# Sengunthar

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Hindu caste of Kaikolar warriors and textile merchants

Sengunthar Virabahu and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord Kartikeya on the wall of Chidambaram temple Kuladevta (male) Kartikeya[1][2][3] Kuladevi (female) Kamakshi Amman,[3] Angalamman Parameswari Religions Hinduism Languages Tamil Populated states Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry, Sri Lanka Feudal title Mudaliar, Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan, Vijayarayan Notable members List of Sengunthars Related groups Kaikalas of Andhra

**Sengunthar** ([\[sɛŋkʊnʈɻ\]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Tatar)), also known as the **Kaikolar** and **Senguntha [Mudaliar](/source/Mudaliar),** is a caste commonly found in the Indian states of [Tamil Nadu](/source/Tamil_Nadu) and [Andhra Pradesh](/source/Andhra_Pradesh) and the country of [Sri Lanka](/source/Sri_Lanka). In [Andhra Pradesh](/source/Andhra_Pradesh), they are known as [Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu](/source/Kaikalas), who consider the early Chola emperor [Karikala Chola](/source/Karikala) as their hero.[4] They were [warriors](/source/Warrior) of [Cholas](/source/Chola) and traditionally [textile](/source/Textile) [merchants](/source/Merchant) or [silk](/source/Silk) [weavers](/source/Weaving) by occupation.[5] [Ottakoothar](/source/Ottakoothar), a 12th-century court poet and rajaguru of [Cholas](/source/Cholas) under the reigns of [Vikrama Chola](/source/Vikrama_Chola), [Kulothunga Chola II](/source/Kulothunga_II), and [Rajaraja Chola II](/source/Rajaraja_II) is also a part of this caste. They were a part of the [Ayyavolu 500 merchant guild](/source/Five_Hundred_Lords_of_Ayyavolu) during the Chola period which played a significant role in the [Chola invasion of Srivijaya empire](/source/Chola_invasion_of_Srivijaya).[5] In the olden days in India, Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title [Mudaliar](/source/Mudaliar) for their bravery.[6] In the early thirteenth century, after the fall of [Chola Empire](/source/Chola_Empire), a large number of Kaikolars migrated to [Kongu Nadu](/source/Kongu_Nadu) from [Tondaimandalam](/source/Tondaimandalam) and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession due to their oath to only serve Chola emperors. In the present day, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. The majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a [patrilineal](/source/Patrilineal) lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.

## Etymology

The name *Kaikkolar* comes from the words *kai* (hand) and *kol* (a shuttle used in looms). The appended *-ar* means *people*.[7] *Kaikkolar* can also mean men with stronger arms.[8][9]

*Sengunthar* means *red spear people*, which is a reference to Lord [Murugan](/source/Murugan), who is also known as the red god. According to legends, there were nine commanders called *Navaveerargal* in Murugan's army, and Sengunthars descended from them.[7]

In ancient times they were also known as *Kaarugar* (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), *Senguntha padaiyar* (soldiers), *Senaithalaivar* (army commander) and *Kaikolar* (weaver).[10]

Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.[11] The 12th century Chola emperor's court poet and minister [Ottakoothar](/source/Ottakoothar)'s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as [Mudaliars](/source/Mudaliar) during the [Imperial Chola](/source/Later_Chola) period.[12]

*Mudali* means *first*, suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.[13][14] They also used the title *Nayanar* after their names.[15]

## History

### Origin

In mythology, [Shiva](/source/Shiva) was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, [Parvati](/source/Parvati), was frightened, and retired to her chamber and dropped nine beads from her anklets while doing so. Shiva converted the beads into nine females, who each birthed one hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely [Virabahu](/source/Veerabaahu),[16] Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar, with the god of war [Kartikeya](/source/Subrahmanya) at their head, marched in command of a large force and destroyed the demons. The Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Shiva that they must adopt a profession which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature. They were trained in weaving. Chithira Valli, the daughter of Virabahu, one of the nine heroes, married King Musukuntha Chola. The descendants of the nine heroes and King Musukuntha are claimed to be the first generation of Sengunthars.[7][17]

### Chola period

The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthars occurs in *Adhi Diwakaram*, a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, refers to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.[18]

*Cholan Poorva Pattayam*, a copper-plate inscription, reveals information about [Karikala Chola](/source/Karikala_Chola), the conquest of the [Kongu](/source/Kongu_Nadu) region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars received the title of Samaya Senapati, meaning commander or head.[19]

Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the [Chola dynasty](/source/Chola_dynasty), the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the [Ayyavole 500 trading group](/source/Five_Hundred_Lords_of_Ayyavolu) during the Chola period. There are also references in the 12th century suggesting they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet Ottakoothar glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.[20]

They were militarized during the [Imperial Chola](/source/Imperial_Cholas) period, when some of them held the title *Brahmadaraya* or *Brahmmarayan*, which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "*Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan*", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.[21]

Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as *Samanta Senapathigal*[22] or *Senaithalaivar*.[23][22]

In the early thirteenth century a large number of Kaikolars migrated to [Kongu Nadu](/source/Kongu_Nadu) from [Tondaimandalam](/source/Tondaimandalam)[24] after the fall of the [Chola Empire](/source/Chola_Empire).

### Vijayanagara period

After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.[25][26][27] During the reign of [Sadasiva Raya](/source/Sadasiva_Raya) in the [Vijayanagara Empire](/source/Vijayanagara_Empire), the priests of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.[28][29]

In 14th century, Kottaiyannan Mudaliar, a chieftain who was ruling [Namakkal](/source/Namakkal_district) and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. [Chandramathi Mudaliar](/source/Chandramathi_Mudaliar) was a 17th-century [Tamil](/source/Tamils) chieftain and ruler of south [Kongu Nadu](/source/Kongu_Nadu) (Erode region) who fought many battles against the [Madurai Nayak](/source/Madurai_Nayak).

Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major [Vaishnavite](/source/Vaishnavism) temples of [Srirangam](/source/Srirangam) and [Tirupati](/source/Tirupati). In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers. Many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.

In the 16th century, some of the Sengunthar migrated to Kerala from Tamil Nadu.[24]

Multiple clans of Sengunthars were appointed as poets for 24 provinces of [Kongu Mandalam](/source/Kongu_Nadu) for their proficiency in the Tamil language. These poets were granted rights over land, tax, and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.[30]

## Traditions and festivals

Among Sengunthars, abstaining from alcohol and sex is valued. Meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent.[31] Sengunthars practice both vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.[32]

Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own *Kula Deivam* (deity). Sengunthars share [Murugan](/source/Murugan) as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as [Angalamman](/source/Ankalamma) or Ambayamman.[1]

The *Sura Samharam* festival is a traditional ritual where Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of [Karthikeya](/source/Karthikeya) and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.[33]

### Tamil Nadu

Sengunthars have rights to hold festivals at [Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple](/source/Dhandayuthapani_Swamy_Temple) at [Palani](/source/Palani), the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan because they are descendants of the nine original heroes who helped Lord Murugan at the battle of [Sura Samharam](/source/Sura_Samhaaram). During the festival, according to a traditional ritual, Sengunthars dress as the nine lieutenants of [Murugan](/source/Murugan) and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.

Shri Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple in Dindigul, Tamil Nadu

### Andhra Pradesh

In Andhra Pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as [Kaikalas or Karikala Bhakthulu](/source/Kaikalas). They consider the early Chola emperor [Karikala Chola](/source/Karikala_Chola) as their hero. Karikala Chola is said to have conquered the Andhra region around the 3rd century CE and converted forest lands in the state into agricultural lands. There is a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a [Satram](/source/Satram) in his name at [Srisailam](/source/Srisailam). The Kaikalas form a part of the *Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara*, the annual folk festival held at [Tirupati](/source/Tirupati_(city)).

### Sri Lanka

In the flag hoisting ceremony at the [Nallur Kandaswamy temple](/source/Nallur_Kandaswamy_temple), the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in the old [Jaffna Kingdom](/source/Jaffna_Kingdom) have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry it at the Sura Samharam festival. During the flag ceremony, the houses of Sengunthars are decorated with curtains which have pictures of the rooster, the vehicle of Lord Murugan.[34][35]

Kandaswamy Kovil in Nallur, Sri Lanka

## Subgroups

There are subgroups of the caste based on their traditions.

### Siru Thaali Kaikolar

Siru Thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami Katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom that is now defunct.[36] Women of this subclass wear small size of the [Mangala Sutra](/source/Mangala_sutra). Due to this, the Mangala Sutra is also called a Thali, from the name of the subclass.[37] They are mainly found in the [Erode](/source/Erode_district), [Salem](/source/Salem_district) and [Namakkal](/source/Namakkal) districts.[38]

### Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar

Perun Thaali Kaikolars are also known as Kongu Kaikolars and Vellai Seelai Kaikkolars. Women of this section wear a big size of the Mangala Sutra or Thali. Widows belonging to this sub-class wear white [saris](/source/Sari). They are mainly found in [Coimbatore](/source/Coimbatore) and the Bhavani River Belt in [Erode](/source/Erode).

### Rattukaara Kaikolar

Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar, are traditional [carpet](/source/Carpet) makers. They are mainly found in the western region of Tamil Nadu in the [Chola Nadu](/source/Chola_Nadu).[37]

### Thalaikooda Mudaliyar

Thalaikooda Mudaliyar are originally from Koorainaadu in the [Tanjore](/source/Tanjore) district of Chola Nadu.[39] Today, they can be found in [Pondicherry](/source/Puducherry_(city)).[40]

### Maduraiyar

Maiduraiyars are from [Pandya Nadu](/source/Pandya_Nadu). They wear the [Meenakshi Sundareswarar](/source/Meenakshi_Temple%2C_Madurai) [thali](/source/Thaali).

## Current status

Sengundhars are a relatively high ranking caste who are close in the status to the [Vellalars](/source/Vellalar).[41] They are currently listed as a [Backward Class](/source/Backward_Class) (BC) in both [Tamil Nadu](/source/Tamil_Nadu) and [Andhra Pradesh](/source/Andhra_Pradesh), where they are provided certain reservations in education and public employment.[42][43]

The Government of [Kerala](/source/Kerala) has not listed the Sengunthar community in the state's Backward Class list. According to the Kerala government's official stance, Sengunthars are not considered socially or economically backward. However, the Kaikolan community is mentioned in the Other Backward Castes list for both state and central-level reservations in Kerala.[44][45]

## Literary references

- *Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu*[46] is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.[47][*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include)*] The collection contains:

- *Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh* by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram

- *Eetti Ezhubathu*, the main literary work about Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of [Rajaraja Chola II](/source/Rajaraja_Chola_II). It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.[48]

- *Ezhupezhubathu*, a sequel to *Eetti Ezhubathu* written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.

- *Kalipporubathu*, a collection of ten stanzas compiled by [Kulothunga Chola III](/source/Kulothunga_Chola_III). These stanzas were written after *Ezhupezhubathu* to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III

- *Thirukkai Vazhakkam*, which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi.

- *Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai* was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community.

## See also

- [Tamils portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Tamils)
- [India portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:India)
- [Hinduism portal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Hinduism)

- [Adaviyar](/source/Adaviyar)

- [Padmashali](/source/Padmashali)

- [Tanti](/source/Tanti)

- [Kaikalas](/source/Kaikalas)

- [Salagama](/source/Salagama)

- [Pattusali](/source/Pattusali)

- [List of Sengunthars](/source/List_of_Sengunthars)

## Notes

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mines_16_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mines_16_1-1) [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 62–64

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** Mines, Mattison (1994). [*Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=u7YwDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkoolars+consider+murugan+their+caste+god&pg=PA113). University of California Press. p. 113. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520084797](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520084797).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_1985_47_3-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_1985_47_3-1) Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). [*Textiles and weavers in medieval South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=kaikkolars+murugan). Oxford University Press. p. 47. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-561705-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-561705-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** ["National Commission for Backward Classes"](http://www.ncbc.nic.in/user_panel/GazetteResolution.aspx?Value=mPICjsL1aLvYBtdZSrP4uO+ploAhiJHMALWmHIwbzS8Il37YLL3Fb0FHfWDHzP7c). *www.ncbc.nic.in*. Retrieved 26 June 2023.

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMines198411_5-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMines198411_5-1) [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), p. 11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** David, Kenneth (1977). [*The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9027979596](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027979596).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mines2_7-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mines2_7-1) [***c***](#cite_ref-Mines2_7-2) [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 54–55

1. **[^](#cite_ref-:1_8-0)** Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). [*Ancient Indian History and Civilization*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA491). New Age International. p. 491. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-8-12241-198-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-12241-198-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** V, Sudarsen; Reddy, G. Prakash; M, Suryanarayana (1987). [*Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana*](https://books.google.com/books?id=0pTXAAAAMAAJ). B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 97. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788170184355](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170184355).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). [*Textiles and weavers in medieval South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&q=+diwakaram). Oxford University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-561705-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-561705-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** David, Kenneth (1977). [*The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology)*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_la9QMGIQC&q=Senkuntar+India+warriors+given+title+Mutaliyar+their+bravery&pg=PA188). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9027979596](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9027979596).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** Kan̲n̲iyappan̲, Civa (1996). [*Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ML8yAAAAMAAJ&q=அவர்+வழியில்+தோன்றினமையால்+செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு+முதலியார்) [*Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet*] (in Tamil). Mullai Nilaiyam. p. 51. சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** Barnett, Marguerite Ross (2015). [*The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=YFF9BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA236). Princeton University Press. p. 236. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-40086-718-9](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-40086-718-9).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). [*Historical Dictionary of the Tamils*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA229). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 229. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-53810-686-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-53810-686-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** Vink, Markus (2005). [*Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century*](https://books.google.com/books?id=SaW8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA218). Brill. p. 218. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789004272620](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004272620).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). [*Historical Dictionary of the Tamils*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ALUvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA231). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 231. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-53810-686-0](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-53810-686-0).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** Ghose, Rajeshwari (1996). [*The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ORwNmkDswqwC&q=Mucukuntan). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–82. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788120813915](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120813915).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-18)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). [*Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=wYjtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA15). Oxford University Press. p. 15. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-0-19-561705-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-561705-4).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-19)** Vijaya Ramaswamy (1982). ["Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review"](https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001946468201900103). *The Indian Economic & Social History Review*. **19** (1): 47–62. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/001946468201900103](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946468201900103).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-sinopoli_20-0)** Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). [*The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650*](https://books.google.com/books?id=J3nHg-eKWuIC&pg=PA188). Cambridge University Press. p. 188. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781139440745](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139440745).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-21)** S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary (2000). *Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift*. Harman Pub. House. p. 114.{{[cite book](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book)}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list))

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-manickam_22-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-manickam_22-1) Manickam, V. (2001). [*Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400*](https://books.google.com/books?id=WTRuAAAAMAAJ&q=terinja+kaikkolar). Makkal Veliyeedu.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-auto_23-0)** Asher, Catherine (2006). [*India Before Europe*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ZvaGuaJIJgoC&pg=PA83). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521809047](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521809047).

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_66_24-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_66_24-1) Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). [*Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&q=Kaikkolar). Routledge. pp. 172–174. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781351558259](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351558259).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_1985_25-0)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). *Textiles and weavers in medieval South India*. Oxford University Press.[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines3_26-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984)

1. **[^](#cite_ref-de_Neve_2005_27-0)** de Neve, Geert (2005). [*The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy*](https://books.google.com/books?id=ppbkEJAEVCIC). Berghahn Books. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9788187358183](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788187358183).[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Ramaswamy_198522_28-0)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). *Textiles and weavers in medieval South India*. Oxford University Press.[*[page needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Kumar22_29-0)** Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar[*[full citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include)*]

1. **[^](#cite_ref-30)** Vijaya Ramaswamy, ed. (2017). [*Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=DzcrDwAAQBAJ&dq=sengunthar+bank&pg=PA30). Taylor & Francis. pp. 28–33. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9781351558259](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351558259).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-31)** Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". *American Ethnologist*. **9** (3): 467–484. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1982.9.3.02a00020). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [643998](https://www.jstor.org/stable/643998).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines_5_32-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 15

1. **[^](#cite_ref-33)** Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History". *The Indian Economic & Social History Review*. **19**: 47–62. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1177/001946468201900103](https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001946468201900103). [S2CID](/source/S2CID_(identifier)) [145467633](https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145467633).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-34)** Dr. Kumar Vadivel. ["Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple"](http://www.island.lk/index.php?page_cat=article-details&page=article-details&code_title=32283). *[The Island (Sri Lanka)](/source/The_Island_(Sri_Lanka))*. Nallur, Sri Lanka: Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 12 August 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-35)** ["Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins"](https://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=13&artid=15598). *[TamilNet](/source/TamilNet)*. Nallur, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 10 August 2005.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines_8_36-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 172

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-Mines_7_37-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-Mines_7_37-1) [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 24–25

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines_9_38-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 169

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines_10_39-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 27

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Martinson_40-0)** Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". *American Ethnologist*. **9** (3): 477. [doi](/source/Doi_(identifier)):[10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020](https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fae.1982.9.3.02a00020). [JSTOR](/source/JSTOR_(identifier)) [643998](https://www.jstor.org/stable/643998).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-Mines22_41-0)** [Mines 1984](#CITEREFMines1984), pp. 13

1. **[^](#cite_ref-42)** ["List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu"](http://www.tn.gov.in/bcmbcmw/bclist.htm). Government of Tamil Nadu.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-43)** ["Central list of backward classes"](http://ncbc.nic.in/backward-classes/kerala.html). Government of India.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-44)** ["State list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala"](https://bcdd.kerala.gov.in/en/communities/state-obc-list/). Government of Kerala.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-45)** ["Central list of Other Backward Classes in Kerala"](https://bcdd.kerala.gov.in/en/communities/central-obc-list/). Government of Kerala.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-46)** [*Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu*](https://archive.org/details/SenguntharPrabanthaThiratu). Retrieved 4 December 2011.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-47)** [*The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics*](https://books.google.com/books?id=hj0eAAAAIAAJ&q=sengunta). Vikas Publishing House. 1982.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-48)** Spuler, Bertold (1975). [*Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil*](https://books.google.com/books?id=Kx4uqyts2t4C&pg=PA188). BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9004041905](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004041905). Retrieved 4 December 2011.

## References

- Mines, Mattison (1984). [*The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India*](https://books.google.com/books?id=y089AAAAIAAJ). Cambridge University Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780521267144](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521267144).

## Further reading

- Irschick, Eugene F. (1986). *Tamil revivalism in the 1930s*.

- Irschick, Eugene F. (1994). [*Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795–1895*](https://books.google.com/books?id=gwEOfHfUFTkC). University of California Press. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780520914322](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520914322).

- Lucassen, Jan; Lucassen, Leo (2014). *Globalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience*. BRILL. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-9-00427-136-4](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00427-136-4).

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Sengunthar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengunthar) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sengunthar?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.