# Skarn

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Hard, coarse-grained, hydrothermally altered metamorphic rocks

Microscopic view of skarn under crossed polarizers

Hand sample of skarn containing [serpentinite](/source/Serpentinite) from the edge of the Alta Stock, [Little Cottonwood Canyon](/source/Little_Cottonwood_Canyon), Utah

**Skarns** or **tactites** are coarse-grained [metamorphic rocks](/source/Metamorphic_rock) that form by replacement of carbonate-bearing rocks during regional or contact [metamorphism](/source/Metamorphism) and [metasomatism](/source/Metasomatism). Skarns may form by metamorphic recrystallization of impure carbonate protoliths, bimetasomatic reaction of different lithologies, and infiltration metasomatism by magmatic-[hydrothermal fluids](/source/Hydrothermal_fluid).[1] Skarns tend to be rich in [calcium](/source/Calcium)-[magnesium](/source/Magnesium)-[iron](/source/Iron)-[manganese](/source/Manganese)-[aluminium](/source/Aluminium) [silicate minerals](/source/Silicate_mineral), which are also referred to as [calc-silicate minerals](/source/Calc%E2%80%93silicate_rock).[2][3][4][5] These minerals form as a result of alteration which occurs when hydrothermal fluids interact with a [protolith](/source/Protolith) of either [igneous](/source/Igneous_rock) or [sedimentary](/source/Sedimentary_rock) origin. In many cases, skarns are associated with the intrusion of a [granitic](/source/Granitoid) [pluton](/source/Pluton) found in and around [faults](/source/Fault_(geology)) or [shear zones](/source/Shear_zone) that commonly intrude into a [carbonate](/source/Carbonate_rock) layer composed of either [dolomite](/source/Dolomite_(rock)) or [limestone](/source/Limestone). Skarns can form by [regional](/source/Regional_metamorphism) or [contact](/source/Contact_metamorphic) metamorphism and therefore form in relatively high temperature environments.[2][3][4][5] The hydrothermal fluids associated with the metasomatic processes can originate from a variety of sources; [magmatic](/source/Magmatic_water), metamorphic, [meteoric](/source/Meteoric_water), [marine](/source/Marine_water), or even a mix of these.[4] The resulting skarn may consist of a variety of different minerals which are highly dependent on both the original composition of the hydrothermal fluid and the original composition of the protolith.[4]

If a skarn has a respectable amount of ore mineralization that can be mined for a profit, it can be classified as a **skarn deposit**.[2][3][4]

## Etymology

*Skarn* is an old Swedish mining term originally used to describe a type of silicate [gangue](/source/Gangue), or waste rock, associated with iron-ore bearing sulfide deposits apparently replacing [Palaeoproterozoic](/source/Palaeoproterozoic) age [limestones](/source/Limestone) in Sweden's [Persberg](/source/Persberg) mining district.[6]

## Petrology

Skarns are composed of calcium-iron-magnesium-manganese-aluminum silicate minerals. Skarn deposits are economically valuable as sources of metals such as [tin](/source/Tin), [tungsten](/source/Tungsten), [manganese](/source/Manganese), [copper](/source/Copper), [gold](/source/Gold), [zinc](/source/Zinc), [lead](/source/Lead), [nickel](/source/Nickel), [molybdenum](/source/Molybdenum) and [iron](/source/Iron).[5]

A skarn is formed by a variety of metasomatic processes during metamorphism between two adjacent lithologic units. Skarns can form in almost any rock type such as [shale](/source/Shale), [granite](/source/Granite), or [basalt](/source/Basalt) but the majority of skarns are found in carbonate rocks containing limestone or dolomite. It is common to find skarns near plutons, along faults and major shear zones, in shallow geothermal systems, and on the bottom of the sea floor.[4] The specific mineralogy of skarns are highly related to the mineralogy of the protolith.[7]

Skarn mineralogy is dominated by [garnet](/source/Garnet) and [pyroxene](/source/Pyroxene) with a wide variety of calc-silicate and associated minerals, including [idocrase](/source/Idocrase), [wollastonite](/source/Wollastonite), [actinolite](/source/Actinolite), [magnetite](/source/Magnetite) or [hematite](/source/Hematite), [epidote](/source/Epidote) and [scapolite](/source/Scapolite). Because skarns are formed from silica-rich aqueous fluids replete with [incompatible elements](/source/Incompatible_element), a variety of uncommon mineral types are found in skarns, such as: [tourmaline](/source/Tourmaline), [topaz](/source/Topaz), [beryl](/source/Beryl), [corundum](/source/Corundum), [fluorite](/source/Fluorite), [apatite](/source/Apatite), [barite](/source/Baryte), [strontianite](/source/Strontianite), [tantalite](/source/Tantalite), [anglesite](/source/Anglesite), and others.[8]

## Classification

Skarns can be subdivided depending on specific criteria. One way to classify a skarn is by its [protolith](/source/Protolith). If the protolith is of sedimentary origin, it can be referred to as an exoskarn and if the protolith is igneous, it can be called an endoskarn.[3][4]

Further classification can be made based on the protolith by observing the skarn's dominant composition and the resulting alteration assemblage. If the skarn contains minerals such as [olivine](/source/Olivine), [serpentine](/source/Serpentine_subgroup), [phlogopite](/source/Phlogopite), magnesium [clinopyroxene](/source/Clinopyroxene), [orthopyroxene](/source/Orthopyroxene), [spinel](/source/Spinel), [pargasite](/source/Pargasite), and minerals from the [humite](/source/Humite) group, it is characteristic of a [dolomitic](/source/Dolomite_(rock)) protolith and can be classed as a magnesian skarn. The other class, called calcic skarns, are the replacement products of a [limestone](/source/Limestone) protolith with dominant mineral assemblages containing [garnet](/source/Garnet), clinopyroxene, and [wollastonite](/source/Wollastonite).[3]

Rocks that contain garnet or pyroxene as major phases, and that are also fine-grained, lack iron, and have skarn-like appearances, are generally given the term "skarnoid". Skarnoid is therefore the intermediate stage of a fine-grained [hornfels](/source/Hornfels) and a coarse-grained skarn.[3][4]

### Skarn ore deposits

Metal ore deposits that have skarn as [gangue](/source/Gangue) are called skarn deposits and can form by any combination of closed metamorphism or open system metasomatism, although most skarn deposits are thought to be related to magmatic-hydrothermal systems.[1] Skarn deposits are classified by their dominant economic element, e.g., a copper (Cu) skarn deposit or a molybdenum (Mo) skarn deposit.[2][3][5]

### Fe (Cu, Ag, Au) skarn deposits

The [tectonic setting](/source/Tectonic_setting) for calcic Fe skarns tends to be the [oceanic island arcs](/source/Island_arc). The host rocks tend to range from [gabbro](/source/Gabbro) to [syenite](/source/Syenite) associated with intruding limestone layers. The tectonic setting for magnesium Fe skarns tends to be the [continental margin](/source/Passive_margin). The host rocks tend to be [granodiorite](/source/Granodiorite) to [granite](/source/Granite) associated with intruding dolomite and dolomitic sedimentary rocks. [Magnetite](/source/Magnetite) is the principal ore in these types of skarn deposits which its grade yields from 40 to 60 %. [Chalcopyrite](/source/Chalcopyrite), [bornite](/source/Bornite) and [pyrite](/source/Pyrite) constitute minor ores.[9][10]

### Cu (Au, Ag, Mo, W) skarn deposits

The tectonic setting for Cu deposits tends to be the [Andean-type](/source/Continental_arc) plutons intruding older continental-margin carbonate layers. The host rocks tend to be [quartz diorite](/source/Quartz_diorite) and [granodiorite](/source/Granodiorite). Pyrite, chalcopyrite and magnetite are typically found in higher abundances.[9][10]

## Formation

Generally, there are two types of skarns that form, exoskarns and endoskarns.[11]

Exoskarns are more common and form on the outside of an intrusive body that comes into contact with a reactive rock unit. They are formed when fluids left over from the crystallisation of the intrusion are ejected from the mass at the waning stages of emplacement, in a process called boiling. When these fluids come into contact with reactive rocks, usually carbonates such as limestone or dolomite, the fluids react with them, producing alteration (infiltration [metasomatism](/source/Metasomatism)).[4]

Endoskarns form within the intrusive body where fracturing, cooling joints, and [stockworks](/source/Stockwork) have been produced, which results in a permeable area. This permeable area can be altered by fluids originally sourced from the intrusion itself, after interacting with surrounding rocks ([protolith](/source/Protolith)). Thus, both the composition and the textures of protoliths strongly play a role in the formation of the resulting skarn. Endoskarns are considered to be rare. [4]

Reaction skarns are formed from [isochemical](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/isochemical) metamorphism occurring on thinly interlayered sedimentary units, via small-scale[a] metasomatic exchange between adjacent units.[4][12]

Skarnoids are calc-silicate rocks that are fine-grained and iron poor. Skarnoids tend to be found between hornfels and coarse-grained skarn.[13][14][15] Skarnoids commonly reflect the composition of the protolith.[4]

Most large skarn deposits experience a transition from early metamorphism—which forms [hornfels](/source/Hornfels), reaction skarns, and skarnoids—to late metamorphism, which forms relatively coarser grained, ore-bearing skarns. The magma intrusion triggers [contact metamorphism](/source/Contact_metamorphism) in the surrounding region, forming hornfels as a result. The recrystallization and phase change of hornfels reflects the composition of the protolith. After the formation of hornfels, metasomatism occurs involving hydrothermal fluids from a source that is magmatic, metamorphic, marine, meteoric, or even a mix of these. This process is called isochemical metamorphism, and can result in the production of a wide range of calc-silicate minerals that form in impure lithology units and along fluid boundaries where small-scale metasomatism occurs ([argillite](/source/Argillite) and [limestone](/source/Limestone), and [banded iron formation](/source/Banded_iron_formation)).[2][3]

The skarn deposits that are considered economically important for containing valuable metals are a result of large-scale metasomatism, where the composition of fluid controls the skarn and its ore mineralogy. They are relatively coarser grained and do not strongly reflect the composition of protolith or surrounding rocks.[3][4]

Uncommon types of skarns are formed in contact with sulfidic or carbonaceous rocks such as black shales, graphite shales, banded iron formations and, occasionally, salt or [evaporites](/source/Evaporite). Here, fluids react less via chemical exchange of ions, but because of the [redox-oxidation potential](/source/Redox_potential) of the wall rocks.[4]

## Ore deposits

The major economic metals that are sourced from skarn deposits are [copper](/source/Copper), [tungsten](/source/Tungsten), [iron](/source/Iron), [tin](/source/Tin), [molybdenum](/source/Molybdenum), [zinc](/source/Zinc)-[lead](/source/Lead), and [gold](/source/Gold).[2][3][4][5] Other minor economic elements include [uranium](/source/Uranium), [silver](/source/Silver), [boron](/source/Boron), [fluorine](/source/Fluorine), and [rare-earth elements](/source/Rare-earth_element).[4]

Some examples of the major economic skarn deposits, both current and historical, are:

- Iron skarns: Dashkesan Mine, Azerbaijan

- Copper skarns: [Bingham Canyon Mine](/source/Bingham_Canyon_Mine), Utah, U.S.A

- Tungsten skarns: [Sangdong mine](/source/Sangdong_mine), South Korea

- Gold-bearing skarns: [Hedley Mascot Mine](/source/Hedley_Mascot_Mine), British Columbia, Canada

- Zinc-lead skarns: [Santa Eulalia, Chihuahua](/source/Santa_Eulalia%2C_Chihuahua), Mexico

- Nickel skarns: Avebury Mine, Zeehan, Tasmania (Australia)

- Molybdenum skarns: Yangchiachangtze mine, China

## See also

- [Ore genesis](/source/Ore_genesis) – How the various types of mineral deposits form within the Earth's crust

Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Skarn](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Skarn).

## Notes

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** (on the order of a few centimetres)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:6_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:6_1-1) Einaudi, M. T.; Meinert, L. D.; Newberry, R. J. (1981), ["Skarn Deposits"](https://doi.org/10.5382/AV75.11), *Seventy-Fifth Anniversary Volume*, Society of Economic Geologists, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.5382/av75.11](https://doi.org/10.5382%2Fav75.11), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-9349-6953-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9349-6953-3), retrieved 2023-07-14{{[citation](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Citation)}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_work_parameter_with_ISBN))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:0_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:0_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:0_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:0_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:0_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:0_2-5) Einaudi, Marco T.; Burt, Donald M. (1982). "Introduction; terminology, classification, and composition of skarn deposits". *Economic Geology*. **77** (4): 745–754. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1982EcGeo..77..745E](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982EcGeo..77..745E). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2113/gsecongeo.77.4.745](https://doi.org/10.2113%2Fgsecongeo.77.4.745).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:1_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:1_3-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:1_3-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:1_3-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:1_3-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:1_3-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-:1_3-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-:1_3-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-:1_3-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-:1_3-9) Ray, G.E., and Webster, I.C.L. (1991): An Overview of Skarn Deposits; in Ore Deposits, Tectonics and Metallogeny in the Canadian Cordillera; McMillan, W.J., compiler, B. C. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Paper 1991-4, pages 213-252.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:2_4-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:2_4-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:2_4-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:2_4-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:2_4-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-:2_4-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-:2_4-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-:2_4-7) [***i***](#cite_ref-:2_4-8) [***j***](#cite_ref-:2_4-9) [***k***](#cite_ref-:2_4-10) [***l***](#cite_ref-:2_4-11) [***m***](#cite_ref-:2_4-12) [***n***](#cite_ref-:2_4-13) [***o***](#cite_ref-:2_4-14) [***p***](#cite_ref-:2_4-15) Meinert, L.D., 1992. Skarns and Skarn Deposits; Geoscience Canada, Vol. 19, No. 4, p. 145-162.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:3_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:3_5-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-:3_5-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-:3_5-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-:3_5-4) Hammarstrom, J.M., Kotlyar, B.B., Theodore, T.G., Elliott, J.E., John, D.A., Doebrich, J.L., Nash, J.T., Carlson, R.R., Lee, G.K., Livo, K.E., Klein, D.P., 1995. Cu, Au, and Zn-Pb Skarn Deposits, Chapter 12; United States Geological Survey: Preliminary Compilation of Descriptive Geoenvironmental Mineral Deposit Models: [https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/ofr-95-0831/CHAP12.pdf](https://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1995/ofr-95-0831/CHAP12.pdf).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** Burt, Donald M. (1977). ["Mineralogy and petrology of skarn deposits"](https://rruff.info/rdsmi/V33/RDSMI33_859.pdf) (PDF). *Societa Italiana Mineralogia Petrolgia Rendiconti*. **33** (2): 859–873.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** Jolis, E. M.; Troll, V. R.; Harris, C.; Freda, C.; Gaeta, M.; Orsi, G.; Siebe, C. (2015-11-15). ["Skarn xenolith record crustal CO2 liberation during Pompeii and Pollena eruptions, Vesuvius volcanic system, central Italy"](http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254115300255). *Chemical Geology*. **415**: 17–36. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015ChGeo.415...17J](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ChGeo.415...17J). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.chemgeo.2015.09.003](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2015.09.003). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0009-2541](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-2541).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** ["Hydrothermal and Skarn Deposits"](http://www.geol-amu.org/notes/b3-3-4.htm). *www.geol-amu.org*. Retrieved 2018-03-29.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:4_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:4_9-1) Nadoll, Patrick; Mauk, Jeffrey L.; Leveille, Richard A.; Koenig, Alan E. (2015-04-01). "Geochemistry of magnetite from porphyry Cu and skarn deposits in the southwestern United States". *Mineralium Deposita*. **50** (4): 493–515. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2015MinDe..50..493N](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015MinDe..50..493N). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1007/s00126-014-0539-y](https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00126-014-0539-y). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0026-4598](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-4598). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [128816207](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128816207).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-:5_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-:5_10-1) Soloviev, Serguei G.; Kryazhev, Sergey (2017). "Geology, mineralization, and fluid inclusion characteristics of the Chorukh-Dairon W–Mo–Cu skarn deposit in the Middle Tien Shan, Northern Tajikistan". *Ore Geology Reviews*. **80**: 79–102. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[2017OGRv...80...79S](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017OGRv...80...79S). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1016/j.oregeorev.2016.06.021](https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.oregeorev.2016.06.021).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** Whitley, Sean; Halama, Ralf; Gertisser, Ralf; Preece, Katie; Deegan, Frances M.; Troll, Valentin R. (2020-10-18). ["Magmatic and Metasomatic Effects of Magma–Carbonate Interaction Recorded in Calc-silicate Xenoliths from Merapi Volcano (Indonesia)"](https://academic.oup.com/petrology/article/61/4/egaa048/5822871). *Journal of Petrology*. **61** (4). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/petrology/egaa048](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpetrology%2Fegaa048). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [0022-3530](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-3530).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Zarayskiy, G. P.; Zharikov, V. A.; Stoyanovskaya, F. M.; Balashov, V. N. (1987). ["The experimental study of bimetasomatic skarn formation"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00206818709466179). *International Geology Review*. **29** (6) (published 29 June 2010): 761–858. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1987IGRv...29..629Z](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1987IGRv...29..629Z). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00206818709466179](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00206818709466179).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Korzhinskii, D.S. (1948). "Petrology of the Tur'insk skarn deposits of copper". **68** (10). Ser. Rundnykh Mestorozhdenii. Academy nauk SSSR: Institute of Geology Nauk Trudy: 147. {{[cite journal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_journal)}}: Cite journal requires |journal= ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Zharikov, V. A. (1970). ["Skarns (Part I)"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00206817009475262). *International Geology Review*. **12** (5) (published 7 September 2009): 541–559. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1970IGRv...12..541Z](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970IGRv...12..541Z). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00206817009475262](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00206817009475262).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Zharikov, V. A. (1970). ["Skarns (Part II)"](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00206817009475270). *International Geology Review*. **12** (6) (published 7 September 2009): 619–647, 760–775. [Bibcode](/source/Bibcode_(identifier)):[1970IGRv...12..619Z](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1970IGRv...12..619Z). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1080/00206817009475270](https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00206817009475270).

## External links

Look up ***[skarn](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/skarn)*** or ***[tactite](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tactite)*** in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

v t e Types of rocks Igneous rock Adakite Andesite Icelandite Anorthosite Aplite Basalt Alkali basalt Picrite basalt Basaltic trachyandesite Mugearite Shoshonite Basanite Blairmorite Boninite Carbonatite Charnockite Enderbite Dacite Diabase Diorite Napoleonite Essexite Foidolite Gabbro Granite Alkali feldspar granite Granodiorite Granophyre Hornblendite Hyaloclastite Ijolite Kimberlite Komatiite Lamproite Lamprophyre Monzogranite Monzonite Nepheline syenite Nephelinite Norite Obsidian Pegmatite Peridotite Wehrlite Dunite Harzburgite Lherzolite Phonolite Phonotephrite Porphyry Pumice Pyroxenite Websterite Quartz diorite Quartz monzonite Quartzolite Rhyodacite Rhyolite Comendite Pantellerite Scoria Shonkinite Sovite Syenite Tachylyte Tephriphonolite Tephrite Tonalite Trondhjemite Trachyandesite Benmoreite Latite Trachybasalt Hawaiite Trachyte Troctolite Tuff Ignimbrite Sedimentary rock Argillite Arkose Banded iron formation Breccia Calcarenite Chalk Chert Claystone Coal Conglomerate Coquina Diamictite Diatomite Dolomite Evaporite Flint Geyserite Greywacke Gritstone Itacolumite Jaspillite Laterite Lignite Limestone Lumachelle Marl Mudstone Oil shale Oolite Phosphorite Sandstone Shale Siltstone Sylvinite Tillite Travertine Tufa Turbidite Varve Wackestone Metamorphic rock Anthracite Amphibolite Blueschist Cataclasite Eclogite Gneiss Granulite Greenschist Hornfels Calcflinta Itabirite Litchfieldite Marble Migmatite Mylonite Metapelite Phyllite Pseudotachylite Quartzite Schist Serpentinite Skarn Slate Suevite Talc carbonate Soapstone Tectonite Whiteschist Specific varieties Adamellite Appinite Aphanite Borolanite Blue Granite Epidosite Felsite Flint Ganister Gossan Hyaloclastite Ijolite Jadeitite Jasperoid Kenyte Lapis lazuli Larvikite Litchfieldite Llanite Luxullianite Mangerite Novaculite Pyrolite Rapakivi granite Rhomb porphyry Rodingite Shonkinite Taconite Tachylite Teschenite Theralite Unakite Variolite Wad

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