# Shaivism > Mediated Wiki article. Canonical URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Shaivism > Markdown URL: https://mediated.wiki/source/Shaivism.md > Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism > Source revision: 1356924566 > License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/) Hindu tradition that worships Shiva Shaivism Shiva (above) is the primary God in Shaivism. Part of a series on Shaivism Deities Parameshvara (Supreme being) Shiva Sadasiva Bhairava Rudra Virabhadra Shakti Parvati Sati Durga Kali Ganesha Kartikeya Forms of Shiva Others Schools Ati marga Pashupata Kalamukha Mantra marga Saiddhantika Shaiva Siddhanta Non - Saiddhantika Kapalika Kaula Aghori Trika Kubjika Kashmir Shaivism Pratyabhijna Others Siddharism/Nath Inchegeri Veerashaivism/Lingayats Shiva Advaita Scholars and saints Pashupatha Lakulisha Saiva Siddhantha Nayanars Manikkavacakar Meykandar Kashmir Shaivism Utpaladeva Vasugupta Abhinavagupta Kshemaraja Nath Navnath Lingayats Basava Shiva Advaita Appayya Indonesia Nirartha Scriptures and texts Vedic Vedas Shvetashvatara Upanishad Puranas Shiva Purana Agamas-Tantras Agama-Tantras Pashupata Pashupata-sutra Shaiva Siddhanta Tirumurai Kashmir Shaivism Shivasutras Tantraloka Pratyabhijnahridayam Vijñāna Bhairava Tantra Lingayat Vachanas Philosophy Three Components Pati Pashu Pasam Three bondages Anava Karma Maya other aspects 36 Tattvas Yoga Satkaryavada Abhasavada Svatantrya Aham Practices Vibhuti Rudraksha Panchakshara Bilva Maha Shivaratri Yamas-Niyamas Guru-Linga-Jangam Vama Related Nandi Tantrism Bhakti Jyotirlinga Shiva Temples Hinduism in Indonesia Hinduism portal v t e Part of a series on Hinduism Hindus Mythology Origin and history Dravidian folk religion Indus Valley Civilisation Itihasa-Purana Epic-Puranic royal genealogies Epic-Puranic chronology Śramaṇa Tribal religions Vedic religion Sampradaya (traditions) Shaktism Shaivism Kapalika Pashupata Pratyabhijña Smartism Vaishnavism Pancharatra Other denominations Deities Trimurti Brahma Shiva Vishnu Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Parvati Others Vedic deities: Agni Chandra Indra Tridasha Adityas Ashvins Rudras Vasus Post-Vedic: Dashavatara Krishna Rama Ganesha Hanuman Kartikeya Shakti Amman Durga Kali Radha Sita Concepts Cosmology Guṇa Mythology Pancha Bhuta Panchikarana Prakṛti Pramana Shabda Purusha Tanmatras Tattva Supreme reality Brahman Nirguna Saguna Om Saccidānanda God Deva Devata Devi God and gender Ishvara Puruṣārtha (meaning of life) Artha Dharma Kama Moksha Āśrama (stages of life) Brahmacharya Gṛhastha Sannyasa Vānaprastha Saṃsāra (cycle of birth and death) Karma Maya Pāpa Mahapataka Paramātman Prāyaścitta Punya Mind and Ethics Achourya Ahamkara Ahimsa Akrodha Ānanda Anātman Antahkarana Arishadvargas Arjava Ātman Dayā Dāna Niti śastra Shraddha Mitahara Niyama Aparigraha Prajña Samatva Santosha Sastra pramanam Satya Shaucha Svādhyāya Dama Sūkṣma śarīra Titiksha Vairagya Viveka Yamas Practices Worship Arti Bhajan Bhakti Dāna Exorcism Homa Japa Kirtan Murti Prarthana Puja Temple Matha Sevā Śrauta Tarpana Tirtha Tirthadana Vrata Yajna Yatra Meditation Dhyana Nididhyāsana Tapas Yoga Asana Bhakti yoga Hatha yoga Jnana yoga Karma yoga Kundalini yoga Rāja yoga Sādhanā Sadhu Yogi Yogini Rites of passage Annaprashana Antyesti Chudakarana Garbhadhana Jatakarma Karnavedha Keshanta Nāmakaraṇa Nishkramana Pumsavana Simantonayana Pumsavana Ritushuddhi Samavartanam Simantonnayana Upanayana Vidyāraṃbhaṃ Vivaha Festivals Diwali Ganesh Chaturthi Holi Janmashtami Kumbh Mela Maha Shivaratri Navaratri Durga Puja Ramlila Vijayadashami Makar Sankranti New year Bihu Puthandu Ugadi Vaisakhi Vishu Pongal Onam Raksha Bandhan Rama Navami Ratha Yatra Vasant Panchami Philosophical schools Six Astika schools Samkhya Yoga Nyaya Vaisheshika Mīmāṃsā Vedanta Advaita Dvaita Vishishtadvaita Achintya Bheda Abheda Shuddhadvaita Svabhavika Bhedabheda Akshar Purushottam Darshan Other schools Ājīvika Buddhism Jainism Charvaka Gurus, Rishi, philosophers Ancient Saptarshi Vashistha Kashyapa Atri Jamadagni Gotama Vishvamitra Bharadwaja Agastya Angiras Aruni Ashtavakra Jaimini Kanada Kapila Patanjali Pāṇini Prashastapada Raikva Satyakama Jabala Valmiki Vyasa Yajnavalkya Medieval Abhinavagupta Adi Shankara Akka Mahadevi Allama Alvars Basava Chaitanya Ramdas Kathiababa Chakradhara Changdev Dadu Dayal Eknath Gangesha Gaudapada Gorakshanath Haridasa Thakur Harivansh Jagannatha Dasa Jayanta Bhatta Jayatirtha Jiva Goswami Jñāneśvar Kabir Kanaka Dasa Kumārila Bhaṭṭa Madhusūdana Sarasvatī Madhvacharya Matsyendranatha Morya Gosavi Mukundraj Namdev Narahari Tirtha Narasimha Saraswati Nayanars Nimbarkacharya Srinivasacharya Prabhākara Purandara Dasa Raghavendra Swami Raghunatha Siromani Raghuttama Tirtha Ram Charan Ramananda Ramanuja Ramprasad Sen Ravidas Rupa Goswami Samarth Ramdas Sankardev Satyanatha Tirtha Siddheshwar Sripada Srivallabha Sripadaraja Surdas Swaminarayan Syama Sastri Thiruvalluvar Tukaram Tulsidas Tyagaraja Vācaspati Miśra Vadiraja Tirtha Vallabha Vedanta Desika Vidyaranya Vyasaraja Modern Aurobindo Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Bhaktivinoda Thakur Chandrashekarendra Saraswati Chinmayananda Dayananda Saraswati Jaggi Vasudev Krishnananda Saraswati Mahavatar Babaji Mahesh Yogi Narayana Guru Nigamananda Nisargadatta Maharaj Prabhupada Radhakrishnan R. D. Ranade Ramakrishna Rama Tirtha Ramana Maharshi Ravi Shankar Ramdas Samarth Sathya Sai Baba Shirdi Sai Baba Shraddhanand Satyadhyana Tirtha Siddharameshwar Maharaj Sivananda Saraswati Trailanga U. G. Krishnamurti Upasni Maharaj Vethathiri Maharishi Vivekananda Yogananda Texts Sources and classification of scripture Śruti Smṛti Ācāra Ātmatuṣṭi Scriptures Timeline of Hindu texts Vedas Rigveda Yajurveda Samaveda Atharvaveda Divisions Samhita Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishads Upanishads Principal Upanishads Rigveda: Aitareya Kaushitaki Yajurveda: Brihadaranyaka Isha Taittiriya Katha Shvetashvatara Maitri Samaveda: Chandogya Kena Atharvaveda: Mundaka Mandukya Prashna Vedangas Shiksha Chandas Vyākaraṇa Nirukta Kalpa Jyotisha Other scriptures Bhagavad Gita Agamas (Hinduism) Itihasas Ramayana Mahabharata Puranas Vishnu Purana Bhagavata Purana Devi Bhagavata Purana Naradiya Purana Vāmana Purana Matsya Purana Garuda Purana Brahma Purana Brahmanda Purana Brahma Vaivarta Purana Bhavishya Purana Padma Purana Agni Purana Shiva Purana Linga Purana Kūrma Purana Skanda Purana Varaha Purana Markandeya Purana Upavedas Ayurveda Dhanurveda Gandharvaveda Sthapatyaveda Shastras, sutras, and samhitas Arthashastra Brahma Sutras Charaka Samhita Dharma Shastra Kama Sutra Natya Shastra Nyāya Sūtras Panchatantra Pramana Sutras Purva Mimamsa Sutras Ramcharitmanas Samkhya Pravachana Sutra Shilpa Shastras Shiva Swarodaya Sushruta Samhita Vaiśeṣika Sūtra Yoga Sutras Yoga Vasistha Stotras, stutis and Bhashya Abirami Antati Hanuman Chalisa Kanakadhara Stotra Kanda Shasti Kavasam Shiva Stuti Vayu Stuti Tamil literature Athichudi Eighteen Greater Texts Eighteen Lesser Texts Five Great Epics Iraiyanar Akapporul Kamba Ramayanam Kural Naalayira Divya Prabandham Thiruvilaiyadal Puranam Tirumurai Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai Tiruppukal Vinayagar Agaval Other texts Hindu culture and society Society Dalit Dasa Dvija Gotra Jāti Kayastha Varna Brahmin Kshatriya Vaishya Shudra Hindu art Bhagavata Mela Bharatanatyam Bommalattam Carnatic music Hindu iconography Kai silambattam Kalaripayattu Kavadi Aattam Kathak Kathakali Kolattam Koothu Kuchipudi Manipuri Mayilattam Mohiniyattam Nritta-Nritya Odissi Pandav Lila Rasa Sattriya Yakshagana Yantra Hindu architecture Hindu temple architecture Talamana Vastu shastra Hindu music Alankāra Raga Sangita Shruti Svara Tala Vadya Food and diet Jhatka Mitahara Sattvic Vrata Time keeping practices Calendar Panchangam Shaka era Units of Time Vikram Samvat Other society-related topics Discrimination Persecution Nationalism Organisations Reform movements Other topics Hinduism by country Balinese Hinduism Caribbean Shaktism Greater India Hinduism & other religions Hinduism and Jainism / and Buddhism / and Sikhism / and Judaism / and Christianity / and Islam Glossary Outline Hinduism portal v t e **Shaivism** ([/ˈʃaɪvɪzəm/](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English); [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit_language): शैवसंप्रदायः, [romanised](/source/Romanization_of_Sanskrit): *Śaivasampradāyaḥ*) is an umbrella-term for a number of [Hindu religious traditions](/source/Hindu_denominations), which worship [Shiva](/source/Shiva)[1][2][3] as the [supreme being](/source/Para_Brahman). The followers of Shaivism are called Shaivas or Shaivites, numbering about 385 million people,[4][5][6] across [South Asia](/source/South_Asia) predominantly in [India](/source/India), [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka), and [Nepal](/source/Nepal).[7][8] Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Aryan religions and traditions, Vedic [Rudra](/source/Rudra), and post-Vedic traditions, [accommodating](/source/Sanskritisation) local traditions and Yoga, puja and bhakti.[9][2] Worship of the Vedic deity Rudra forms its earliest traceable root, but the earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the [Pasupata](/source/Pasupata) (early CE),[2] which emerged with the [Hindu synthesis](/source/Origins_of_Hinduism), when many local traditions were aligned with the [Vedic-Brahmanical fold](/source/Brahmanism).[10] The Pāśupata movement rapidly expanded throughout North India, giving rise to different forms of Shaivism and followed by the emergence of various tantric traditions.[2] Both devotional and monistic Shaivism became popular in the 1st millennium CE, and it became the dominant religious tradition of several [Hindu kingdoms](/source/Hindu_king).[2] It arrived in [Southeast](/source/Southeast_Asia) Asia shortly thereafter, leading to the construction of thousands of Shaiva temples on the islands of [Indonesia](/source/Indonesia) as well as [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia) and [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam), co-evolving with [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) in these regions.[11][12] Shaivism encompasses a wide range of sub-traditions. Historically, a basic distinction can be made between Puranic Shaivism, such as the Shiva-worship in the [Smarta tradition](/source/Smarta_tradition), and non-Puranic (Agamic/Tantric) Shaivism. The latter is further divided in the *atimarga*, solely for sanyassins (ascetic renunciates), and the *mantramarga*, open to both sanyassons and householders. Within the *mantramarga*, the [Shaiva Siddhanta](/source/Shaiva_Siddhanta) is devotional [dualistic theism](/source/Dualistic_cosmology#Theistic_dualism), while the Tantric [Kapalika](/source/Kapalika) gave rise to a number of [yoga](/source/Yoga)-oriented [monistic](/source/Monism) systems, such as the [Trika](/source/Trika) and [Kashmiri Shaivism](/source/Kashmiri_Shaivism).[13][14][15] Tantric Shaivism is closely related to [Shaktism](/source/Shaktism), and some Shaivas worship in both Shiva and Shakti temples.[15] It is the Hindu tradition that most accepts ascetic life and emphasises yoga, and encourages one to discover and be one with Shiva within.[13][14] It has a vast literature,[16] making appeals to [Vedic orthodoxy](/source/Brahmanism) but viewing the [Agama](/source/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)) texts as superior revelations.[17][18][19] ## Etymology and nomenclature Shiva (*śiva*, [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit_language): शिव) literally means kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious.[20][21] As a proper name, it means "The Auspicious One".[21] The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the [Rig Veda](/source/Rig_Veda), as an epithet for several [Rigvedic deities](/source/Rigvedic_deities), including [Rudra](/source/Rudra).[22] The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature.[23][24] The term evolved from the Vedic *Rudra-Shiva* to the noun *Shiva* in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".[23][25] The Sanskrit word *śaiva* or *shaiva* means "relating to the god Shiva",[26] while the related beliefs, practices, history, literature and sub-traditions constitute Shaivism.[27] ## Origins and history The origins of Shaivism are unclear and a matter of debate among scholars. According to Chakravarti, it is an amalgam of pre-Vedic cults and traditions and Vedic culture.[28] Gavin flood associates it with the Brahmanization of local traditions.[10] According to Bisschop, the earliest traceable root of Shaivism is the worship of the Vedic deity Rudra.[2] ### Indus Valley Civilisation Main article: [Religion of the Indus Valley Civilisation](/source/Religion_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation) The "Pashupati" seal from the [Indus Valley civilisation](/source/Indus_Valley_civilisation). Some trace the origins to the [Indus Valley Civilisation](/source/Indus_Valley_Civilisation), which reached its peak around 2500–2000 BCE.[29][30] Archeological discoveries show seals that suggest a deity that somewhat appears like Shiva. Of these is the [Pashupati seal](/source/Pashupati_seal), which early scholars interpreted as someone seated in a meditating yoga pose surrounded by animals, and with horns.[31] This "Pashupati" ([Lord of Animals](/source/Master_of_Animals), [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) **paśupati**)[32] seal has been interpreted by these scholars as a prototype of Shiva. [Gavin Flood](/source/Gavin_Flood) characterises these views as "speculative", saying that it is not clear from the seal if the figure has three faces, or is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.[30][33] Other scholars state that the Indus Valley script remains undeciphered, and the interpretation of the Pashupati seal is uncertain. According to Srinivasan, the proposal that it is proto-Shiva may be a case of projecting "later practices into archeological findings".[34][35] Similarly, Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bull interpretation is likely more accurate.[30][36] ### Vedic elements The *[Rigveda](/source/Rigveda)* (~1500–1200 BCE) has the earliest clear mention of [Rudra](/source/Rudra) ("Roarer") in its hymns 2.33, 1.43 and 1.114.[30] Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins.[37] The text also includes a *Satarudriya*, an influential hymn with embedded hundred epithets for Rudra, that is cited in many medieval era Shaiva texts as well as recited in major Shiva temples of [Hindus](/source/Hindus) in contemporary times. Yet, the Vedic literature only presents scriptural theology, but does not attest to the existence of Shaivism.[30] ### Emergence of Shaivism See also: [Rudra](/source/Rudra) and [Shiva](/source/Shiva) [Kushan](/source/Kushan_Empire) coin of [Vima Kadphises](/source/Vima_Kadphises) (2nd century CE), with a possible Shiva, holding a [trident](/source/Trishula), in [ithyphallic](https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ithyphallic) state[a] and next to a [bull](/source/Nandi_(bull)), his mount, as in Shaivism.[38][39][40] The deity was described by the later Kushans in their coinage as "[Oesho](/source/Oesho)", a possibly kushan deity.[39] According to Chakravarti, Shaivism developed as an amalgam of pre-Aryan religions and traditions, Vedic Rudra, and post-Vedic traditions, accommodating phallic, bull and serpent cults, the Dravidian Father God and Mother Goddess concept, and Yoga, puja and bhakti.[9] According to [Gavin Flood](/source/Gavin_Flood), "the formation of Śaiva traditions as we understand them begins to occur during the period from 200 BC to 100 AD."[41] Shiva was originally probably not a Brahmanical god.[42][43] The pre-Vedic Shiva acquired a growing prominence as its cult assimilated numerous "ruder faiths" and their mythologies,[44] and the Epics and Puranas preserve pre-Vedic myths and legends of these traditions assimilated by the Shiva-cult.[45] Shiva's growing prominence was facilitated by identification with a number of Vedic deities, such as [Purusha](/source/Purusha), [Rudra](/source/Rudra), [Agni](/source/Agni), [Indra](/source/Indra), [*Prajāpati*](/source/Prajapati), [*Vāyu*](/source/Vayu), among others.[46] The earliest evidence for sectarian Rudra-Shiva worship appears with the [Pasupata](/source/Pasupata) (early CE).[2] The followers of Shiva were gradually accepted into the Brahmanical fold, becoming allowed to recite some of the Vedic hymns.[47] [Patanjali](/source/Patanjali)'s **[Mahābhāṣya](/source/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya)**, dated to the 2nd century BCE, mentions the term *Shiva-bhagavata* in section 5.2.76. Patanjali, while explaining Panini's rules of grammar, states that this term refers to a devotee clad in animal skins and carrying an *ayah sulikah* (iron spear, trident lance)[48] as an icon representing his god.[41][49][50] The *[Shvetashvatara Upanishad](/source/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad)* mentions terms such as Rudra, Shiva, and Maheshwaram,[51][52][30][53] but its interpretation as a theistic or monistic text of Shaivism is disputed.[54][55] The dating of the *[Shvetashvatara](/source/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad)* is also in dispute, but it is likely a late [Upanishad](/source/Upanishads).[56] The *[Mahabharata](/source/Mahabharata)* mentions Shaiva ascetics, such as in chapters 4.13 and 13.140.[57] Other evidence that is possibly linked to the importance of Shaivism in ancient times are in epigraphy and numismatics, such as in the form of prominent Shiva-like reliefs on [Kushan Empire](/source/Kushan_Empire) era gold coins. However, this is controversial, as an alternate hypothesis for these reliefs is based on [Zoroastrian](/source/Zoroastrian) [Oesho](/source/Oesho). According to Flood, coins dated to the ancient Greek, Saka and Parthian kings who ruled parts of the Indian subcontinent after the arrival of [Alexander the Great](/source/Alexander_the_Great) also show Shiva iconography; however, this evidence is weak and subject to competing inferences.[41][58] In the early centuries of the common era is the first clear evidence of [Pāśupata Shaivism](/source/Pashupata_Shaivism).[2] The inscriptions found in the Himalayan region, such as those in the Kathmandu valley of [Nepal](/source/Nepal) suggest that Shaivism (particularly Pāśupata) was established in this region by the 5th century, during the late [Guptas](/source/Gupta_Empire) era. These inscriptions have been dated by modern techniques to between 466 and 645 CE.[59] ### Puranic Shaivism Shiva (middle) is the supreme being of Shaivism, accompanied by his son Ganesha (left) and consort Parvati (right). Painting by Raja Ravi Varma. During the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) (c. 320–500 CE) the genre of [Purāṇa](/source/Purana) literature developed in India, and many of these Puranas contain extensive chapters on Shaivism – along with [Vaishnavism](/source/Vaishnavism), Shaktism, [Smarta Traditions](/source/Smarta_Tradition) of Brahmins and other topics – suggesting the importance of Shaivism by then.[30][49] The most important Shaiva Purāṇas of this period include the *[Shiva Purāṇa](/source/Shiva_Purana)*, the *[Skanda Purāṇa](/source/Skanda_Purana)*, and the *[Linga Purāṇa](/source/Linga_Purana)*.[30][58][60] ### Post-Gupta development Shiva with [Trisula](/source/Trisula), worshipped in [Central Asia](/source/Central_Asia). [Penjikent](/source/Penjikent), [Uzbekistan](/source/Uzbekistan), 7th–8th century CE. [Hermitage Museum](/source/Hermitage_Museum). Most of the Gupta kings, beginning with [Chandragupta II](/source/Chandragupta_II) (Vikramaditya) (375–413 CE) were known as Parama Bhagavatas or [Bhagavata](/source/Bhagavata) [Vaishnavas](/source/Vaishnavas) and had been ardent promoters of [Vaishnavism](/source/Vaishnavism).[61][62] But following the [Huna](/source/Huna_people) invasions, especially those of the [Alchon Huns](/source/Alchon_Huns) circa 500 CE, the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) declined and fragmented, ultimately collapsing completely, with the effect of discrediting Vaishnavism, the religion it had been so ardently promoting.[63] The newly arising regional powers in central and northern India, such as the [Aulikaras](/source/Aulikaras), the [Maukharis](/source/Maukharis), the [Maitrakas](/source/Maitrakas), the [Kalacuris](/source/Kalachuris_of_Mahishmati) or the [Vardhanas](/source/Vardhanas) preferred adopting Shaivism instead, giving a strong impetus to the development of the worship of [Shiva](/source/Shiva).[63] Vaishnavism remained strong mainly in the territories which had not been affected by these events: [South India](/source/South_India) and [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir).[63] In the early 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim [Xuanzang](/source/Xuanzang) (Huen Tsang) visited India and wrote a memoir in Chinese that mentions the prevalence of Shiva temples all over North [Indian subcontinent](/source/Indian_subcontinent), including in the [Hindu Kush](/source/Hindu_Kush) region such as [Nuristan](/source/Nuristan_Province).[64][65] Between the 5th and 11th century CE, major Shaiva temples had been built in central, southern and eastern regions of the subcontinent, including those at [Badami cave temples](/source/Badami_cave_temples), [Aihole](/source/Aihole), [Elephanta Caves](/source/Elephanta_Caves), [Ellora Caves](/source/Ellora_Caves) (Kailasha, cave 16), [Khajuraho](/source/Khajuraho_Group_of_Monuments), Bhuvaneshwara, Chidambaram, Madurai, and Conjeevaram.[64] Major scholars of competing Hindu traditions from the second half of the 1st millennium CE, such as [Adi Shankara](/source/Adi_Shankara) of Advaita Vedanta and [Ramanuja](/source/Ramanuja) of Vaishnavism, mention several Shaiva sects, particularly the four groups: Pashupata, Lakulisha, tantric Shaiva and Kapalika. The description is conflicting, with some texts stating the tantric, puranik and Vedic traditions of Shaivism to be hostile to each other while others suggest them to be amicable sub-traditions. Some texts state that Kapalikas reject the Vedas and are involved in extreme experimentation,[b] while others state the Shaiva sub-traditions revere the Vedas but are non-Puranik.[68] ### South India Shaivism was the predominant tradition in South India, co-existing with Buddhism and Jainism, before the Vaishnava [Alvars](/source/Alvars) launched the [Bhakti movement](/source/Bhakti_movement) in the 7th century, and influential Vedanta scholars such as [Ramanuja](/source/Ramanuja) developed a philosophical and organisational framework that helped Vaishnavism expand. Though both traditions of Hinduism have ancient roots, given their mention in the epics such as the *Mahabharata*, Shaivism flourished in South India much earlier.[69] The Mantramarga of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, provided a template for the later though independent and highly influential Pancaratrika treatises of Vaishnavism. This is evidenced in Hindu texts such as the *Isvarasamhita*, *Padmasamhita,* and *Paramesvarasamhita*.[69] The 7th to 8th-century [Shore Temple](/source/Shore_Temple) at Mahabalipuram is a UNESCO World Heritage site. It features thousands of Shaivism-related sculptures.[70] Along with the Himalayan region stretching from Kashmir through Nepal, the Shaiva tradition in South India has been one of the largest sources of preserved Shaivism-related manuscripts from ancient and medieval India.[71] The region was also the source of Hindu arts, temple architecture, and merchants who helped spread Shaivism into southeast Asia in early 1st millennium CE.[72][73][74] There are tens of thousands of Hindu temples where Shiva is either the primary deity or reverentially included in anthropomorphic or aniconic form (lingam, or [svayambhu](/source/Swayambhu)).[75][76] Numerous historic Shaiva temples have survived in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.[77] [Gudimallam](/source/Gudimallam_Lingam) is the oldest known lingam and has been dated to between 3rd to 1st-century BCE. It is a carved five feet high stone lingam with an anthropomorphic image of Shiva on one side. This ancient lingam is in [Chittoor](/source/Chittoor) district of Andhra Pradesh.[76][78][79] ### Southeast Asia An image collage of 1st millennium CE Shaivism icons and temples from Southeast Asia (top left): Shiva in yoga pose, Nandi, [Prambanan](/source/Prambanan) temple, Yoni-Linga and [Hindu temple](/source/Hindu_temple) layout. Shaivism arrived in a major way in southeast Asia from south India, and to much lesser extent into China and Tibet from the Himalayan region. It co-developed with Buddhism in this region, in many cases.[80] For example, in the [Caves of the Thousand Buddhas](/source/Caves_of_the_Thousand_Buddhas), a few caves include Shaivism ideas.[81][c] The epigraphical and cave arts evidence suggest that Shaiva Mahesvara and Mahayana Buddhism had arrived in Indo-China region in the [Funan](/source/Funan) period, that is in the first half of the 1st millennium CE.[73][74] In Indonesia, temples at archaeological sites and numerous inscription evidence dated to the early period (400 to 700 CE), suggest that Shiva was the highest god. This co-existence of Shaivism and Buddhism in Java continued through about 1500 CE when both Hinduism and Buddhism were replaced with Islam,[83] and persists today in the province of Bali.[84] The Shaivist and Buddhist traditions overlapped significantly in southeast Asia, particularly in Indonesia, Cambodia, and Vietnam between the 5th and the 15th century. Shaivism and Shiva held the paramount position in ancient Java, Sumatra, Bali, and neighbouring islands, though the sub-tradition that developed creatively integrated more ancient beliefs that pre-existed.[85] In the centuries that followed, the merchants and monks who arrived in Southeast Asia, brought Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Buddhism, and these developed into a syncretic, mutually supporting form of traditions.[85][86] #### Indonesia In [Balinese Hinduism](/source/Balinese_Hinduism), Dutch ethnographers further subdivided *[Siwa (shaivaites)](/source/Sampradaya#Shaivite_sampradayas) [Sampradaya](/source/Sampradaya)"* into five – Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher caste Brahmana men with lower caste women.[87] ## Traditions The development of various schools of Shaivism from pre-Vedic Shiva and early worship of Rudra. Two female Shaiva ascetics (18th century painting) Shaivism centres around Shiva, but it has many sub-traditions whose theological beliefs and practices vary significantly. They can broadly divided in theistic dualism and nontheistic monism, but there are also combinations of the features or practices of the two.[88][89] Shaivism can also be divided in Vedic, Puranic and non-Puranic (esoteric, tantric) Shaivism.[90][91][92][93] Vedic and Puranic are often grouped together given the significant overlap.[93][90] Non-Puranic Shaivism consists of esoteric, minority sub-traditions wherein devotees are initiated (**dīkṣa**) into a specific cult they prefer.[92][93][90] These are traditionally further divided into the *atimarga* or "outer higher path", only accessible for Shaiva sannyasins[94] and the *mantramarga*, followed by both the renunciates (*[sannyasi](/source/Sannyasi)*) and householders (*[grihastha](/source/Grihastha)*) in Shaivism.[95][91] The atimarga consists of the [Pashupata](/source/Pashupata); the Lakula, a subschool of the Pashupata; and the [Kalamukha](/source/Kalamukha), a subschool of the Lakula. [Lingayatism](/source/Lingayatism) is related to the Kalamukha, but was also influenced by Siva Siddhanta.[96] The [Nath](/source/Nath)-tradition is a subgroup of the [Siddha](/source/Siddha) tradition,[97][98] and related to heterodox ascetic Shaivite traditions[99] especially the [Kapalika](/source/Kapalika)[97][100] and the [Kaula](/source/Kaula_(Hinduism)),[97] ### Vedic-Puranic Shaivism Vedic-Puranic Shaivism is a householder lay religion,[90] followed by the majority within Shaivism. They revere the Vedas and the Puranas and hold beliefs that span from dualistic theism, such as Shiva [Bhakti](/source/Bhakti) (devotionalism), to monistic non-theism dedicated to yoga and a meditative lifestyle. This sometimes involves renouncing household life for monastic pursuits of spirituality.[101] In Vedic-Puranic Shaivism, Shiva is also called Mahadeva or Maheshvara and others" synonymously, and most worshipped in the form of the [Linga](/source/Linga), while temples also feature the bull [Nandi](/source/Nandi_(bull)), the [Trishula](/source/Trishula) (trident), and anthropomorphic statues of Shiva, to help focus practices.[91] ### Atimarga The Atimarga branch of Shaivism emphasises liberation (salvation) – or the end of all [Dukkha](/source/Dukkha) – as the primary goal of spiritual pursuits.[102] It was the path for Shaiva [ascetics](/source/Asceticism), in contrast to Shaiva householders whose path was described as Mantramarga and who sought both salvation as well as the yogi-siddhi powers and pleasures in life.[103] The Atimarga revered the [Vedic](/source/Vedic) sources of Shaivism, and sometimes referred to in ancient Indian texts as Raudra (from Vedic [Rudra](/source/Rudra)).[104] The *atimarga* sub-traditions include Pashupatas and Lakula.[92][93] #### Pashupata [Lakulisha](/source/Lakulisha) at Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta, Karnataka ([Chalukya](/source/Chalukya_dynasty), 7th century CE). His 5th–10th century ithyphallic statues[a] are also found in seated yogi position in [Rajasthan](/source/Rajasthan), [Uttar Pradesh](/source/Uttar_Pradesh) and elsewhere.[105] [Pashupata](/source/Pashupata_Shaivism) (IAST: **Pāśupatas**) are the Shaivite sub-tradition with the oldest heritage, as evidenced by Indian texts dated to around the start of the common era such as the [Shanti Parva](/source/Shanti_Parva) book of the *[Mahabharata](/source/Mahabharata)* epic.[92][93] It is a monist tradition, that considers Shiva to be within oneself, in every being and everything observed. The Pashupata path to liberation is one of [asceticism](/source/Asceticism) that is traditionally restricted to Brahmin males.[106][d] Pashupata theology, according to *Shiva Sutras*, aims for a spiritual state of consciousness where the Pashupata yogi "abides in one's own unfettered nature", where the external rituals feel unnecessary, where every moment and every action becomes an internal vow, a spiritual ritual unto itself.[107] The Pashupatas derive their Sanskrit name from two words: Pashu (beast) and Pati (lord), where the chaotic and ignorant state, one imprisoned by bondage and assumptions, is conceptualised as the beast,[108] and the Atman (Self, Shiva) that is present eternally everywhere as the Pati.[109] The tradition aims at realising the state of being one with Shiva within and everywhere. It has extensive literature,[109][110] and a fivefold path of spiritual practice that starts with external practices, evolving into internal practices and ultimately meditative yoga, with the aim of overcoming all suffering (Dukkha) and reaching the state of bliss (Ananda).[111][112] The tradition is attributed to a sage from Gujarat named [Lakulisha](/source/Lakulisha) (~2nd century CE).[113] He is the purported author of the *[Pashupata-sutra](/source/Pashupata-sutra)*, a foundational text of this tradition. Other texts include the [bhasya](/source/Bhasya) (commentary) on *Pashupata-sutra* by Kaudinya, the *Gaṇakārikā*, *Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā* and *Rāśikara-bhāshya*.[102] The Pashupatha monastic path was available to anyone of any age, but it required renunciation from four [Ashrama (stage)](/source/Ashrama_(stage)) into the fifth stage of *Siddha-Ashrama*. The path started as a life near a Shiva temple and silent meditation, then a stage when the ascetic left the temple and did karma exchange (be cursed by others, but never curse back). He then moved to the third stage of life where he lived like a loner in a cave or abandoned places or Himalayan mountains, and towards the end of his life he moved to a cremation ground, surviving on little, peacefully awaiting his death.[102] The Pashupatas have been particularly prominent in [Gujarat](/source/Gujarat), [Rajasthan](/source/Rajasthan), [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir) and [Nepal](/source/Nepal). The community is found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent.[114] In the late medieval era, Pashupatas Shaiva ascetics became extinct.[108][115] The tantric sub-tradition in this category is traceable to post-8th to post-11th century depending on the region of Indian subcontinent, paralleling the development of Buddhist and Jain tantra traditions in this period.[116] #### Lakula The lakula developed from the Pashupatas. Their fundamental text too was the Pashupata Sutras. They differed from Pashupata in that they departed radically from the Vedic teachings, respected no Vedic or social customs. He would walk around, for example, almost naked, drank liquor in public, and used a human skull as his begging bowl for food.[117] The Lakula Shaiva ascetic recognised no act nor words as forbidden, he freely did whatever he felt like, much like the classical depiction of his deity Rudra in ancient Hindu texts. However, according to Alexis Sanderson, the Lakula ascetic was strictly celibate and did not engage in sex.[117] Secondary literature, such as those written by Kashmiri Ksemaraja, suggest that the Lakula had their canons on theology, rituals and literature on [pramanas](/source/Pramanas) (epistemology). However, their primary texts are believed to be lost, and have not survived into the modern era.[117] ### Mantramarga The horizontal three ash lines ([Tripundra](/source/Tripundra)) with a red mark on forehead is a revered mark across Shaiva traditions symbolising [Om](/source/Om).[118][119] "Mantramārga" ([Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit): मंत्रमार्ग, "the path of mantras") has been the Shaiva tradition for both householders and monks.[95] It grew from the Atimarga tradition.[120] This tradition sought not just liberation from *Dukkha* (suffering, unsatisfactoriness), but special powers (*siddhi*) and pleasures (*bhoga*), both in this life and next.[121] The *siddhi* were particularly the pursuit of *Mantramarga* monks, and it is this sub-tradition that experimented with a great diversity of rites, deities, rituals, yogic techniques and mantras.[120] These sub-traditions cherish secrecy, special symbolic formulae, initiation by a teacher and the pursuit of *siddhi* (special powers). Some of these traditions also incorporate theistic ideas, elaborate geometric yantra with embedded spiritual meaning, mantras and rituals.[116][122][123] Mantramārga grew to become a dominant form of Shaivism in this[*[which?](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words)*] period. It also spread outside of India into [Southeast Asia](/source/Southeast_Asia)'s [Khmer Empire](/source/Khmer_Empire), [Java](/source/Java), [Bali](/source/Bali) and [Cham](/source/Chams).[124][125] The Mantramarga tradition created the [Shaiva Agamas](/source/%C4%80gama_(Hinduism)#Shaiva_Agamas) and Shaiva tantra (technique) texts. This literature presented new forms of ritual, yoga and mantra.[126] This literature was highly influential not just to Shaivism, but to all traditions of Hinduism, as well as to Buddhism and Jainism.[127] Mantramarga had both theistic and monistic themes, which co-evolved and influenced each other. The tantra texts reflect this, where the collection contains both dualistic and non-dualistic theologies. The theism in the tantra texts parallel those found in Vaishnavism and Shaktism.[128][129] Shaiva Siddhanta is a major sub-tradition that emphasised dualism during much of its history.[129] Shaivism has had strong nondualistic (advaita) sub-traditions.[130][131] Its central premise has been that the [Atman](/source/Atman_(Hinduism)) (Self) of every being is identical to Shiva, its various practices and pursuits directed at understanding and being one with the Shiva within. This monism is close but differs somewhat from the monism found in [Advaita Vedanta](/source/Advaita_Vedanta) of Adi Shankara. Unlike Shankara's Advaita, Shaivism monist schools consider [Maya](/source/Maya_(illusion)) as Shakti, or energy and creative primordial power that explains and propels the existential diversity.[130] Srikantha, influenced by [Ramanuja](/source/Ramanuja), formulated Shaiva [Vishishtadvaita](/source/Vishishtadvaita).[132] In this theology, Atman (Self) is not identical with [Brahman](/source/Brahman), but shares with the Supreme all its qualities. [Appayya Dikshita](/source/Appayya_Dikshita) (1520–1592), an Advaita scholar, proposed pure monism, and his ideas influenced Shaiva in the [Karnataka](/source/Karnataka) region. His Shaiva Advaita doctrine is inscribed on the walls of Kalakanthesvara temple in Adaiyappalam ([Tiruvannamalai district](/source/Tiruvannamalai_district)).[133][134] #### Shaiva Siddhanta [Tirumular](/source/Tirumular), the great Tamil Śaivasiddhānta poet and mystic saint (*siddha*). [Kauai Hindu monastery](/source/Saiva_Siddhanta_Church) on [Kauaʻi Island](/source/Kaua%CA%BBi_Island) in Hawaii is the only Hindu Monastery(shaivaite) in the United States. The [Śaivasiddhānta](/source/Shaiva_Siddhanta) ("the established doctrine of Shiva") is the earliest [sampradaya](/source/Sampradaya) (tradition, lineage) of Tantric Shaivism, dating from the 5th century.[129][135] The tradition emphasises loving devotion to Shiva,[136] uses 5th to 9th-century Tamil hymns called *[Tirumurai](/source/Tirumurai)*. A key philosophical text of this sub-tradition was composed by 13th-century [Meykandar](/source/Meykandar).[137] This theology presents three universal realities: the *pashu* (individual Self), the *pati* (lord, Shiva), and the *pasha* (Self's bondage) through ignorance, [karma](/source/Karma) and [maya](/source/Maya_(illusion)). The tradition teaches ethical living, service to the community and through one's work, loving worship, yoga practice and discipline, continuous learning and self-knowledge as means for liberating the individual Self from bondage.[137][138] The tradition may have originated in Kashmir where it developed a sophisticated theology propagated by theologians Sadyojoti, Bhaṭṭa Nārāyaṇakaṇṭha and his son Bhaṭṭa Rāmakaṇṭha (c. 950–1000).[139] However, after the arrival of Islamic rulers in north India, it thrived in the south.[140] The philosophy of [Shaiva Siddhanta](/source/Shaiva_Siddhanta), is particularly popular in [south India](/source/South_India), [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka), [Malaysia](/source/Malaysia) and [Singapore](/source/Singapore).[141] The historic Shaiva Siddhanta literature is an enormous body of texts.[142] The tradition includes both Shiva and Shakti (goddess), but with a growing emphasis on metaphysical abstraction.[142] Unlike the experimenters of Atimarga tradition and other sub-traditions of Mantramarga, states Sanderson, the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition had no ritual offering or consumption of "alcoholic drinks, blood or meat". Their practices focussed on abstract ideas of spirituality,[142] worship and loving devotion to Shiva as SadaShiva, and taught the authority of the Vedas and Shaiva Agamas.[143][144] This tradition diversified in its ideas over time, with some of its scholars integrating a non-dualistic theology.[145] #### Tamil Shiva Siddhanta - Nayanars Nayanars Shaiva poet-saints are credited with [Bhakti movement](/source/Bhakti_movement) in Shaivism. It included three women saints, such as the 6th-century [Karaikkal Ammaiyar](/source/Karaikkal_Ammaiyar).[146] By the 7th century, the [Nayanars](/source/Nayanars), a tradition of poet-saints in the bhakti tradition developed in ancient [Tamilakam](/source/Tamilakam) with a focus on Shiva, comparable to that of the Vaisnava Alvars.[147] The devotional [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language) poems of the Nayanars are divided into eleven collections together known as *[Tirumurai](/source/Tirumurai)*, along with a [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language) [Purana](/source/Purana) called the *[Periya Puranam](/source/Periya_Puranam)*. The first seven collections are known as the *[Tevaram](/source/Tevaram)* and are regarded by Tamils as equivalent to the [Vedas](/source/Vedas).{{efn|For eleven collections, with the first seven (the *Thevaram*) regarded as Vedic, see: [Tattwananda (1984](#CITEREFTattwananda1984), p. 55) They were composed in the 7th century by [Sambandar](/source/Sambandar), [Appar](/source/Appar), and [Sundarar](/source/Sundarar).[148] [Tirumular](/source/Thirumoolar) (also spelled *Tirumūlār* or *Tirumūlar*), the author of the *[Tirumantiram](/source/Tirumantiram)* (also spelled *Tirumandiram*) is considered by Tattwananda to be the earliest exponent of Shaivism in Tamil areas.[149] Tirumular is dated as 7th or 8th century by Maurice Winternitz.[150] The *Tirumantiram* is a primary source for the system of Shaiva Siddhanta, being the tenth book of its canon.[e] The *[Tiruvacakam](/source/Thiruvasakam)* by [Manikkavacagar](/source/Manikkavasagar) is an important collection of hymns.[151] #### Kapalika The [Kāpālika](/source/K%C4%81p%C4%81lika) ([Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit) : कापालिक)[152] tradition was a [Tantric](/source/Tantra), non-[Puranic](/source/Puranic) form of Shaivism which originated in [medieval India](/source/Medieval_India) between the 4th and 8th century CE.[160] The word is derived from the Sanskrit term *[kapāla](/source/Kapala)*, meaning "skull", and *kāpālika* can be translated as the "skull-men" or "skull-bearers".[161] Today, the Kāpālika tradition survives within its Shaivite offshoots: the [Aghorī order](/source/Aghori), [Kaulā](/source/Kaula_(Hinduism)), and [Trika](/source/Trika) traditions.[155][157] In later [Hatha Yoga](/source/Hatha_Yoga), the Kaula visualization of [kundalini](/source/Kundalini) rising through a system of [chakras](/source/Chakra) is overlaid onto the earlier [bindu](/source/Bindu_(symbol))-oriented system.[162] #### Aghori The Aghori (from [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit_language): अघोर, [lit.](/source/Literal_translation) 'not dreadful', 'dreadless', [IAST](/source/IAST): *aghora*) are a Hindu [monastic order](/source/Monasticism) of [ascetic](/source/Asceticism) Shaivite [sadhus](/source/Sadhu) based in [Uttar Pradesh](/source/Uttar_Pradesh), India.[157] They are the only surviving sect derived from the *[Kāpālika](/source/Kapalika)* tradition, a [Tantric](/source/Tantra), non-[Puranic](/source/Puranic) form of Shaivism which originated in [Medieval India](/source/Medieval_India) between the 4th and 8th century CE.[157][154][163][156][158] Similarly to their Shaivite predecessors,[157] Aghoris usually engage in [post-mortem](/source/Post-mortem_interval) rituals, often dwell in [charnel grounds](/source/Charnel_ground), smear [cremation](/source/Cremation) ashes on their bodies,[164] and use bones from human corpses for crafting *[kapāla](/source/Kapala)* ([skull cups](/source/Skull_cups) which [Shiva](/source/Shiva) and other [Hindu deities](/source/Hindu_deities) are often iconically depicted holding or using) and jewellery.[154][163][156] They also practice post-mortem [cannibalism](/source/Human_cannibalism), eating flesh from foraged human corpses, including those taken from [cremation ghats](/source/Shmashana).[165][166] Their practices are sometimes considered contradictory to orthodox [Hinduism](/source/Hinduism).[154][163][156][167] Many Aghori [gurus](/source/Guru) command great reverence from rural populations and are widely referred to in [medieval and modern works of Indian literature](/source/Indian_literature), as they are supposed to possess healing powers gained through their intensely [eremitic](/source/Hermit) rites and practices of [renunciation](/source/Renunciation) and *[tápasya](/source/Tapas_(Sanskrit))*.[154][163][156] #### Kulamārga The Kāpālika tradition gave rise to the [Kulamārga](/source/Kaula_(Hinduism)), a subsect of Tantric Shaivism which preserves some of the distinctive features of the Kāpālika tradition.[168] Kaula developed into four main systems, known as the Four Transmissions,[169][170] namely eastern (*Pūrvāmnāya*; [Trika](/source/Trika)-tradition, which developed into Kashmir Shaivism;[169] goddess *Kuleshvari*[169]), northern (*Uttarāmnāya*; Mata and Krama tradition; goddess [Kali](/source/Kali)[171]), western (*Paścimāmnāya*; goddess *[Kubjika](/source/Kubjika)*), and southern (*Daksinamnaya*; goddess [Tripurasundari](/source/Tripura_Sundari)[172]).[f] #### Trika and Kashmir Shaivism Main articles: [Trika](/source/Trika) and [Kashmir Shaivism](/source/Kashmir_Shaivism) A 3rd century CE [Nandi](/source/Nandi_(Hinduism)) statue from Kashmir. c. 8th–9th century CE [Shiva Temple at Pandrethan](/source/Pandrethan_Shiva_Temple), Kashmir. [Kashmir Shaivism](/source/Kashmir_Shaivism) is an influential tradition within Shaivism that developed from the Trika school in Kashmir in the late 1st millennium CE and thrived in early centuries of the 2nd millennium, before the region was subjugated by the Islamic conquests from the [Hindu Kush](/source/Hindu_Kush) region.[173][g] The Kashmir Shaivism traditions contracted due to Islam except for their preservation by [Kashmiri Pandits](/source/Kashmiri_Pandits).[174][175] The tradition experienced a [revival](/source/Kashmir_Shaivism#20th-century_revival) in the 20th century due especially to influence of [Swami Lakshmanjoo](/source/Lakshman_Joo) and his students.[176] Kashmir Shaivism has been a [nondual](/source/Nondualism) school,[177][178] and is distinct from the dualistic Shaiva Siddhānta tradition that also existed in medieval Kashmir.[179][180][174] The 10th century scholar [Utpaladeva](/source/Utpaladeva) and 11th century [Abhinavagupta](/source/Abhinavagupta) and [Kshemaraja](/source/Kshemaraja), in their exegesis of Tantric scriptures, developed the [Pratyabhijna](/source/Pratyabhijna)-teaching, 'recognition of the essence, Shiva'.[181][182] Their extensive texts established the Shaiva theology and philosophy in an [advaita](/source/Advaita) ([monism](/source/Monism)) framework.[174][180] The *Siva Sutras* of 9th century [Vasugupta](/source/Vasugupta) and his ideas about *Spanda* have also been influential to this and other Shaiva sub-traditions, but it is probable that much older Shaiva texts once existed.[180][183] A notable feature of Kashmir Shaivism was its openness and integration of ideas from [Shaktism](/source/Shaktism), [Vaishnavism](/source/Vaishnavism) and [Vajrayana Buddhism](/source/Vajrayana).[174] For example, one sub-tradition of Kashmir Shaivism adopts Goddess worship (Shaktism) by stating that the approach to god Shiva is through goddess Shakti. This tradition combined monistic ideas with tantric practices. Another idea of this school was *Trika*, or modal triads of Shakti and cosmology as developed by [Somananda](/source/Somananda) in the early 10th century.[174][174][184] Nondual (Kashmir Trika) Shaivism emphasises yoga as a practice beyond the ritual obligations, categorizing it into [four upaya](/source/Trika#Four_upayas): *anupaya*, the "non-means" or the pathless path; *sambhavopaya*, related to [desire or will](/source/Samskara_(Indian_philosophy)), "the sudden upsurge of emotion and instinct that shatters [thought construction](/source/Prapanca)", which is *[nirvikalpa](/source/Nirvikalpa)*, without thought-construction; *saktopaya*, related to cognition (*jnana*), "focusing on a pure thought construction (*suddhavikalpa*) that corresponds to a true state of affairs, such as ["I am Siva"](/source/Nirvanashatkam); *anavopaya*, individual means, related to *kriya*, action, the development of pure thoughts by eans of mantra, meditation on body-parts and the breath, and meditation on external objects.[185] #### Nath Main article: [Nath](/source/Nath) [Goraknath](/source/Goraknath) founded the Nath Shaiva monastic movement. [Nath](/source/Nath) is a subgroup of the [Siddha](/source/Siddha) tradition,[97][98] and related to heterodox ascetic Shaivite traditions[99] especially the [Kapalika](/source/Kapalika)[97][100] and the [Kaula](/source/Kaula_(Hinduism)),[97] but also the [Pashupata](/source/Pashupata)[100] and the Saktas.[100] They emerged as a confederation of Shiva-devotees in the 12th and 13th century.[99] The Nath consider Shiva as "Adinatha" or the first guru, and it has been a small but notable and influential movement in [India](/source/India) whose devotees were called "Yogi" or "Jogi", given their monastic unconventional ways and emphasis on Yoga.[186][187][188] Nath theology integrated elements from Yoga, shaivism, Tantra, [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism) and [Advaita Vedanta](/source/Advaita_Vedanta). Their unconventional ways challenged all orthodox premises, exploring dark and shunned practices of society as a means to understanding theology and gaining inner powers. The tradition traces itself to 9th or 10th century [Matsyendranath](/source/Matsyendranath) and to ideas and organisation developed by [Gorakshanath](/source/Gorakshanath).[189] They combined both theistic practices such as worshipping goddesses and their historic [Gurus](/source/Guru) in temples, as well monistic goals of achieving liberation or *[jivan-mukti](/source/Moksha)* while alive, by reaching the perfect (*siddha*) state of realising oneness of self and everything with Shiva.[190][189] They formed monastic organisations,[189] and some of them metamorphosed into warrior ascetics to resist persecution during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent.[191][192][193] The [Inchegeri Sampradaya](/source/Inchegeri_Sampradaya), also known as Nimbargi Sampradaya, is a lineage of Hindu Navnath teachers from [Maharashtra](/source/Maharashtra) which was started by Shri Bhausaheb Maharaj.[194] It is inspired by [Sant Mat](/source/Sant_Mat) teachers as [Namdev](/source/Namdev), [Raidas](/source/Ravidas) and [Kabir](/source/Kabir_Das). The Inchegeri Sampraday has become well-known through the popularity of [Nisargadatta Maharaj](/source/Nisargadatta_Maharaj). ### Lingayatism Main article: [Lingayatism](/source/Lingayatism) A necklace with pendant containing linga symbol of Shiva are worn by Lingayats.[195] [Lingayatism](/source/Lingayatism), also known as Veera Shaivism is a distinct Shaivite religious tradition in [India](/source/India).[196][197][198] It was founded by the 12th-century philosopher and statesman [Basava](/source/Basava) and spread by his followers, called [Sharanas](/source/Sharana).[199] Lingayatism emphasises [qualified monism](/source/Qualified_monism) and [bhakti](/source/Bhakti) (loving devotion) to Shiva, with philosophical foundations similar to those of the 11th–12th-century South Indian philosopher [Ramanuja](/source/Ramanuja).[196] Its worship is notable for the iconographic form of *Ishtalinga*, which the adherents wear.[200][201] Large communities of Lingayats are found in the south Indian state of Karnataka and nearby regions.[196][202][203] Lingayatism has its own theological literature with sophisticated theoretical sub-traditions.[204] They were influential in the Hindu [Vijayanagara Empire](/source/Vijayanagara_Empire) that reversed the territorial gains of Muslim rulers, after the invasions of the Deccan region first by [Delhi Sultanate](/source/Delhi_Sultanate) and later other Sultanates. Lingayats consider their scripture to be *[Basava Purana](/source/Basava_Purana)*, which was completed in 1369 during the reign of Vijayanagara ruler [Bukka Raya I](/source/Bukka_Raya_I).[205][206] Lingayat (Veerashaiva) thinkers rejected the custodial hold of Brahmins over the [Vedas](/source/Veda) and the [shastras](/source/Shastra), but they did not outright reject the Vedic knowledge.[207][208] The 13th-century Telugu Virashaiva poet [Palkuriki Somanatha](/source/Palkuriki_Somanatha), the author of the scripture of Lingayatism, for example asserted, "Virashaivism fully conformed to the [Vedas](/source/Vedas) and the shastras."[207][208] ## Texts **Shaiva manuscripts that have survived** (post-8th century) Nepal and Himalayan region = 140,000 South India = 8,600 Others (Devanagiri) = 2,000 Bali and SE Asia = Many — Alexis Sanderson, *The Saiva Literature*[71][209] Over its history, Shaivism has been nurtured by numerous texts ranging from scriptures to theological treatises. These include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Agamas, considered superior to the Vedas,[17] and the *[Bhasya](/source/Bhasya)*. According to Gavin Flood, Shaiva scholars developed a sophisticated theology, in its diverse traditions.[210] Among the notable and influential commentaries by *dvaita* (dualistic) theistic Shaivism scholars were the 8th century Sadyajoti, the 10th century Ramakantha, 11th century Bhojadeva.[210] The dualistic theology was challenged by the numerous scholars of *advaita* (nondualistic, monistic) Shaivism persuasion such as the 8th/9th century Vasugupta,[h] the 10th century Abhinavagupta and 11th century Kshemaraja, particularly the scholars of the Pratyabhijna, Spanda and Kashmiri Shaivism schools of theologians.[210][212][213] ### Vedas and Principal Upanishads In Shaivism the Agamas are considered to be superior to the Vedas,[17] incorporating the orthodox system as a lower level of understanding.[17] According to Dyczkowski, the Shaivites developed "a corpus of sacred Saiva literature — the Saivagamas — that considered itself to be independent of the authority of the Vedas and had nothing to do with the Epics or Puranas."[19] The surviving Vedic literature can be traced to the 1st millennium BCE and earlier, while the surviving Agamas can be traced to 1st millennium of the common era.[214] According to David Smith, "a key feature of the Tamil Saiva Siddhanta, one might almost say its defining feature, is the claim that its source lies in the Vedas as well as the Agamas, in what it calls the Vedagamas", noting that this claim to Vedic orthodoxy was an attempt to broaden it's appeal, while viewing "the Siddhanta as the essence of the Vedas".[18] This school's view of the Saivagama's as the essence is reflected by Arulnanti, who states that the Agamas contain the essence of the Vedas and Vedanta.[18] Likewise, Umapati states: The Veda is the cow, the true Agama its milk; the liturgical Tamil of the Four [Tamil poets] is the ghee churned therefrom.[18] The *[*Śvetāśvatara* Upanishad](/source/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad)* (400–200 BCE)[215] is the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.[i] ### Shaiva minor Upanishads Shaivism-inspired scholars authored 14 Shiva-focussed Upanishads that are called the Shaiva Upanishads.[216] These are considered part of 95 minor Upanishads in the [Muktikā](/source/Muktik%C4%81) Upanishadic corpus of Hindu literature.[216][217] The earliest among these were likely composed in 1st millennium BCE, while the last ones in the late medieval era.[218] The Shaiva Upanishads present diverse ideas, ranging from [bhakti](/source/Bhakti)-style theistic dualism themes to a synthesis of Shaiva ideas with Advaitic (nondualism), Yoga, Vaishnava and Shakti themes.[219] Shaivism Upanishads Shaiva Upanishad Composition date Topics Reference Kaivalya Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva, Atman, Brahman, Sannyasa, Self-knowledge [220][221][222] Atharvashiras Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Rudra, Atman, Brahman, Om, monism [223][224][225] Atharvashikha Upanishad 1st millennium BCE Shiva, Om, Brahman, chanting, meditation [226] Brihajjabala Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century Shiva, sacred ash, prayer beads, Tripundra tilaka [227] Kalagni Rudra Upanishad Unknown Meaning of Tripundra (three lines tilaka), Ritual Shaivism [228][229] Dakshinamurti Upanishad Unknown Dakshinamurti as an aspect of Shiva, Atman, monism [230] Sharabha Upanishad Unknown Shiva as Sharabha [231] Akshamalika Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century CE Rosary, japa, mantras, Om, Shiva, symbolism in Shaivism iconography [232] Rudrahridaya Upanishad Unknown Rudra-Uma, Male-Female are inseparable, nondualism [233] Bhasmajabala Upanishad Late medieval, post-12th century Shiva, sacred ash, body art, iconography, why rituals and Varanasi are important [234][235] Rudrakshajabala Upanishad After the 10th century Shiva, Bhairava, Rudraksha beads and mantra recitation [216] Ganapati Upanishad 16th or 17th century Ganesha, Shiva, Brahman, Atman, Om, Satcitananda [236] Pancabrahma Upanishad About 7th century CE Shiva, Sadashiva, nondualism, So'ham, Atman, Brahman, self-knowledge [237][238] Jabali Upanishad unknown Shiva, Pashupata theology, significance of ash and body art [239] ### Shaiva Agamas The Agama texts of Shaivism are the most important texts of Shaivism.[17][18][19][240] These texts include Shaiva [cosmology](/source/Cosmology), epistemology, philosophical doctrines, precepts on meditation and practices, four kinds of yoga, mantras, meanings and manuals for Shaiva temples, and other elements of practice.[241][242] These canonical texts exist in [Sanskrit](/source/Sanskrit)[241] and in south Indian languages such as [Tamil](/source/Tamil_language).[243] The Agamas present a diverse range of philosophies, ranging from [theistic dualism](/source/Theistic_dualism) to absolute [monism](/source/Monism).[244][245] In Shaivism, there are ten dualistic ([dvaita](/source/Dvaita)) Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism ([bhedabheda](/source/Bhedabheda)) Agama texts and sixty four monism ([advaita](/source/Advaita)) Agama texts.[246] The Bhairava Shastras are monistic, while Shiva Shastras are dualistic.[13][247] The Agama texts of Shaiva and Vaishnava schools are premised on existence of [Atman](/source/Atman_(Hinduism)) (Self) and the existence of an Ultimate Reality, Shiva.[248] The texts differ in the relation between the two. Some assert the dualistic philosophy of the individual Self and Ultimate Reality being different, while others state a Oneness between the two.[248] Kashmir Shaiva Agamas posit absolute oneness, that is God (Shiva) is within man, God is within every being, God is present everywhere in the world including all non-living beings, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and God.[14] While Agamas present diverse theology, in terms of philosophy and spiritual precepts, no Agama that goes against the Vedic literature, states Dhavamony, has been acceptable to the Shaivas.[214] ## Influence Shiva is a pan-Hindu god and Shaivism ideas on [Yoga](/source/Yoga) and as the god of performance arts ([Nataraja](/source/Nataraja)) have been influential on all traditions of Hinduism. Shaivism was highly influential in southeast Asia from the late 6th century onwards, particularly the Khmer and Cham kingdoms of Indochina, and across the major islands of Indonesia such as Sumatra, Java and Bali.[249] This influence on classical [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), [Vietnam](/source/Vietnam) and [Thailand](/source/Thailand) continued when Mahayana Buddhism arrived with the same Indians.[250][251] In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been *Bhattara Guru*, which is derived from Sanskrit *Bhattaraka* which means "noble lord".[252] He is conceptualised as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all [Gurus](/source/Guru) in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent.[253] However, the Bhattara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Bhattara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualised with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others.[254][255] Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms.[255] The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).[256] As [Bhakti movement](/source/Bhakti_movement) ideas spread in South India, Shaivite devotionalism became a potent movement in [Karnataka](/source/Karnataka) and [Tamil Nadu](/source/Tamil_Nadu). Shaivism was adopted by several ruling Hindu dynasties as the state religion (though other Hindu traditions, Buddhism and Jainism continued in parallel), including the [Chola](/source/Chola), [Nayaks](/source/Nayakas_of_Keladi)([lingayats](/source/Veerashaiva))[257] and the [Rajputs](/source/Rajput). A similar trend was witnessed in early medieval Indonesia with the [Majapahit](/source/Majapahit) empire and pre-Islamic [Malaya](/source/Malay_Peninsula).[258][259] In the Himalayan Hindu kingdom of Nepal, Shaivism remained a popular form of Hinduism and co-evolved with Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. A seated [Ardhanarishvara](/source/Ardhanarishvara) symbolically presenting the feminine Shakti as inseparable part of masculine Shiva. ## Relation with other Indian traditions Shaivism sub-traditions subscribe to various philosophies, are similar in some aspects and differ in others. These traditions compare with Vaishnavism, Shaktism and Smartism as follows: Comparison of Shaivism with other traditions Shaiva Traditions Vaishnava Traditions Shakta Traditions Smarta Traditions References Scriptural authority Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas Vedas and Upanishads Vedas and Upanishads [6][260] Supreme deity Shiva Vishnu Devi None (Considers Parabrahman to be so) [261][262] Creator Shiva Vishnu Devi Brahman [261][263] Avatar Minor Key concept Significant Minor [6][264][265] Monastic life Recommends Accepts Accepts Recommends [6][266][267] Rituals, Bhakti Affirms[13][268][269] Affirms Affirms Optional[270] [271] Ahimsa and Vegetarianism Recommends,[13] Optional Affirms Optional Recommends [272][273] Free will, Maya, Karma Affirms Affirms Affirms Affirms [261] Metaphysics Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Self) Brahman (Vishnu), Atman Brahman (Devi), Atman Brahman, Atman [261] Epistemology (Pramana) 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 4. Self-evident[274] 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Reliable testimony 1. Perception 2. Inference 3. Comparison and analogy 4. Postulation, derivation 5. Negative/cognitive proof 6. Reliable testimony [275][276][277] Philosophy Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita Shakti-advaita Advaita, qualified advaita [278][279] Liberation (Soteriology) Jivanmukta, Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana[280] Videhamukti, Yoga, champions householder life Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga, champions monastic life [281][282] ### Shaktism The goddess tradition of Hinduism called [Shaktism](/source/Shaktism) is closely related to Shaivism. In many regions of India, not only did the ideas of Shaivism influence the evolution of Shaktism, but Shaivism also itself was influenced by it and progressively subsumed the reverence for the divine feminine (Devi) as an equal and essential partner of divine masculine (Shiva).[283] The goddess Shakti in eastern states of India is considered the inseparable partner of God Shiva. According to Galvin Flood, the closeness between Shaivism and Shaktism traditions is such that these traditions of Hinduism are at times difficult to separate.[284] Some Shaiva worship in Shiva and Shakti temples.[15] ### Smarta Tradition Shiva is a part of the [Smarta Tradition](/source/Smarta_Tradition), sometimes referred to as Smartism, which is a tradition within Hinduism.[285] The Smartas are associated with the [Advaita Vedanta](/source/Advaita_Vedanta) theology, and their practices include the [Panchayatana puja](/source/Panchayatana_puja), a ritual that incorporates simultaneous reverence for five deities: Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Devi and Ganesha. The Smartas thus accept the primary deity of Shaivism as a means to their spiritual goals.[7] Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasises that all idols ([murti](/source/Murti)) are icons of *saguna* [Brahman](/source/Brahman), a means to realising the abstract Ultimate Reality called nirguna Brahman. The five or six icons are seen by [Smartas](/source/Smartas) as multiple representations of the one [Saguna Brahman](/source/Saguna_Brahman) (i.e., a personal God with form), rather than as distinct beings.[7][286] The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, then follow a philosophical and meditative path to understanding the oneness of Atman (Self) and Brahman (metaphysical Ultimate Reality) – as "That art Thou".[285][287][288] Panchayatana puja that incorporates Shiva became popular in medieval India and is attributed to 8th century [Adi Shankara](/source/Adi_Shankara),[285][287] but archaeological evidence suggests that this practice long predates the birth of Adi Shankara. Many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the [Gupta Empire](/source/Gupta_Empire) period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometres from [Ajmer](/source/Ajmer)) has been dated to belong to the [Kushan Empire](/source/Kushan_Empire) era (pre-300 CE).[289] According to James Harle, major Hindu temples from 1st millennium CE commonly embedded the *pancayatana* architecture, from [Odisha](/source/Odisha) to [Karnataka](/source/Karnataka) to [Kashmir](/source/Kashmir). Large temples often present multiple deities in the same temple complex, while some explicitly include dual representations of deities such as [Harihara](/source/Harihara) (half Shiva, half Vishnu).[288] ### Vaishnavism Shaivism iconography in [Cambodia](/source/Cambodia), at [Kbal Spean](/source/Kbal_Spean) river site. As in India, the site also co-features Vaishnavism-related iconography.[290] Vaishnava texts reverentially mention Shiva. For example, the *[Vishnu Purana](/source/Vishnu_Purana)* primarily focuses on the theology of Hindu god [Vishnu](/source/Vishnu) and his [avatars](/source/Avatar) such as [Krishna](/source/Krishna), but it praises [Brahma](/source/Brahma) and Shiva and asserts that they are one with Vishnu.[291] The Vishnu Sahasranama in the *Mahabharata* list a thousand attributes and epithets of Vishnu. The list identifies Shiva with Vishnu.[292] Reverential inclusion of Shaiva ideas and iconography are very common in major Vaishnava temples, such as Dakshinamurti symbolism of Shaiva thought is often enshrined on the southern wall of the main temple of major Vaishnava temples in peninsular India.[293] [Harihara](/source/Harihara) temples in and outside the Indian subcontinent have historically combined Shiva and Vishnu, such as at the Lingaraj Mahaprabhu temple in Bhubaneshwar, Odisha. According to Julius Lipner, Vaishnavism traditions such as [Sri Vaishnavism](/source/Sri_Vaishnavism) embrace Shiva, Ganesha and others, not as distinct deities of polytheism, but as polymorphic manifestation of the same supreme divine principle, providing the devotee a polycentric access to the spiritual.[294] Similarly, Shaiva traditions have reverentially embraced other gods and goddesses as manifestation of the same divine.[295] The *[Skanda Purana](/source/Skanda_Purana)*, for example in section 6.254.100 states, "He who is Shiva is Vishnu, he who is Vishnu is Sadashiva."[296] ### Sauraism (Sun deity) The sun god called *[Surya](/source/Surya)* is an ancient deity of Hinduism, and several ancient Hindu kingdoms particularly in the northwest and eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent revered Surya. These devotees called Sauras once had a large corpus of theological texts, and Shaivism literature reverentially acknowledges these.[297] For example, the Shaiva text *Srikanthiyasamhita* mentions 85 Saura texts, almost all of which are believed to have been lost during the Islamic invasion and rule period, except for large excerpts found embedded in Shaiva manuscripts discovered in the Himalayan mountains. Shaivism incorporated Saura ideas, and the surviving Saura manuscripts such as *Saurasamhita* acknowledge the influence of Shaivism, according to Alexis Sanderson, assigning "itself to the canon of Shaiva text *Vathula-Kalottara*.[297] ### Yoga movements Many Shaiva temples present Shiva in yoga pose. Yoga and meditation have been an integral part of Shaivism, and it has been a major innovator of techniques such as those of Hatha Yoga.[298][299][300] Many major Shiva temples and Shaiva *tritha* (pilgrimage) centres, as well as Shaiva texts, depict anthropomorphic iconography of Shiva as a giant statue wherein Shiva is a lone yogi meditating.[301][302] In several Shaiva traditions such as the Kashmir Shaivism, anyone who seeks personal understanding and spiritual growth has been called a [Yogi](/source/Yogi). The *[Shiva Sutras](/source/Shiva_Sutras)* (aphorisms) of Shaivism teach yoga in many forms. According to [Mark Dyczkowski](/source/Mark_Dyczkowski), yoga – which literally means "to yoke", that is, to control oneself, but is also popularly understood as "union" – to this tradition has meant the "realisation of our true inherent nature which is inherently greater than our thoughts can ever conceive", and that the goal of yoga is to be the "free, eternal, blissful, perfect, infinite spiritually conscious" one is.[303] Many Yoga-emphasising Shaiva traditions emerged in medieval India, who refined yoga methods in ways such as introducing [Hatha Yoga](/source/Hatha_Yoga) techniques. One such movement had been the *[Nath](/source/Nath)* Yogis, a Shaivism sub-tradition that integrated "[esoteric traditions](/source/Tantra) drawn from [Buddhism](/source/Buddhism), Shaivism, and Hatha Yoga,"[187] and influenced 18th century [Advaita Vedanta](/source/Advaita_Vedanta).[188] It was founded by [Matsyendranath](/source/Matsyendranath) and further developed by [Gorakshanath](/source/Gorakshanath).[187][188][304] The texts of these Yoga emphasising Hindu traditions present their ideas in Shaiva context.[j] Dancing Shiva Nataraja at the 6th century Badami cave temples. ### Hindu performance arts Shiva is the lord of dance and dramatic arts in Hinduism.[306][307][308] This is celebrated in Shaiva temples as [Nataraja](/source/Nataraja), which typically shows Shiva dancing in one of the poses in the ancient Hindu text on performance arts called the *[Natya Shastra](/source/Natya_Shastra)*.[307][309][310] Dancing Shiva as a metaphor for celebrating life and arts is very common in ancient and medieval Hindu temples. For example, it is found in [Badami cave temples](/source/Badami_cave_temples), [Ellora Caves](/source/Ellora_Caves), [Khajuraho](/source/Khajuraho_Group_of_Monuments), [Chidambaram](/source/Chidambaram) and others. The Shaiva link to the performance arts is celebrated in [Indian classical dances](/source/Indian_classical_dance) such as [Bharatanatyam](/source/Bharatanatyam) and [Chhau](/source/Chhau_dance).[311][312][313] ### Buddhism Buddhism and Shaivism have interacted and influenced each other since ancient times in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. Their Siddhas and esoteric traditions, in particular, have overlapped to an extent where Buddhists and Hindus worshipped in the same temple such as in the [Seto Machindranath](/source/Seto_Machindranath). In southeast Asia, the two traditions were not presented in competitive or polemical terms, rather as two alternate paths that lead to the same goals of liberation, with theologians disagreeing which of these is faster and simpler.[314] Scholars disagree whether a syncretic tradition emerged from Buddhism and Shaivism, or it was a coalition with free borrowing of ideas, but they agree that the two traditions co-existed peacefully.[315] The earliest evidence of a close relationship between Shaivism and Buddhism comes from the archaeological sites and damaged sculptures from the northwest Indian subcontinent, such as Gandhara. These are dated to about the 1st-century CE, with Shiva depicted in Buddhist arts.[316][k] The Buddhist Avalokiteshvara is linked to Shiva in many of these arts,[317] but in others Shiva is linked to Bodhisattva Maitreya with him shown as carrying his own water pot like Vedic priests.[316] According to Richard Blurton, the ancient works show that the Bodhisattva of Compassion in Buddhism has many features in common with Shiva in Shaivism.[317] The Shaiva Hindu and Buddhist syncretism continues in the contemporary era in the island of Bali, Indonesia.[318] In Central Asian Buddhism, and its historic arts, syncretism and a shared expression of Shaivism, Buddhism and Tantra themes has been common. This is evident in the [Kizil Caves](/source/Kizil_Caves) in [Xinjiang](/source/Xinjiang), where there are numerous caves that depict Shiva in the buddhist shrines through wall paintings[319][320][321] Paintings of Shiva and Parvati in [Kizil Caves](/source/Kizil_Caves), [Xinjiang](/source/Xinjiang), China. The two are at the bottom right of the bottom image The syncretism between Buddhism and Shaivism was particularly marked in southeast Asia, but this was not unique, rather it was a common phenomenon also observed in the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the south and the Himalayan regions.[85] This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.[85][l] In the pre-Islamic Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions.[323][m] This idea is also found in the sculptures and temples in the eastern states of India and the Himalayan region. For example, Hindu temples in these regions show [Harihara](/source/Harihara) (half Shiva, half Vishnu) flanked by a standing [Buddha](/source/Buddha) on its right and a standing [Surya](/source/Surya) (Hindu Sun god) on left.[325][326] On major festivals of Bali Hindus, such as the [Nyepi](/source/Nyepi) – a "festival of silence", the observations are officiated by both Buddhist and Shaiva priests.[85][327][328] ### Jainism Jainism co-existed with Shaiva culture since ancient times, particularly in western and southern India where it received royal support from [Hindu kings](/source/Hindu_king) of the Chaulukya, Ganga and Rashtrakuta dynasties.[329] In late 1st millennium CE, Jainism too developed a Shaiva-like tantric ritual culture with Mantra-goddesses.[329][330] These Jain rituals were aimed at mundane benefits using *japas* (mantra recitation) and making offerings into [Homa](/source/Homa_(ritual)) fire.[329] According to Alexis Sanderson, the link and development of Shaiva goddesses into Jaina goddess is more transparent than a similar connection between Shaivism and Buddhism.[331] The 11th-century Jain text *Bhairavapadmavatikalpa*, for example, equates Padmavati of Jainism with Tripura-bhairavi of Shaivism and Shaktism. Among the major goddesses of Jainism that are rooted in Hindu pantheon, particularly Shaiva, include Lakshmi and Vagishvari (Sarasvati) of the higher world in Jain cosmology, Vidyadevis of the middle world, and Yakshis such as Ambika, Cakreshvari, Padmavati and Jvalamalini of the lower world according to Jainism.[329] Shaiva-Shakti iconography is found in major Jain temples. For example, the Osian temple of Jainism near Jodhpur features Chamunda, Durga, Sitala, and a naked Bhairava.[332] While Shaiva and Jain practices had considerable overlap, the interaction between the Jain community and Shaiva community differed on the acceptance of ritual animal sacrifices before goddesses. Jain remained strictly vegetarian and avoided animal sacrifice, while Shaiva accepted the practice.[333] ## Temples and pilgrimage **[Somnath](/source/Somnath_temple)** [Srisailam](/source/Mallikarjuna_Jyotirlinga) **[Ujjain](/source/Mahakaleshwar_Jyotirlinga)** [Omkareshwar](/source/Omkareshwar) [Parli](/source/Vaidyanath_Jyotirlinga) [Deoghar](/source/Baidyanath_Temple) [Bhima](/source/Bhimashankar_Temple) [Rameshwaram](/source/Ramanathaswamy_Temple) [Dwaraka](/source/Nageshvara_Jyotirlinga) [Jageshwar](/source/Jageshwar) **[Kathmandu](/source/Kathmandu)** [Aundha](/source/Aundha_Nagnath_Temple) [Triambak](/source/Trimbakeshwar_Shiva_Temple) [Kedarnath](/source/Kedarnath_Temple) [Ellora](/source/Grishneshwar) Sivasagar **Varanasi** **Badrinath** **Puri** **Khajuraho** **[Chidambaram](/source/Chidambaram)** **Bhairavanath** **Taraknath** **[Amarnath](/source/Amarnath_Temple)** **[Chandranath](/source/Chandranath_Temple)** **[Kailash](/source/Mount_Kailash)** **[Katas Raj](/source/Katas_Raj)** [Naguleswaram](/source/Naguleswaram) [Ketheeswaram](/source/Ketheeswaram) [Koneswaram](/source/Koneswaram) [Munneswaram](/source/Munneswaram_temple) [Tondeswaram](/source/Tondeswaram) Red markers denote important Shaiva temples in the mainland Indian subcontinent. Orange markers denote UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Green markers represent the ancient Pancha Ishwarams of Sri Lanka. Shaiva Puranas, Agamas and other regional literature refer to temples by various terms such as *Mandir*, *Shivayatana*, *Shivalaya*, *Shambhunatha*, *Jyotirlingam*, *Shristhala*, *Chattraka*, *Bhavaggana*, *Bhuvaneshvara*, *Goputika*, *Harayatana*, *Kailasha*, *Mahadevagriha*, *Saudhala* and others.[334] In Southeast Asia Shaiva temples are called [Candi](/source/Candi_of_Indonesia) (Java),[335] [Pura](/source/Balinese_temple) (Bali),[336] and [Wat](/source/Wat) ([Cambodia](/source/Cambodia) and nearby regions).[337][338] Many of the Shiva-related pilgrimage sites such as Varanasi, Amarnath, Kedarnath, Somnath, and others are broadly considered holy in Hinduism. They are called *kṣétra* (Sanskrit: क्षेत्र[339]). A *kṣétra* has many temples, including one or more major ones. These temples and its location attracts pilgrimage called tirtha (or tirthayatra).[340] Many of the historic [Puranas](/source/Puranas) literature embed tourism guide to Shaivism-related pilgrimage centres and temples.[341] For example, the *[Skanda Purana](/source/Skanda_Purana)* deals primarily with *Tirtha Mahatmyas* (pilgrimage travel guides) to numerous geographical points,[341] but also includes a chapter stating that a temple and *tirtha* is ultimately a state of mind and virtuous everyday life.[342][343] Major rivers of the Indian subcontinent and their confluence (*sangam*), natural springs, origin of Ganges River (and *pancha-ganga*), along with high mountains such as Kailasha with Mansovar Lake are particularly revered spots in Shaivism.[344][345] Twelve *[jyotirlinga](/source/Jyotirlinga)* sites across India have been particularly important pilgrimage sites in Shaivism representing the radiant light (*jyoti*) of infiniteness,[346][347][348] as per [Śiva Mahāpurāṇa](/source/Shiva_Purana).[349] They are [Somnatha](/source/Somnath_temple), [Mallikarjuna](/source/Mallikarjuna_Jyotirlinga), [Mahakaleshwar](/source/Mahakaleshwar_Jyotirlinga), [Omkareshwar](/source/Omkareshwar), [Kedarnatha](/source/Kedarnath_Temple), [Bhimashankar](/source/Bhimashankar), [Visheshvara](/source/Kashi_Vishwanath_Temple), [Trayambakesvara](/source/Trimbakeshwar_Shiva_Temple), [Vaidyanatha](/source/Vaidyanath_Jyotirlinga), [Nageshvara](/source/Nageshvara_Jyotirlinga), [Rameshvara](/source/Ramanathaswamy_Temple) and [Grishneshwar](/source/Grishneshwar).[345] Other texts mention five Kedras (Kedarnatha, Tunganatha, Rudranatha, Madhyamesvara and Kalpeshvara), five Badri (Badrinatha, Pandukeshvara, Sujnanien, Anni matha and Urghava), snow lingam of Amarnatha, flame of Jwalamukhi, all of the Narmada River, and others.[345] Kashi ([Varanasi](/source/Varanasi)) is declared as particularly special in numerous Shaiva texts and Upanishads, as well as in the pan-Hindu [Sannyasa Upanishads](/source/Sannyasa_Upanishads) such as the *[Jabala Upanishad](/source/Jabala_Upanishad)*.[350][351] The early [Bhakti movement](/source/Bhakti_movement) poets of Shaivism composed poems about pilgrimage and temples, using these sites as metaphors for internal spiritual journey.[352][353] ## Demography There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.[354] Large Shaivite communities exist in the Southern Indian states of [Tamil Nadu](/source/Tamil_Nadu), [Karnataka](/source/Karnataka), [Telangana](/source/Telangana), [Kerala](/source/Kerala) and [Andhra Pradesh](/source/Andhra_Pradesh) as well as in [Jammu and Kashmir](/source/Jammu_and_Kashmir_(union_territory)), [Himachal Pradesh](/source/Himachal_Pradesh) and [Uttrakhand](/source/Uttrakhand). In North Indian communities, Shaivism is most practiced amongst the [Kashmiri Hindus](/source/Kashmiri_Hindus) and [Paharis](/source/Pahari_people_(Kashmir)) of the Himalayan belt. Substantial communities are also found in [Punjab](/source/Punjab%2C_India),[Haryana](/source/Haryana), [Maharashtra](/source/Maharashtra) and North [Western Uttar Pradesh](/source/Western_Uttar_Pradesh).[355][356] Shaivism and Buddhism have co-developed in many regions. Above a syncretic image of Yoni-Linga with four reliefs of the [Buddha](/source/Buddha) in a Vajrayana temple. According to Galvin Flood, Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.[284] The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses [polycentrically](/source/Henotheism#Hinduism), with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognising Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati, Durga, Radha, Sita and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.[357] ## See also - [Chaturdasa Devata](/source/Chaturdasa_Devata) - [Hindu denominations](/source/Hindu_denominations) - [History of Shaivism](/source/History_of_Shaivism) - [Jangam Lingayat](/source/Jangam) - [Shaiva Siddhanta](/source/Shaiva_Siddhanta) - [Kashmiri Shaivism](/source/Kashmiri_Shaivism) ## Notes 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-illpha_rep_38-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-illpha_rep_38-1) The ithyphallic representation of the erect shape connotes the very opposite in this context.[358] It contextualises "seminal retention" and practice of [celibacy](/source/Celibacy)[359] (illustration of *Urdhva Retas*),[360][361] and represents Lakulisha as "he stands for complete complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[358] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-69)** Kapalikas are alleged to smear their body with ashes from the cremation ground, revered the fierce Bhairava form of Shiva, engage in rituals with blood, meat, alcohol, and sexual fluids. However, states David Lorenzen, there is a paucity of primary sources on Kapalikas, and historical information about them is available from fictional works and other traditions who disparage them.[66][67] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-85)** The Dunhuang caves in north China built from the 4th century onwards are predominantly about the Buddha, but some caves show the meditating Buddha with Hindu deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha and Indra.[82] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-110)** Pashupatas have both Vedic-Puranik and non-Puranik sub-traditions.[93] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-155)** For the Tirumantiram as the tenth book of the Shaiva Siddhanta canon see Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. "Auspicious Fragments and Uncertain Wisdom", in: Harper and Brown, p. 63. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-178)** [Sanderson (2012–2013](#CITEREFSanderson2012–2013), p. 58): "...liturgical systems differentiated most obviously by the identity of the central deity. Thus in an early classification, seen in the Ciñciṇīmata, we are given accounts of four systems of Kaula teaching, called the Āmnāyas (‘Traditions’), assigned to the four directions, east (Pūrvāmnāya), north (Uttarāmnāya), west (Paścimāmnāya), and south (Dakṣiṇāmnāya), each with a distinctive pantheon of worship." 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Singh_1989_180-0)** [Singh (1989](#CITEREFSingh1989), p. ix–xiv): "After the demise of the Trika as a lineage in Kashmir in the late 13th century, due in large measure to the invasion of Islam, a few rare manuscripts of this important and complex text..." 1. **[^](#cite_ref-219)** Vasugupta is claimed by two [Advaita](/source/Advaita) (Monistic) Shaivism sub-traditions to be their spiritual founder.[211] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-224)** For *Śvetāśvatara* Upanishad as a systematic philosophy of Shaivism see: [Chakravarti 1994](#CITEREFChakravarti1994), p. 9. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-315)** For example: [It will] be impossible to accomplish one's functions unless one is a master of oneself. Therefore strive for self-mastery, seeking to win the way upwards. To have self-mastery is to be a yogin (yogitvam). [v. 1–2] [...] Whatever reality he reaches through the Yoga whose sequence I have just explained, he realizes there a state of consciousness whose object is all that pervades. Leaving aside what remains outside he should use his vision to penetrate all [within]. Then once he has transcended all lower realities, he should seek the Shiva level. [v. 51–53] [...] How can a person whose awareness is overwhelmed by sensual experience stabilize his mind? Answer: Shiva did not teach this discipline (sādhanam) for individuals who are not [already] disaffected. [v. 56–57] [...] — Bhatta Narayanakantha, *Mrigendratantra* (paraphrased), Transl: Alexis Sanderson[305] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-327)** Some images show proto-Vishnu images.[316] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-334)** Similarly, in Vaishnavism Hindu tradition, Buddha is considered one of the [avatars](/source/Avatar) of Vishnu.[322] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-337)** Medieval Hindu texts of Indonesia equate Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu).[324] ## References 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop202015–16_1-0)** [Bisschop 2020](#CITEREFBisschop2020), pp. 15–16. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBisschop2011_2-7) [Bisschop 2011](#CITEREFBisschop2011). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti19861_3-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 1. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPreston_4-0)** [Preston](#CITEREFPreston). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnsonGrim2013400_5-0)** [Johnson & Grim 2013](#CITEREFJohnsonGrim2013), p. 400. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006474_6-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006474_6-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006474_6-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006474_6-3) [Jones & Ryan 2006](#CITEREFJonesRyan2006), p. 474. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199617_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199617_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199617_7-2) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 17. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Keayxxvii_8-0)** Keay, p.xxvii. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198666-70_9-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198666-70_9-1) [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 66-70. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996148–150_10-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996148–150_10-1) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 148–150. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003208–214_11-0)** [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 208–214. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGonda19753–20,_35–36,_49–51_12-0)** [Gonda 1975](#CITEREFGonda1975), p. 3–20, 35–36, 49–51. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167_13-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167_13-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167_13-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167_13-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996162–167_13-4) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 162–167. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagare200216–19_14-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagare200216–19_14-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagare200216–19_14-2) [Tagare 2002](#CITEREFTagare2002), p. 16–19. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003202–204_15-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003202–204_15-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003202–204_15-2) [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 202–204. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETattwananda198454_16-0)** [Tattwananda 1984](#CITEREFTattwananda1984), p. 54. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996158_17-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996158_17-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996158_17-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996158_17-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996158_17-4) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 158. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996116_18-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996116_18-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996116_18-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996116_18-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith1996116_18-4) [Smith 1996](#CITEREFSmith1996), p. 116. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyczkowski19894_19-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyczkowski19894_19-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyczkowski19894_19-2) [Dyczkowski 1989](#CITEREFDyczkowski1989), p. 4. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965919_20-0)** [Apte 1965](#CITEREFApte1965), p. 919. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Macdonell,_p._314_21-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Macdonell,_p._314_21-1) Macdonell, p. 314. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti199428_22-0)** [Chakravarti 1994](#CITEREFChakravarti1994), p. 28. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-mmwshiva_23-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-mmwshiva_23-1) Monier Monier-Williams (1899), [Sanskrit to English Dictionary with Etymology](http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170227192855/http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/1100/mw__1107.html) 27 February 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Oxford University Press, pages 1074–1076 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti199421-22_24-0)** [Chakravarti 1994](#CITEREFChakravarti1994), p. 21-22. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti199421-23_25-0)** [Chakravarti 1994](#CITEREFChakravarti1994), p. 21-23. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEApte1965927_26-0)** [Apte 1965](#CITEREFApte1965), p. 927. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996149_27-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), p. 149. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198666-106_28-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 66-106. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-29)** For dating as fl. 2300–2000 BCE, decline by 1800 BCE, and extinction by 1500 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 24. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-5) [***g***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-6) [***h***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003204–205_30-7) [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 204–205. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 *in*: Flood (1996), p. 29. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Michaels_p._312_32-0)** For translation of **paśupati** as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199628–29_33-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 28–29. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** [Mark Singleton](/source/Mark_Singleton_(yoga_teacher)) (2010), *Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice*, Oxford University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-539534-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539534-1), pages 25–34 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESamuel20082–10_35-0)** [Samuel 2008](#CITEREFSamuel2008), p. 2–10. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-36)** Asko Parpola(2009), *Deciphering the Indus Script*, Cambridge University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0521795661](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521795661), pages 240–250 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996152_37-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 152. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-sino-platonic.org_39-0)** Loeschner, Hans (2012) [The Stūpa of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great](http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20161220223231/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp227_kanishka_stupa_casket.pdf) 20 December 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), *[Sino-Platonic Papers](/source/Sino-Platonic_Papers)*, No. 227 (July 2012); page 11 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Bopearachchi,_O._2007_40-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Bopearachchi,_O._2007_40-1) Bopearachchi, O. (2007). Some observations on the chronology of the early Kushans. *Res Orientales*, 17, 41–53 1. **[^](#cite_ref-41)** Perkins, J. (2007). Three-headed Śiva on the Reverse of Vima Kadphises's Copper Coinage. *South Asian Studies*, 23(1), 31–37 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003205_42-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003205_42-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003205_42-2) [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), p. 205. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198666_43-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 66. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996150_44-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 150. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198666-69_45-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 66-69. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198669_46-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 69. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti199470–71_47-0)** [Chakravarti 1994](#CITEREFChakravarti1994), pp. 70–71. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti198670_48-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 70. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-49)** Laura Giuliano (2004). ["Silk Road Art and Archaeology"](https://books.google.com/books?id=xU_rAAAAMAAJ). *Journal of the Institute of Silk Road Studies*. **10**. Kamakura, Shiruku Rōdo Kenkyūjo: 61. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200229012548/https://books.google.com/books?id=xU_rAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 29 February 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996154_50-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996154_50-1) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 154. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-51)** George Cardona (1997). [*Pāṇini: A Survey of Research*](https://books.google.com/books?id=adWXhQ-yHQUC&pg=PA277). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 277–278, 58 with note on Guleri. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1494-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1494-3). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-52)** [a] Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814684](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814684), pages 301–304; [b] R G Bhandarkar (2001), Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religious Systems, Routledge, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8121509992](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8121509992), pages 106–111 1. **[^](#cite_ref-53)** Robert Hume (1921), Shvetashvatara Upanishad, The Thirteen Principal Upanishads, Oxford University Press, pages 400–406 with footnotes 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996153–154_54-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 153–154. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-55)** A Kunst, Some notes on the interpretation of the Ṥvetāṥvatara Upaniṣad, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. 31, Issue 02, June 1968, pages 309–314; [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/S0041977X00146531](https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00146531) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-srinivasanch9_56-0)** D Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes, Brill, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004107588](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004107588), pages 96–97 and Chapter 9 1. **[^](#cite_ref-57)** Stephen Phillips (2009), *Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy*, Columbia University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-231-14485-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-14485-8), Chapter 1 1. **[^](#cite_ref-58)** Michael W. Meister (1984). [*Discourses on Siva: Proceedings of a Symposium on the Nature of Religious Imagery*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9I3pAAAAMAAJ). University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 274–276. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8122-7909-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-7909-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190627072421/https://books.google.com/books?id=9I3pAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen19876–20_59-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen19876–20_59-1) [Lorenzen 1987](#CITEREFLorenzen1987), pp. 6–20. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-60)** ["Early Strata of Śaivism in the Kathmandu Valley, Śivaliṅga Pedestal Inscriptions from 466–645 CE"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-05904001). *[Indo-Iranian Journal](/source/Indo-Iranian_Journal)*. **59** (4). Brill Academic Publishers: 309–362. 2016. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/15728536-05904001](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-05904001). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-61)** Bakker, Hans (2014). *The World of the Skandapurāṇa,* pp. 2-5. BRILL Academic. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-27714-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-27714-4). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-62)** Ganguli, Kalyan Kumar (1988). *Sraddh njali, studies in Ancient Indian History. D.C. Sircar Commemoration: Puranic tradition of Krishna*. Sundeep Prakashan. p. 36. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-85067-10-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-85067-10-0). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-63)** Dandekar (1977). ["Vaishnavism: an overview"](https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). *MacMillan Encyclopedia of Religion*. MacMillan (Reprinted in 2005). p. 9500. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0028657332](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0028657332). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-HTB98_64-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-HTB98_64-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-HTB98_64-2) Bakker, Hans T. (12 March 2020). [*The Alkhan: A Hunnic People in South Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLnVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98). Barkhuis. pp. 98–99 and 93. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-94-93194-00-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-93194-00-7). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou1987128_65-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou1987128_65-1) [Daniélou 1987](#CITEREFDaniélou1987), p. 128. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETattwananda198446_66-0)** [Tattwananda 1984](#CITEREFTattwananda1984), p. 46. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen1972xii,_4–5_67-0)** [Lorenzen 1972](#CITEREFLorenzen1972), p. xii, 4–5. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003212–213_68-0)** [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 212–213. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003206–214_70-0)** [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 206–214. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson200961–62_with_footnote_64_71-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson200961–62_with_footnote_64_71-1) [Sanderson 2009](#CITEREFSanderson2009), pp. 61–62 with footnote 64. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-72)** [Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram](https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191123062515/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/249/) 23 November 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), UNESCO World Heritage Sites; Quote: "It is known especially for its rathas (temples in the form of chariots), mandapas (cave sanctuaries), giant open-air reliefs such as the famous 'Descent of the Ganges', and the temple of Rivage, with thousands of sculptures to the glory of Shiva." 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-sanderson2014p1_73-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-sanderson2014p1_73-1) Alexis Sanderson (2014), *The Saiva Literature*, Journal of Indological Studies, Kyoto, Nos. 24 & 25, pages 1–113 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnn_R._KinneyMarijke_J._KlokkeLydia_Kieven200317_74-0)** [Ann R. Kinney, Marijke J. Klokke & Lydia Kieven 2003](#CITEREFAnn_R._KinneyMarijke_J._KlokkeLydia_Kieven2003), p. 17. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriggs1951230–249_75-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBriggs1951230–249_75-1) [Briggs 1951](#CITEREFBriggs1951), pp. 230–249. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson2004349–352_76-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson2004349–352_76-1) [Sanderson 2004](#CITEREFSanderson2004), pp. 349–352. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-77)** Pratapaditya Pal; Stephen P. Huyler; John E. Cort; et al. (2016). [*Puja and Piety: Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist Art from the Indian Subcontinent*](https://books.google.com/books?id=NXolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61). University of California Press. pp. 61–62. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-28847-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-28847-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170326150329/https://books.google.com/books?id=NXolDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA61) from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Elgood2000p47_78-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Elgood2000p47_78-1) Heather Elgood (2000). [*Hinduism and the Religious Arts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 47–48. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-304-70739-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-70739-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190809073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ) from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-79)** Heather Elgood (2000). [*Hinduism and the Religious Arts*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 143–167. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-304-70739-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-304-70739-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190809073225/https://books.google.com/books?id=cj2tAwAAQBAJ) from the original on 9 August 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-80)** Wendy Doniger (2009), An Alternative Historiography for Hinduism, Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pages 17–26, Quote: "Numerous Sanskrit texts and ancient sculptures (such as the Gudimallam linga from the third century BCE) define (...)" 1. **[^](#cite_ref-81)** Srinivasan, Doris (1984). "Unhinging Śiva from the Indus civilization". *Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland*. **116** (1). Cambridge University Press: 77–89. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1017/s0035869x00166134](https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0035869x00166134). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [162904592](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162904592). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKulkeKesavapanySakhuja2010_82-0)** [Kulke, Kesavapany & Sakhuja 2010](#CITEREFKulkeKesavapanySakhuja2010). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-83)** S. J. Vainker (1990). [*Caves of the Thousand Buddhas: Chinese Art from the Silk Route*](https://books.google.com/books?id=zaA0AQAAIAAJ). British Museum Publications for the Trustees of the British Museum. p. 162. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7141-1447-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7141-1447-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-84)** Edward L. Shaughnessy (2009). [*Exploring the Life, Myth, and Art of Ancient China*](https://books.google.com/books?id=EMgYyKoshGEC&pg=PA70). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 70. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4358-5617-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4358-5617-2). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnn_R._KinneyMarijke_J._KlokkeLydia_Kieven200321-25_86-0)** [Ann R. Kinney, Marijke J. Klokke & Lydia Kieven 2003](#CITEREFAnn_R._KinneyMarijke_J._KlokkeLydia_Kieven2003), p. 21-25. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-britbalinesepeople_87-0)** [Balinese people](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Balinese-people) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20190417161643/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Balinese-people) 17 April 2019 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Encyclopedia Britannica (2014) 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-rghose4_88-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-rghose4_88-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-rghose4_88-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-rghose4_88-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-rghose4_88-4) R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 4–6, 14–16, 94–96, 160–161, 253 1. **[^](#cite_ref-89)** Andrea Acri (2015). D Christian Lammerts (ed.). [*Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wgGhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA261). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 261–275. 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In The World's Religions, edited by S. Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp. 665–666, context: pp. 660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-108)** Cynthia Packert Atherton (1997). [*The Sculpture of Early Medieval Rajasthan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkxXK5wFob4C). BRILL. pp. 92–97, 102–103. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-04-10789-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10789-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170402173857/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZkxXK5wFob4C) from the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 2 April 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-109)** Sanderson, Alexis; "Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions." In The World's Religions, edited by S. Sutherland, L. Houlden, P. Clarke and F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1988), pp. 660–704. Reprinted in The World's Religions: The Religions of Asia, edited by F. Hardy. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul (1990), pp. 128–72. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVasugupta1992140–141_111-0)** [Vasugupta 1992](#CITEREFVasugupta1992), pp. 140–141. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lochtefeld505_112-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lochtefeld505_112-1) James G. Lochtefeld (2002). [*The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z*](https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. [505](https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/505). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8239-3180-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3180-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200316052117/https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch) from the original on 16 March 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2019. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou1987120–123_113-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou1987120–123_113-1) [Daniélou 1987](#CITEREFDaniélou1987), pp. 120–123. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDasgupta19555–6_114-0)** [Dasgupta 1955](#CITEREFDasgupta1955), pp. 5–6. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDaniélou1987124–129_115-0)** [Daniélou 1987](#CITEREFDaniélou1987), pp. 124–129. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuller-Ortega201031–38_116-0)** [Muller-Ortega 2010](#CITEREFMuller-Ortega2010), pp. 31–38. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-117)** Roshen Dalal (2010). [*The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA206). Penguin Books. p. 206. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-341517-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341517-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170330124702/https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC&pg=PA206) from the original on 30 March 2017. Retrieved 29 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-118)** See [Alexis Sanderson](/source/Alexis_Sanderson)'s *Śaivism among the Khmers Part I*, pp. 349—462 in the *Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient* 90—91 (2003—2004). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-119)** For Pāśupata as an ascetic movement see: Michaels (2004), p. 62. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003208–209_120-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003208–209_120-1) [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 208–209. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988665–666_121-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988665–666_121-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988665–666_121-2) [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 665–666. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-122)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA789). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 789–790. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1467-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1467-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20200313065543/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC&pg=PA789) from the original on 13 March 2020. Retrieved 2 April 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-123)** Antonio Rigopoulos (2013), Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 5, Brill Academic, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004178960](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004178960), pages 182-183 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988667–668_124-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988667–668_124-1) [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 667–668. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988664,_667–668_125-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 664, 667–668. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988660–663,_681–690_126-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 660–663, 681–690. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson198817–18_127-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 17–18. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-128)** Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 44. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996171_129-0)** [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), pp. 171. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Flood,_Gavin_2006._P.120_130-0)** Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. P.120 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988662–663_131-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 662–663. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-132)** Guy L. Beck (1995). [*Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgybmMnWpaUC&pg=PA173). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 173–175. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1261-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1261-1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170402092411/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgybmMnWpaUC&pg=PA173) from the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-flood58_133-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-flood58_133-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-flood58_133-2) Gavin Flood (2006). [*The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion*](https://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC). I.B.Tauris. pp. 58–61. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84511-011-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84511-011-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20140814100801/http://books.google.com/books?id=1Uer8W670IoC) from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-reynolds243_134-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-reynolds243_134-1) John Myrdhin Reynolds (1996). [*The Golden Letters: The Three Statements of Garab Dorje, First Dzogchen Master*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SJbxvDZOZz8C&pg=PA243). Shambhala. pp. 243–244. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-55939-868-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55939-868-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192511/https://books.google.com/books?id=SJbxvDZOZz8C&pg=PA243) from the original on 24 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-135)** Braj B. Kachru (1981). [*Kashmiri Literature*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C&pg=PA10). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 10–11. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-447-02129-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-02129-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170325024449/https://books.google.com/books?id=3mAlg5qw130C&pg=PA10) from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-136)** Elaine Fisher (2017). [*Hindu Pluralism: Religion and the Public Sphere in Early Modern South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxsXvgAACAAJ). University of California Press. pp. 11–12, 209–211 note 28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-52029-301-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52029-301-4). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-137)** Elaine Fisher (2017). [*Hindu Pluralism: Religion and the Public Sphere in Early Modern South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxsXvgAACAAJ). University of California Press. pp. 9–12, 220. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-52029-301-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52029-301-4). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-138)** [A Topographical List Of The Inscriptions Of The Madras Presindency (collected Till 1915) With Notes And References Volume I](https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.34628), V. Rangacharya, Madras Government Press, pages 47–48 1. **[^](#cite_ref-139)** Sanderson, Alexis; the Saiva Age, page 45. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDhavamony197114–22,_257–258_140-0)** [Dhavamony 1971](#CITEREFDhavamony1971), pp. 14–22, 257–258. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-britshaivasiddhanta_141-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-britshaivasiddhanta_141-1) [Shaiva Siddhanta](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170318092809/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaiva-siddhanta) 18 March 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Encyclopedia Britannica (2014) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParmeshwaranand2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailsbub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMCpagen216_210]–217_142-0)** [Parmeshwaranand 2004](#CITEREFParmeshwaranand2004), pp. [210](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC/page/n216)–217. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Flood,_Gavin_2003._pg._210_143-0)** [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 209–210 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Flood,_Gavin_2006._P.34_144-0)** Flood, Gavin. D. 2006. The Tantric Body. p. 34 1. **[^](#cite_ref-arulsamy_145-0)** S. Arulsamy, *Saivism – A Perspective of Grace*, Sterling Publishers Private Limited, New Delhi, 1987, pp.1 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988668–669_146-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988668–669_146-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988668–669_146-2) [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), pp. 668–669. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHilko_Wiardo_Schomerus20001–7,_29–37,_44–49_147-0)** [Hilko Wiardo Schomerus 2000](#CITEREFHilko_Wiardo_Schomerus2000), pp. 1–7, 29–37, 44–49. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006375–376_148-0)** [Jones & Ryan 2006](#CITEREFJonesRyan2006), pp. 375–376. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-149)** Rohan A. Dunuwila (1985). [*Śaiva Siddhānta Theology: A Context for Hindu-Christian Dialogue*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cDsdAAAAMAAJ). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 29–30, 66–73. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-89581-675-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89581-675-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170402091604/https://books.google.com/books?id=cDsdAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-150)** Julia Leslie (1992). [*Roles and Rituals for Hindu Women*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sKDm8EH2L3kC&pg=PA196). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 196–197. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1036-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1036-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170402081519/https://books.google.com/books?id=sKDm8EH2L3kC&pg=PA196) from the original on 2 April 2017. Retrieved 1 April 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-151)** For the emergence of the Nayanars by the 7th century and comparison with [Vaisnava](/source/Vishnu) [Alvars](/source/Alvars) see: Flood (1996), 131. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-152)** For dating of Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar as 7th century see: Tattwananda, p. 55. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-153)** Tattwananda, p. 55. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-154)** Winternitz, p. 588, note 1. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETattwananda198456_156-0)** [Tattwananda 1984](#CITEREFTattwananda1984), p. 56. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen202313–24_157-0)** [Lorenzen 2023](#CITEREFLorenzen2023), p. 13–24. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Törzsök_2020_158-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Törzsök_2020_158-1) Törzsök, Judit (2020). "Why Are the Skull-Bearers (Kāpālikas) Called Soma?". In Goodall, Dominic; Hatley, Shaman; Isaacson, Harunaga; Raman, Srilata (eds.). *Śaivism and the Tantric Traditions: Essays in Honour of Alexis G.J.S. Sanderson*. Gonda Indological Studies. Vol. 22. [Leiden](/source/Leiden) and [Boston](/source/Boston): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). pp. 33–46. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004432802_004](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004432802_004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-43280-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-43280-2). [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [1382-3442](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1382-3442). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELorenzen2020_159-5) [Lorenzen 2020](#CITEREFLorenzen2020). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Barrett_2008_160-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Barrett_2008_160-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Barrett_2008_160-2) Barrett, Ronald L. (2008). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SGFNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). *Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India* (1st ed.). [Berkeley](/source/Berkeley%2C_California), [Los Angeles](/source/Los_Angeles), and [London](/source/London): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). pp. 1–28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520941014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520941014). [LCCN](/source/LCCN_(identifier)) [2007007627](https://lccn.loc.gov/2007007627). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUrban2007106–133_161-5) [Urban 2007](#CITEREFUrban2007), p. 106–133. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-Eliade_1958_162-5) [Eliade, Mircea](/source/Mircea_Eliade) (1969) [1958]. ["Chapter VIII: Yoga and Aboriginal India — Aghorīs, Kāpālikas"](https://books.google.com/books?id=L-WvAvKOwc0C&pg=PA296). *Yoga: Immortality and Freedom*. [Mythos: The Princeton/Bollingen Series in World Mythology](/source/Bollingen_Foundation). Vol. LVI. [Bucharest](/source/Bucharest), [Chicago](/source/Chicago), and [Princeton](/source/Princeton%2C_New_Jersey): [Princeton University Press](/source/Princeton_University_Press)/[University of Bucharest](/source/University_of_Bucharest)/[University of Chicago Press](/source/University_of_Chicago_Press). pp. 296–298. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780691142036](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691142036). Cite error: The named reference "Eliade 1958" was defined multiple times with different content (see the [help page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key)). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-lochtefeld349_163-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-lochtefeld349_163-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-lochtefeld349_163-2) James G. Lochtefeld (2001). [*The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA349). The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 349. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8239-3179-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8239-3179-8). Cite error: The named reference "lochtefeld349" was defined multiple times with different content (see the [help page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key)). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Flood2003_164-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Flood2003_164-1) Gavin Flood (2008). [*The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 212–213. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-470-99868-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-99868-7). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-165)** [153][154][155][156][157][158][159] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-166)** [153][154][155][156][157][158][159] 1. **[^](#cite_ref-JM_167-0)** [Mallinson 2011](#CITEREFMallinson2011), pp. 770, 774 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Barrett2008_168-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Barrett2008_168-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Barrett2008_168-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-Barrett2008_168-3) Barrett, Ronald L. (2008). ["Introduction"](https://books.google.com/books?id=SGFNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1). *Aghor Medicine: Pollution, Death, and Healing in Northern India*. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 1–28. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520941014](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520941014). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Staff2014_169-0)** Staff Reporter (9 March 2014). ["Westerners Flock to Join Indian Cannibal Sect"](https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/westerners-flock-join-indian-cannibal-sect-1439533). *[International Business Times](/source/International_Business_Times)*. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-today_170-0)** ["Indian doc focuses on Hindu cannibal sect"](https://www.today.com/popculture/indian-doc-focuses-hindu-cannibal-sect-wbna9842124#.UsLVWdIW1A0). *Today*. [The Associated Press](/source/The_Associated_Press). 27 October 2005. Retrieved 5 November 2019. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-:2_171-0)** Cite error: The named reference :2 was invoked but never defined (see the [help page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text)). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-172)** John Bowker, *The Meanings of Death*, Cambridge University Press, p. 164. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson2012–20134-5,_11,_57_173-0)** [Sanderson 2012–2013](#CITEREFSanderson2012–2013), p. 4-5, 11, 57. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988681_174-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988681_174-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988681_174-2) [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), p. 681. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson2012–201357–65_175-0)** [Sanderson 2012–2013](#CITEREFSanderson2012–2013), p. 57–65. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988682_176-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), p. 682. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson1988688_177-0)** [Sanderson 1988](#CITEREFSanderson1988), p. 688. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh1989ix–xiv_179-0)** [Singh 1989](#CITEREFSingh1989), p. ix–xiv. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-3) [***e***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-4) [***f***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2012_181-5) [Lawrence 2012](#CITEREFLawrence2012). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrunn2015402–408_182-0)** [Brunn 2015](#CITEREFBrunn2015), p. 402–408. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBäumerKumar2011_183-0)** [Bäumer & Kumar 2011](#CITEREFBäumerKumar2011). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson2009221_with_footnote_500_184-0)** [Sanderson 2009](#CITEREFSanderson2009), p. 221 with footnote 500. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson199516–17_185-0)** [Sanderson 1995](#CITEREFSanderson1995), pp. 16–17. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood200661-66_186-0)** [Flood 2006](#CITEREFFlood2006), p. 61-66. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996164-167_187-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996164-167_187-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood1996164-167_187-2) [Flood 1996](#CITEREFFlood1996), p. 164-167. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh19823–5,_14–33_188-0)** [Singh 1982](#CITEREFSingh1982), p. 3–5, 14–33. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWallis2013Chapter_2,_"Kashmir_Shaivism"_189-0)** [Wallis 2013](#CITEREFWallis2013), p. Chapter 2, "Kashmir Shaivism". 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuller-Ortega201015–16,_43–45,_118_190-0)** [Muller-Ortega 2010](#CITEREFMuller-Ortega2010), pp. 15–16, 43–45, 118. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuller-Ortega20107–8,_17–32_191-0)** [Muller-Ortega 2010](#CITEREFMuller-Ortega2010), pp. 7–8, 17–32. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003221–223_192-0)** [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 221–223. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRyan2006169–170,_308_193-0)** [Jones & Ryan 2006](#CITEREFJonesRyan2006), pp. 169–170, 308. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Natha_194-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Natha_194-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Natha_194-2) [Natha](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Natha) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170304121833/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Natha) 4 March 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Encyclopedia Britannica (2007) 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Singleton2010p27_195-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Singleton2010p27_195-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Singleton2010p27_195-2) Mark Singleton (2010). [*Yoga Body: The Origins of Modern Posture Practice*](https://books.google.com/books?id=tUgBIrn5REwC&pg=PA27). Oxford University Press. pp. 27–39. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-974598-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-974598-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170304173842/https://books.google.com/books?id=tUgBIrn5REwC&pg=PA27) from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallinson2012407–421_196-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallinson2012407–421_196-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMallinson2012407–421_196-2) [Mallinson 2012](#CITEREFMallinson2012), pp. 407–421. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuller-Ortega201036–38_197-0)** [Muller-Ortega 2010](#CITEREFMuller-Ortega2010), pp. 36–38. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-thapar165_198-0)** Romila Thapar (2008). [*Somanatha*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZZ8T8tZc4YC&pg=PA165). Penguin Books. pp. 165–166. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-306468-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-306468-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170317154632/https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZZ8T8tZc4YC&pg=PA165) from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 19 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERigopoulos199899–104,_218_199-0)** [Rigopoulos 1998](#CITEREFRigopoulos1998), pp. 99–104, 218. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-200)** Lorenzen, David N. (1978). "Warrior Ascetics in Indian History". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **98** (1): 61–75. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/600151](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F600151). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [600151](https://www.jstor.org/stable/600151). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-ShantiKuteer_201-0)** ["ShantiKuteer Ashram, *Bhausaheb Maharaj*"](https://web.archive.org/web/20181020004254/http://www.shantikuteer.org/page.php?pi=21). Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2014. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-olson244_202-0)** Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0813540689](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0813540689), pages 243–244 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-britlingayat_203-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-britlingayat_203-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-britlingayat_203-2) [Lingayat: Hindu sect](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lingayat) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170202121919/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lingayat) 2 February 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Encyclopedia Britannica (2015) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-204)** Aziz Ahmad; Karigoudar Ishwaran (1973). [*Contributions to Asian Studies*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2yEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5). Brill Academic. p. 5. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170215003331/https://books.google.com/books?id=2yEVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA5) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-205)** Aya Ikegame (2013). [*Princely India Re-imagined: A Historical Anthropology of Mysore from 1799 to the present*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bV5ElF17ezwC&pg=PA83). Routledge. p. 83. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-136-23909-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-23909-0). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170214234243/https://books.google.com/books?id=bV5ElF17ezwC&pg=PA83) from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-206)** [*Lingayat Religion – Tradition and Modernity in Bhakti Movements, Jayant Lele*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kLs3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA77). Brill Archive. 1981. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9004063706](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9004063706). Retrieved 22 May 2015. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-207)** Fredrick Bunce (2010), Hindu deities, demi-gods, godlings, demons, and heroes, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788124601457](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788124601457), page 983 1. **[^](#cite_ref-janpeter_208-0)** Jan Peter Schouten (1995), Revolution of the Mystics: On the Social Aspects of Vīraśaivism, Motilal Banarsidass, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120812383](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120812383), pages 2–3 1. **[^](#cite_ref-209)** David Levinson; Karen Christensen (2002). [*Encyclopedia of Modern Asia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=iUoOAQAAMAAJ). Gale. p. 475. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-684-80617-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-80617-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170214234047/https://books.google.com/books?id=iUoOAQAAMAAJ) from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017.; Quote: "The Lingayats are a Hindu sect concentrated in the state of Karnataka (a southern provincial state of India), which covers 191,773 square kilometers. The Lingayats constitute around 20 percent of the total population in that state." 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEA._K._Ramanujan1973_210-0)** [A. K. Ramanujan 1973](#CITEREFA._K._Ramanujan1973). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTER._Blake_Michael1992168–175_211-0)** [R. Blake Michael 1992](#CITEREFR._Blake_Michael1992), pp. 168–175. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Rice1982p64_212-0)** Edward P. Rice (1982). [*A History of Kannada Literature*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2fhCH-NRatUC&pg=PA64). Asian Educational Services. pp. 64–72. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-206-0063-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0063-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170215013237/https://books.google.com/books?id=2fhCH-NRatUC&pg=PA64) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-213)** Bill Aitken (1999). [*Divining the Deccan*](https://books.google.com/books?id=sUJuAAAAMAAJ). Oxford University Press. pp. 109–110, 213–215. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-564711-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-564711-2). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170215013220/https://books.google.com/books?id=sUJuAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 15 February 2017. Retrieved 11 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-leelaprasad_214-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-leelaprasad_214-1) Leela Prasad (2012), Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town, Columbia University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0231139212](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231139212), page 104 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-roghair7_215-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-roghair7_215-1) [Velcheru Narayana Rao & Gene H. Roghair 2014](#CITEREFVelcheru_Narayana_RaoGene_H._Roghair2014), p. 7 1. **[^](#cite_ref-216)** Sanderson, Alexis (2013). ["The Impact of Inscriptions on the Interpretation of Early Śaiva Literature"](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-13560308). *Indo-Iranian Journal*. **56** (3–4). Brill Academic Publishers: 211–244. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/15728536-13560308](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-13560308). 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003223–224_217-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003223–224_217-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood2003223–224_217-2) [Flood 2003](#CITEREFFlood2003), pp. 223–224. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-218)** Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare (2002). [*The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=GW6UtkgT-CcC&pg=PA3). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–4, 16–18. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1892-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1892-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170315182555/https://books.google.com/books?id=GW6UtkgT-CcC&pg=PA3) from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 15 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-220)** Mark S. G. Dyczkowski (1987). [*The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices Associated with Kashmir Shaivism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC). State University of New York Press. pp. 17–25. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-88706-431-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-431-9). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205041947/https://books.google.com/books?id=QXn5n4gdfcIC) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPathak196011,_51–52_221-0)** [Pathak 1960](#CITEREFPathak1960), pp. 11, 51–52. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDhavamony199931–34_with_footnotes_222-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDhavamony199931–34_with_footnotes_222-1) [Dhavamony 1999](#CITEREFDhavamony1999), p. 31–34 with footnotes. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Flood_1996_p._86_223-0)** For dating to 400–200 BCE see: Flood (1996), p. 86. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ayyangarminor2_225-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ayyangarminor2_225-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-ayyangarminor2_225-2) Ayyangar, TRS (1953). *Saiva Upanisads*. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0895819819](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0895819819). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-226)** Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions, New York University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0814736500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814736500), pages 60–88 1. **[^](#cite_ref-227)** Olivelle, Patrick (1998). [*Upaniṣads*](https://archive.org/details/earlyupanishadsa00oliv). Oxford University Press. pp. [11](https://archive.org/details/earlyupanishadsa00oliv/page/n33)–14. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0192835765](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192835765). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-pdeussen247268_228-0)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1*](https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC&pg=PA247). [Motilal Banarsidass Publishers](/source/Motilal_Banarsidass_Publishers). pp. 247–268 with footnotes. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814677). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160802053259/https://books.google.com/books?id=8mSpQo9q-tIC&pg=PA247) from the original on 2 August 2016. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-229)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 791–794. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814677). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205024020/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-230)** Chester G Starr (1991), A History of the Ancient World, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0195066289](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195066289), page 168 1. **[^](#cite_ref-peterheehs85_231-0)** Peter Heehs (2002), Indian Religions: A Historical Reader of Spiritual Expression and Experience, New York University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0814736500](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0814736500), pages 85–86 1. **[^](#cite_ref-232)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 773–777. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814677). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205024020/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-233)** Ignatius Viyagappa (1980), G.W.F. Hegel's Concept of Indian Philosophy, Gregorian University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8876524813](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8876524813), pages 24-25 1. **[^](#cite_ref-234)** H Glasenapp (1974), Die Philosophie der Inder, Kröner, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3520195036](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3520195036), pages 259–260 1. **[^](#cite_ref-235)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 779–782. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814677). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205024020/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-236)** Hattangadi, Sunder (2000). ["बृहज्जाबालोपनिषत् (Brihat-Jabala Upanishad)"](http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brihajjabala.pdf) (PDF) (in Sanskrit). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170722075721/http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brihajjabala.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-237)** Deussen, Paul (1997). [*Sixty Upanishads of the Veda*](https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 789–790. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120814677](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120814677). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205024020/https://books.google.com/books?id=XYepeIGUY0gC) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramrisch1994a274-286_238-0)** [Kramrisch 1994a](#CITEREFKramrisch1994a), p. 274-286. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-239)** AM Sastri (2001). [*Dakshinamurti stotra of Sri Sankaracharya and Dakshinamurti Upanishad with Sri Sureswaracharya's Manasollasa and Pranava Vartika*](https://books.google.com/books?id=bfwZAAAAMAAJ). Samata (Original: 1920). pp. 153–158. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8185208091](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8185208091). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [604013222](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/604013222). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170313134512/https://books.google.com/books?id=bfwZAAAAMAAJ) from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-240)** Hattangadi, Sunder (2000). ["शरभोपनिषत् (Sharabha Upanishad)"](http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/sharabha.html?lang=sa) (in Sanskrit). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170530144713/http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/sharabha.html?lang=sa) from the original on 30 May 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-241)** Beck, Guy (1995). *Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound*. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 133–134, 201–202. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8120812611](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8120812611). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-242)** Ayyangar, TRS (1953). *Saiva Upanisads*. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). pp. 193–199. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0895819819](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0895819819). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-243)** Ayyangar, TRS (1953). *Saiva Upanisads*. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). pp. 165–192. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0895819819](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0895819819). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-244)** Klostermaier, Klaus K. (1984). *Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India*. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. pp. 134, 371. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-88920-158-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88920-158-3). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrimes199521-29_245-0)** [Grimes 1995](#CITEREFGrimes1995), p. 21-29. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-246)** Ayyangar, TRS (1953). *Saiva Upanisads*. Jain Publishing Co. (Reprint 2007). pp. 110–114. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0895819819](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0895819819). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKramrisch1994a187-188_247-0)** [Kramrisch 1994a](#CITEREFKramrisch1994a), p. 187-188. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-248)** Sastri, AM (1950). *The Śaiva-Upanishads with the commentary of Sri Upanishad-Brahma-Yogin*. The Adyar Library, Madras. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [81-85141029](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85141029). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [863321204](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/863321204). {{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility ([help](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#invalid_isbn_date)) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELipner200427–28_249-0)** [Lipner 2004](#CITEREFLipner2004), p. 27–28. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Grimes_250-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Grimes_250-1) Grimes, John A. (1996). A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English. State University of New York Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-3068-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3068-2). [pages 16–17](https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170307061636/https://books.google.com/books?id=eP5p0ev3nJEC) 7 March 2017 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) 1. **[^](#cite_ref-251)** Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002), Hindu-Christian Dialogue, Rodopi, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-420-1510-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-1510-4), pages 54–56 1. **[^](#cite_ref-252)** Indira Peterson (1992), Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints, Princeton University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0784-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0784-6), pages 11–18 1. **[^](#cite_ref-253)** DS Sharma (1990), The Philosophy of Sadhana, State University of New York Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-0347-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0347-1), pages 9–14 1. **[^](#cite_ref-richdavis167_254-0)** Richard Davis (2014), Ritual in an Oscillating Universe: Worshipping Siva in Medieval India, Princeton University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-60308-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-60308-7), page 167 note 21, Quote (page 13): "Some agamas argue a monist metaphysics, while others are decidedly dualist. Some claim ritual is the most efficacious means of religious attainment, while others assert that knowledge is more important." 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDyczkowski198943–44_255-0)** [Dyczkowski 1989](#CITEREFDyczkowski1989), p. 43–44. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-256)** JS Vasugupta (2012), Śiva Sūtras, Motilal Banarsidass, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0407-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0407-4), pages 252, 259 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagare200216-19_257-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETagare200216-19_257-1) [Tagare 2002](#CITEREFTagare2002), p. 16-19. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESanderson200944–45_with_footnotes_258-0)** [Sanderson 2009](#CITEREFSanderson2009), pp. 44–45 with footnotes. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChakravarti1986171_259-0)** [Chakravarti 1986](#CITEREFChakravarti1986), p. 171. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Subramanian1989_260-0)** K. R. Subramanian (1 January 1989). [*Buddhist Remains in Āndhra and the History of Āndhra Between 225 & 610 A.D.*](https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA140) Asian Educational Services. pp. 140–. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-206-0444-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0444-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170315005522/https://books.google.com/books?id=vnO2BMPdYEoC&pg=PA140) from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 8 February 2016. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-261)** R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 16, 123, 494–495, 550–552 1. **[^](#cite_ref-262)** R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 130–131, 550–552 1. **[^](#cite_ref-263)** Hariani Santiko (1997), [The Goddess Durgā in the East-Javanese Period](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20180822214426/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1178725) 22 August 2018 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine), Asian Folklore Studies, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 209–226 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-ghose15_264-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-ghose15_264-1) R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 15–17 1. **[^](#cite_ref-265)** R. Ghose (1966), Saivism in Indonesia during the Hindu-Javanese period, The University of Hong Kong Press, pages 155–157, 462–463 1. **[^](#cite_ref-266)** General, India Office of the Registrar (1974). [*Census of India, 1971: Series 14: Mysore*](https://books.google.com/books?id=RzMrL1BVKTMC&q=nayaks%20veerashaiva%20by%20faith). Manager of Publications. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-267)** Sastri, K.A. Nilakanta. "A Historical Sketch of Saivism", in: Bhattacharyya (1956), Volume IV pages 63 -78. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-268)** For more on the subject of Shaivite influence on Indonesia, one could read N.J.Krom, Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst/Introduction to Hindu-Javanese Art, The Hague, Martinus Nijhof, 1923 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dhavamony1999p33_269-0)** Mariasusai Dhavamony (1999). [*Hindu Spirituality*](https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC). Gregorian Press. pp. 32–34. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-88-7652-818-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7652-818-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191229001010/https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC) from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-JanGondaVandS_270-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-JanGondaVandS_270-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-JanGondaVandS_270-2) [***d***](#cite_ref-JanGondaVandS_270-3) Jan Gonda (1970). [*Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4HGXjgEACAAJ). Bloomsbury Academic. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4742-8080-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4742-8080-8). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191230205427/https://books.google.com/books?id=4HGXjgEACAAJ) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-271)** Christopher Partridge (2013). [*Introduction to World Religions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3AjAwAAQBAJ). Fortress Press. p. 182. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-8006-9970-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-9970-3). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191230205429/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3AjAwAAQBAJ) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-272)** Sanjukta Gupta (1 February 2013). [*Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati*](https://books.google.com/books?id=4AFxluCHsoAC). Routledge. pp. 65–71. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-134-15774-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-15774-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191230205437/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AFxluCHsoAC) from the original on 30 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-laiengavatar_273-0)** Lai Ah Eng (2008). [*Religious Diversity in Singapore*](https://books.google.com/books?id=9MmNaNebFD8C). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore. p. 221. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-981-230-754-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-230-754-5). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160503015405/https://books.google.com/books?id=9MmNaNebFD8C) from the original on 3 May 2016. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-Dhavamony2002p63_274-0)** Mariasusai Dhavamony (2002). [*Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives*](https://books.google.com/books?id=poUxxH4fPwwC). Rodopi. p. 63. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [90-420-1510-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-420-1510-1). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191207085011/https://books.google.com/books?id=poUxxH4fPwwC) from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-275)** Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0812692983](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0812692983), page 332 with note 68 1. **[^](#cite_ref-276)** Olivelle, Patrick (1992). *The Samnyasa Upanisads*. Oxford University Press. pp. 4–18. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0195070453](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195070453). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-277)** ["Shaivas"](http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/shaiv.html). *Overview Of World Religions*. Philtar. [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170222015505/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/shaiv.html) from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 13 December 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-278)** Munavalli, Somashekar (2007). [*Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion)*](https://web.archive.org/web/20130626074912/http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf) (PDF). Veerashaiva Samaja of North America. p. 83. Archived from [the original](http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf) (PDF) on 26 June 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-279)** Prem Prakash (1998). [*The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras*](https://books.google.com/books?id=oA7BLTFoOicC). Inner Traditions. pp. 56–57. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-89281-664-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89281-664-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191223072138/https://books.google.com/books?id=oA7BLTFoOicC) from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-280)** Frazier, J. (2013). "Bhakti in Hindu Cultures". *The Journal of Hindu Studies*. **6** (2). Oxford University Press: 101–113. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1093/jhs/hit028](https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhs%2Fhit028). 1. **[^](#cite_ref-281)** Lisa Kemmerer; Anthony J. Nocella (2011). [*Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC). Lantern. pp. 27–36. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-59056-281-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59056-281-9). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191227015011/https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC) from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-282)** Frederick J. Simoons (1998). [*Plants of Life, Plants of Death*](https://books.google.com/books?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC). University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 182–183. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-299-15904-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-299-15904-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191207073745/https://books.google.com/books?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC) from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-283)** K. Sivaraman (1973). [*Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective*](https://books.google.com/books?id=I1blW4-yY20C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 336–340. 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(2013). [*Candi Indonesia: Seri Jawa: Indonesian-English*](https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLiCQAAQBAJ). Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan. pp. 4–15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-602-17669-3-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-602-17669-3-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170314152207/https://books.google.com/books?id=MsLiCQAAQBAJ) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-349)** Fredrik Barth (1993). [*Balinese Worlds*](https://books.google.com/books?id=L2nfb7UyssMC). University of Chicago Press. pp. 31–36. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-226-03834-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-03834-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170314071445/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2nfb7UyssMC) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-350)** Roshen Dalal (2010). [*The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths*](https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC). Penguin Books. p. 24. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-341517-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341517-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170418131501/https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC) from the original on 18 April 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-351)** Jack M. Clontz (2016). [*Khon Mask : Thailand Heritage*](https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222). MOCA Bangkok. p. 222. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-78301-872-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78301-872-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170314071453/https://books.google.com/books?id=VzTFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222) from the original on 14 March 2017. Retrieved 13 March 2017. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-352)** Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary, [क्षेत्र](http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20160912063425/http://sanskrit.inria.fr/MW/73.html) 12 September 2016 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) "sacred spot, place of pilgrimage". 1. **[^](#cite_ref-353)** Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space, Routledge, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0415590389](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415590389) 1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAriel_Glucklich2008146,_'''Quote:'''_The_earliest_promotional_works_aimed_at_tourists_from_that_era_were_called_''mahatmyas''_354-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAriel_Glucklich2008146,_'''Quote:'''_The_earliest_promotional_works_aimed_at_tourists_from_that_era_were_called_''mahatmyas''_354-1) [Ariel Glucklich 2008](#CITEREFAriel_Glucklich2008), p. 146, **Quote:** The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called *mahatmyas*. 1. **[^](#cite_ref-355)** Geoffrey Waring Maw (1997). [*Pilgrims in Hindu Holy Land: Sacred Shrines of the Indian Himalayas*](https://books.google.com/books?id=IarXAAAAMAAJ). Sessions Book Trust. p. 7. 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[ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-01930-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-01930-7). - Kramrisch, Stella (1994a), [*The Presence of Śiva*](https://archive.org/details/presenceofsivamy00skra), Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0691019307](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691019307) - Lawrence, David Peter (2012). ["Kashmiri Shaiva Philosophy"](https://web.archive.org/web/20170312172048/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/). Archived from [the original](http://www.iep.utm.edu/kashmiri/) on 12 March 2017. - Lipner, Julius (2004). "Hinduism: the way of the banyan". In Mittal, Sushil; Thursby, Gene (eds.). *The Hindu World*. Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-415-21527-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21527-7). - Lipner, Julius (2012). [*Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices*](https://books.google.com/books?id=qv3fCgAAQBAJ). Routledge. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-135-24061-5](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-24061-5). - Lorenzen, David N. (1972). [*The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C). University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-520-01842-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-01842-6). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170205143113/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q4hm-k6fKs4C) from the original on 5 February 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017. - Lorenzen, David N. (1987). "Śaivism: An Overview". In Mircea Eliade (ed.). *The Encyclopedia of Religion*. Vol. 13. Collier Macmillan. - Lorenzen, David N. (2020) [1972]. ["Chapter I: Four Śaivite Sects"](https://books.google.com/books?id=qRp4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR11). *The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects*. Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies (1st ed.). [Berkeley](/source/Berkeley%2C_California) and [Los Angeles](/source/Los_Angeles): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). pp. XI–XIII, 1–16. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/9780520324947-003](https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520324947-003). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520324947](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520324947). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1224279234](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224279234). - Lorenzen, David N. (2023) [1972]. ["Chapter II: Kāpālika Sources"](https://books.google.com/books?id=9eXeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13). *The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas: Two Lost Śaivite Sects*. Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies (Reprint ed.). [Berkeley](/source/Berkeley%2C_California) and [Los Angeles](/source/Los_Angeles): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/9780520324947-004](https://doi.org/10.1525%2F9780520324947-004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520324947](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520324947). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [1224279234](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224279234). - [Mallinson, James](/source/James_Mallinson_(author)) (2011), ["Yoga: Haṭha Yoga"](https://www.academia.edu/1317005), in Basu, Helene; Jacobsen, Knut A.; Malinar, Angelika; Narayanan, Vasudha (eds.), *Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism*, vol. 3, [Leiden](/source/Leiden): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers), pp. 770–781, [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/2212-5019_BEH_COM_000354](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2212-5019_BEH_COM_000354), [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-17641-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17641-6), [ISSN](/source/ISSN_(identifier)) [2212-5019](https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2212-5019) – via [Academia.edu](/source/Academia.edu) - [Mallinson, James](/source/James_Mallinson_(author)) (2012). "Nāth Sampradāya". In Knut A. Jacobsen; Helene Basu; Angelika Malinar; Vasudha Narayanan (eds.). *Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism*. Vol. 3. Brill Academic. - Mate, M. S. (1988). *Temples and Legends of Maharashtra*. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. - Michaels, Axel (2004). *Hinduism: Past and Present*. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-691-08953-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08953-9). - R. Blake Michael (1992). [*The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects: A Typological Analysis of Ritual and Associational Patterns in the Śūnyasaṃpādane*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wclA8r5f_LcC). Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0776-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0776-1). - Muller-Ortega, Paul E. (2010). [*Triadic Heart of Siva, The: Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the Non-dual Shaivism of Kashmir*](https://books.google.com/books?id=2maVlGOSdlMC). State University of New York Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4384-1385-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1385-3). - Nath, Vijay (March–April 2001). "From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great Tradition". *Social Scientist*. **29** (3/4): 19–50. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.2307/3518337](https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3518337). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [3518337](https://www.jstor.org/stable/3518337). - O'Brien-Kop, karen (2022). "Siddha Yoga". In Long, Jeffery D. (ed.). *Hinduism and Tribal Religions*. SpringerLink. - Oberlies, T. (1998). *Die Religion des Rgveda*. Vienna.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher)) - Parmeshwaranand, S. (2004). [*Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism*](https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HQvbJDacNDMC). Sarup & Sons. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-7625-427-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7625-427-4). - Pathak, V. S. (1960). *History of Śaiva Cults in Northern India from Inscriptions, 700 A.D. to 1200 A.D*. Motilal Banarsidass. - Indira Viswanathan Peterson (2014). [*Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints*](https://books.google.com/books?id=kQwABAAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-6006-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6006-7). - Preston, Charles. ["List of religious populations | Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview | Britannica"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations). *www.britannica.com*. Retrieved 5 January 2025. - A. K. Ramanujan (1973). [*Speaking of Śiva*](https://books.google.com/books?id=J4tIpcyRKZUC). Penguin. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-14-044270-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044270-0). - Velcheru Narayana Rao; Gene H. Roghair (2014). [*Siva's Warriors: The Basava Purana of Palkuriki Somanatha*](https://books.google.com/books?id=5hwABAAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-4008-6090-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-6090-6). - Rigopoulos, Antonio (1998). *Dattatreya: The Immortal Guru, Yogin, and Avatara: A Study of the Transformative and Inclusive Character of a Multi-faceted Hindu Deity*. State University of New York Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-3696-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-3696-7). - [Rocher, Ludo](/source/Ludo_Rocher) (1986). *The Puranas*. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3447025225](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3447025225). - Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), [*The Origins of Yoga and Tantra*](https://books.google.com/books?id=JAvrTGrbpf4C), Cambridge University Press, [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-69534-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-69534-3) - Sanderson, Alexis (1988). "Saivism and the Tantric Traditions". In S Sutherland; et al. (eds.). *The World's Religions*. Routledge. - Sanderson, Alexis (1995). "Meaning of a Tantric Ritual". In AM Blondeau; K Schipper (eds.). *Essais sur le Rituel*. Louvain: Peeters.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location)) - Sanderson, Alexis (2004). "The Śaiva Religion among the Khmers Part I". *Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient*. 90/91: 349–462. [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [43732654](https://www.jstor.org/stable/43732654). - Sanderson, Alexis (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Shingo Einoo (ed.). *Genesis and Development of Tantrism*. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: publisher location ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_publisher_location)) - Sanderson, Alexis (2010). Dominic Goodall & Andre Padoux (ed.). [*Mélanges tantriques à la mémoire d'Hélène Brunner: Tantric Studies in Memory of Hélène Brunner*](https://books.google.com/books?id=cHnhXwAACAAJ). Institut Français de Pondichéry. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-2855396668](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2855396668). - Sanderson, Alexis (2012–2013). ["The Śaiva Literature"](https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104838/http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf) (PDF). *Journal of Indological Studies (Kyoto), Nos. 24 & 25 (2012–2013), 2014*. Archived from [the original](http://www.alexissanderson.com/uploads/6/2/7/6/6276908/sanderson_2014_the_saiva_literature_jist_kyoto_(1).pdf) (PDF) on 4 March 2016. - Hilko Wiardo Schomerus (2000). [*Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought : Presented as a System and Documented from the Original Tamil Sources*](https://books.google.com/books?id=uUL8r9cOMXcC). Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1569-8](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1569-8). - Sharma, Ram Karan (1988). *Elements of Poetry in the Mahābhārata*. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0544-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0544-6). Second edition - Singh, Jaideva (1982). [*Pratyabhijnahrdayam: The Secret of Self-recognition*](https://books.google.com/books?id=dVJSChd9hOoC). Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-0323-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0323-7). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170315104843/https://books.google.com/books?id=dVJSChd9hOoC) from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017. - Singh, Jaideva (1989). [*A Trident of Wisdom: Translation of Paratrisika-vivarana*](https://books.google.com/books?id=v5_Wk8QKSF4C). State University of New York Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-0180-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-0180-4). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20170315105255/https://books.google.com/books?id=v5_Wk8QKSF4C) from the original on 15 March 2017. Retrieved 14 March 2017. - Smith, David (1996). *The Dance of Siva: Religion, Art and Poetry in South India*. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-521-48234-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-48234-9). - Tagare, Ganesh (2002). *The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy*. Motilal Banarsidass. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-1892-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1892-7). - Tattwananda, Swami (1984). *Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship* (First Revised ed.). Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd. - [Urban, Hugh B.](/source/Hugh_Urban) (2007) [2003]. ["India's Darkest Heart: Tantra in the Literary Imagination"](https://books.google.com/books?id=wvtLClojU_4C&pg=PA106). *Tantra: Sex, Secrecy, Politics, and Power in the Study of Religion* (1st ed.). [Berkeley](/source/Berkeley%2C_California) and [Delhi](/source/Delhi): [University of California Press](/source/University_of_California_Press)/[Motilal Banarsidass](/source/Motilal_Banarsidass). pp. 106–133. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/california/9780520230620.003.0004](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fcalifornia%2F9780520230620.003.0004). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520236561](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520236561). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [10.1525/j.ctt1pp4mm.9](https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1pp4mm.9). - Vasugupta (1992). [*The Aphorisms of Siva: The Siva Sutra with Bhaskara's Commentary, the Varttika*](https://books.google.com/books?id=o6-n4ulAsdIC). Translated by Mark Dyczkowski. State University of New York Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-7914-1264-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1264-0). - Venugopalam, R. (2003). [*Meditation: Any Time Any Where*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtnNw_hiA9oC&q=jyotirlinga&pg=PT113) (First ed.). Delhi: B. Jain Publishers (P) Ltd. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [81-8056-373-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-8056-373-1). - Wallis, Christopher (2013). *Tantra Illuminated*. - Winternitz, Maurice (1972). *History of Indian Literature*. New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. Second revised reprint edition. Two volumes. First published 1927 by the University of Calcutta. ## Further reading - Basham, A. L. (1989). Zysk, Kenneth (ed.). *The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-507349-2](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507349-2). - Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956). [*The Cultural Heritage of India*](https://archive.org/details/culturalheritage04bhat). Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes. - Bisschop, Peter C. (2018). "Universal Śaivism". *Universal Śaivism: The Appeasement of All Gods and Powers in the Śāntyadhyāya of the Śivadharmaśāstra*. Gonda Indological Studies. Vol. 18. [Leiden](/source/Leiden): [Brill Publishers](/source/Brill_Publishers). [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1163/9789004384361](https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004384361). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-90-04-38246-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38246-6). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [158081966](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158081966). - Courtright, Paul B. (1985). **Gaṇeśa*: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings*. New York: Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-505742-3](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505742-3). - [Daniélou, Alain](/source/Alain_Dani%C3%A9lou) (2017) [1964]. [*The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism*](https://books.google.com/books?id=OIXtDwAAQBAJ). [Delhi](/source/Delhi): [Motilal Banarsidass](/source/Motilal_Banarsidass). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-81-208-3638-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-3638-9). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [24247413](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24247413). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [169604069](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169604069). - Daniélou, Alain (1984) [1979]. [*Gods of Love and Ecstasy: The Traditions of Shiva and Dionysus*](https://books.google.com/books?id=QDQK7l13WIIC). [Rochester, Vermont](/source/Rochester%2C_Vermont): [Inner Traditions](/source/Inner_Traditions). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [0-89281-374-1](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89281-374-1). [OCLC](/source/OCLC_(identifier)) [25281659](https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/25281659). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [191033152](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191033152). - Rao, B. S. L. Hanumantha (1993). [*Religion in Andhra: A Survey of Religious Developments in Andhra from Early Times Upto A.D. 1325*](https://books.google.com/books?id=xSRuAAAAMAAJ). Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of A.P. ## External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to [Shaivism](https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Shaivism). - [*Encyclopædia Britannica*, "Shaivism"](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shaivism) - [Saivism.Net](http://www.saivism.net/) - [Alexis sanderson, *Publications*](https://web.archive.org/web/20171207081214/http://www.alexissanderson.com/publications.html), scholarly studies in Shaivism - [Encyclopaedia of Hinduism, Saivism](https://references.rkmm.org/external/manual/a-concise-encyclopaedia-of-hinduism/article/%C5%9Baivism?p=03408e62817b3af3099725755af0978b04fddd5ece0745ea1b7f78cbb5508433) - [Shaivam Philosophy](https://shaivam.info/) v t e Shaivism History Deities Shiva Bhairava Dakshinamurti Harihara Ishana Nataraja Sadyojata Tatpurusha Vamadeva Shakti Ardhanarishvara Sati Parvati Ganesha Kartikeya Devasena Valli Nandi Texts Shvetashvatara Upanishad Shivarahasya Purana Shiva Purana Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta Tirumurai Mantra/Stotra Om Namah Shivaya Rudrashtakam Mahāmrityunjaya Shiva Tandava Sahasranama Chalisa Shri Rudram Shiva Mahimna Hara Hara Mahadeva Traditions Shaiva Siddhanta Pashupata Shaivism Kapalika Aghori Kaula Trika Shaivism Veera Shaivism Siddha Siddhanta Shiva Advaita Shaiva Smartas Festivals and observances Kanwar Yatra Maha Shivaratri Pradosha Shiva Puja Shiva temples Panch Kedar Kedarnath Tungnath Rudranath Madhyamaheshwar Kalpeshwar Pancha Sabhai Rathinam Pon Velli Thamiram Chitiram Pancha Bhuta Sthalam Chidambaram (Ether) Tirukalahasti (Air) Tiruvannamalai (Fire) Tiruvanaikaval (Water) Kanchipuram (Earth) Jyotirlingas Bhimashankar Grishneshwar Kedarnath Mallikarjun Mahakaleshwar Nageshvar Omkareshwar Ramanathaswamy Somnath Trimbakeshwar Vaidyanath Vishwanath Others Amarnath Brihadeeswarar Kailash Mansarovar Katas Raj Lingaraja Meenakshi Sundareshwarar Tiruchengode Vadakkum Nathan Related topics Lingam Rasalingam Siddha Vibhuti Other names Category Portal v t e Shiva temples Trilinga Kshetras Daksharamam Srisailam Kaleshwaram Pancha Kedaras Kedarnath Tungnath Rudranath Madhyamaheshwar Kalpeshwar Pancharama Kshetras Amararama Daksharamam Ksheerarama Kumararama Somarama Pancha Sabhas Emarald/Rathinam, Thiruvalangadu Gold/Pon, Thillai Silver/Velli, Madurai Copper/Thamiram, Nellai Art/Chithiram, Courtallam Panchabhuta Sthalams Kanchipuram (Earth) Tiruvannamalai (Fire) Thiruvanaikaval (Water) Chidambaram (Ether) Srikalahasthi (Air) Pancheswarams Kethiswaram Koneswaram Munneswaram Naguleswaram Thondeswaram Jyotirlinga Sthalas Somnath Srisailam Mahakaleshwar Omkareshwar Kedarnath Bhimashankar Kashi Vishvanath Trimbakeshwar Vaidyanath Nageshvara Rameswaram Ghrishneshwar Significant 275 Paadal Petra Sthalams Brihadeeswaram Amarnath Lingaraj Gokarna Kudalasangama Vaikom Thrissur Thiruvarur Khajuraho More... 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