibular canal Lingula Mandibular foramen Angle Coronoid process Mandibular notch Condyloid process Pterygoid fovea Nose Nasal bone Internasal suture Nasal foramina Inferior nasal concha Ethmoidal process Maxillary process Vomer Wing Other Lacrimal Posterior lacrimal crest Lacrimal groove Lacrimal hamulus Prognathism Retromolar space

v t e Compound structures of skull Neurocranium Calvaria Diploë Asterion Pterion Stephanion Inion Bregma Lambda Fossae anterior middle posterior cranial cavity Base of skull Fontanelle anterior posterior sphenoidal mastoid Facial skeleton Nasion Gonion Both dacryon zygomatic arch temporal fossa infratemporal fossa pterygomaxillary fissure pterygopalatine fossa

v t e Human systems and organs Musculoskeletal system Skeletal system Bone Carpus Collar bone (clavicle) Thigh bone (femur) Fibula Humerus Mandible Metacarpus Metatarsus Ossicles Patella Phalanges Radius Skull Tarsus Tibia Ulna Rib Vertebra Pelvis Sternum Cartilage Joints Fibrous joint Cartilaginous joint Synovial joint Muscular system Muscle Tendon Diaphragm Circulatory system Cardiovascular system peripheral Artery Vein Lymphatic vessel Heart Lymphatic system primary Bone marrow Thymus secondary Spleen Lymph node CNS equivalent Glymphatic system Nervous system Brain Spinal cord Nerve Sensory system Ear Eye Somatic system Tissue Integumentary system Skin Subcutaneous tissue Breast Mammary gland Haematopoietic and immune systems Myeloid Myeloid immune system Lymphoid Lymphoid immune system Respiratory system Upper Nose Nasopharynx Larynx Lower Trachea Bronchus Lung Digestive system Mouth Salivary gland Tongue Lip Tooth upper GI Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Esophagus Stomach lower GI Small intestine Appendix Colon Rectum Anus accessory Liver Biliary tract Pancreas Urinary system Genitourinary system Kidney Ureter Bladder Urethra Reproductive system Male Scrotum Penis Prostate Testicle Seminal vesicle Female Uterus Vagina Vulva Ovary Placenta Endocrine system Pituitary Pineal Thyroid Parathyroid Adrenal Islets of Langerhans

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Skull](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.