# Second-class citizen

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Those discriminated against by the state

For the 1974 novel by Buchi Emecheta, see [Second Class Citizen (novel)](/source/Second_Class_Citizen_(novel)). For the usage in computer science, see [First-class citizen](/source/First-class_citizen).

A **second-class citizen** is a person who is systematically and actively [discriminated](/source/Discrimination) against within a [state](/source/State_(polity)) or other [political jurisdiction](/source/Political_division), despite their nominal status as a [citizen](/source/Citizen) or a legal resident there. While not necessarily [slaves](/source/Slavery), [outlaws](/source/Civil_death), [illegal immigrants](/source/Illegal_immigration), or [criminals](/source/Crime), second-class citizens have significantly limited legal rights, civil rights and socioeconomic opportunities, and are often subject to mistreatment and exploitation at the hands of their putative superiors. Systems with *[de facto](/source/De_facto)* second-class citizenry are widely regarded as violating [human rights](/source/Human_rights).[1][2]

Typical conditions facing second-class citizens include but are not limited to:

- [disenfranchisement](/source/Disenfranchisement) (a lack or loss of voting rights)

- limitations on [civil service](/source/Civil_service) and/or exclusion from military forces

- restrictions on [language](/source/Language), [religion](/source/Religion), [education](/source/Education)

- lack of freedom of movement, expression, and association

- limitations on the [right to keep and bear arms](/source/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms)

- restrictions on [marriage](/source/Marriage)

- restrictions on [housing](/source/House)

- restrictions on [property ownership](/source/Property)

- mandatory military service ([conscription](/source/Conscription))

Citizenship and nationality have essential imbued rights that define them, and some commentators argue that having second-class citizenship may amount to statelessness.[3] As an example, [Nazi Germany](/source/Nazi_Germany)'s [Reich Citizenship Law of 1935](/source/Nuremberg_Laws#Reich_Citizenship_Law) created a second-class citizenship status, which was used for anyone excluded from the "Reich Citizenship." [On paper](/source/De_jure), the holders of the second-class citizenship "enjoyed the protection of the state and were bound to fulfill all the duties of citizenship," but [in practice](/source/De_facto) the status was worse than that for aliens, allowing any form of discrimination and other maltreatment against the holders, effectively nullifying the defining function of citizenship.[4] There is much debate as to where to draw the line on defining second-class citizenship and whether it amounts to statelessness. The category remains unofficial and mostly academic, and is generally used as a [pejorative](/source/Pejorative) by commentators.

Governments will typically deny the existence of a second class within its [polity](/source/Polity), and as an informal category, second-class citizenship is not objectively measured. Cases such as the [Southern United States](/source/Southern_United_States) under [racial segregation](/source/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States) and [Jim Crow laws](/source/Jim_Crow_laws), the repression of [Aboriginal citizens](/source/Aboriginal_Australians) in [Australia](/source/Australia) prior to 1967, [deported ethnic groups designated as "special settlers" in the Soviet Union](/source/Population_transfer_in_the_Soviet_Union#Ethnic_operations), [Latvian](/source/Non-citizens_(Latvia)) and [Estonian](/source/Non-citizens_(Estonia)) non-citizen minorities, the [apartheid](/source/Apartheid) regime in [South Africa](/source/South_Africa), [women in Saudi Arabia](/source/Women's_rights_in_Saudi_Arabia) under Saudi Sharia law, and [Roman Catholics](/source/Catholic_Church) in [Northern Ireland](/source/Northern_Ireland) during the [Parliamentary era](/source/Parliament_of_Northern_Ireland) are all examples of groups that have been historically described as having second-class citizenry and being victims of state-sponsored discrimination.

Historically, before the mid-20th century, this policy was applied by several European [colonial empires](/source/Colonialism) on colonial [residents](/source/Domicile_(law)) of overseas possessions.

A [resident alien](/source/Resident_alien) or [foreign national](/source/Foreign_national), and [children](/source/Children) in general, fit most definitions of a second-class citizen. This does not mean that they do not have any legal protections, nor do they lack acceptance by the local population, but they lack many of the civil rights commonly given to the dominant social group.[1] A [naturalized](/source/Naturalized) citizen, on the other hand, essentially carries the same rights and responsibilities as any other citizen, except for possible exclusion from certain public offices, and is also legally protected.

## Relationship with citizenry class

Citizenry class Freedoms Limitations Legal status Full and equal citizenship Freedom to reside and work, freedom to enter and leave the country, freedom to vote, freedom to stand for public office No limitations Internationally recognized Second-class citizenry Restrictions on freedom of language, religion, education, property ownership, and other material or social needs. Largely limited Internationally recognized Non-citizens Rights are neither given nor withdrawn from the individual. Non-Assessable Internationally recognized Outlaws, criminals No rights to outlaws, or criminals in normal citizenry classes, however, certain countries have constitutional sets and legal standards for criminals and outlaws Completely limited Widely unrecognized

## Examples

- Christian minorities in the [Ottoman Empire](/source/Ottoman_Empire) (e.g., Armenians, Greeks, Assyrians) were second-class citizens.[5][6] This was legally codified under the [millet system](/source/Millet_(Ottoman_Empire)), which subjected them to higher taxes (like the [jizya](/source/Jizya)) and restrictions on public religious expression, political participation, land ownership, and military service.

- [Latvian non-citizens](/source/Non-citizens_(Latvia)) constitute a group similar to second-class citizens.[7] Although they are not considered foreigners (they hold no other citizenship, have Latvian IDs), they have reduced rights compared to full citizens. For example, non-citizens are not eligible to vote or hold public office. The [European Commission against Racism and Intolerance](/source/European_Commission_against_Racism_and_Intolerance) has described their status as making "people concerned feel like "second-class citizens".[8] [Estonian non-citizens](/source/Non-citizens_(Estonia)) are in a similar position.

- In Hong Kong, Sindhis make up 0,1% of the population and most hold British citizenship. They are stopped by police frequently and assumed to be criminals, fail to integrate into [Hong Kong Chinese](/source/Culture_of_Hong_Kong) society, and struggle to get even minimum wage employment.[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- In Malaysia, as part of the concept of *[Ketuanan Melayu](/source/Ketuanan_Melayu)* (lit. Malay supremacy), a citizen that is not considered to be of [Bumiputera](/source/Bumiputera_(Malaysia)) status may face roadblocks and discrimination in matters such as [economic freedom](/source/Economic_freedom), [education](/source/Education) and [housing](/source/Housing).[*[citation needed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed)*]

- [Mainland Chinese](/source/Mainland_Chinese) citizens who are settling in Hong Kong or Macau by means of a [one-way permit](/source/One-way_permit) do not have citizenship rights (such as obtaining a [passport](/source/Passport)) in both the mainland or the [SAR](/source/Special_administrative_regions_of_China) after settling but before obtaining the permanent resident status, effectively rendering them second-class citizens.

- [Special permanent resident](/source/Special_permanent_resident_(Japan)) (特別永住者) is a type of Japanese resident with ancestry usually related to its former colonies, [Korea](/source/Japanese_Korea) or [Taiwan](/source/Taiwan_under_Japanese_rule). They are usually afforded additional rights and privileges beyond those of normal [Permanent Residents](/source/Immigration_to_Japan#Permanent_Resident), but are still [unable to vote](/source/Right_of_foreigners_to_vote#Japan) in [Japanese elections](/source/Elections_in_Japan).

- The *[burakumin](/source/Burakumin)* (部落民, '[hamlet](/source/Hamlet_(place))/village people') are a social grouping of [Japanese people](/source/Japanese_people) descended from members of the feudal class associated with *[kegare](/source/Kegare)* (穢れ, 'impurity'), mainly those with occupations related to death such as [executioners](/source/Executioner), [gravediggers](/source/Gravedigger), [slaughterhouse](/source/Slaughterhouse) workers, [butchers](/source/Butcher), and [tanners](/source/Tanning_(leather)). Burakumin are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese but have historically been regarded as a socially distinct group. When identified, they are often subject to discrimination and prejudice.[9] They are often called *eta* (穢多, "great filth") or *[hinin](/source/Hinin)* (非人, "non-persons"). Although liberated legally during 1871 with the abolition of the feudal [caste system](/source/Caste), this did not end social [discrimination](/source/Discrimination) against burakumin nor improve their living standards. Outside of the Kansai region, people in general are often not aware of the issues experienced by those of buraku ancestry. Prejudice against buraku most often manifests itself in the form of marriage discrimination and sometimes in [employment](/source/Employment_discrimination).[10]

- The [British Nationality Act 1981](/source/British_Nationality_Act_1981) reclassified the British national classes as [British Overseas Territories citizen](/source/British_Overseas_Territories_citizen), [British Nationals (Overseas)](/source/British_Nationals_(Overseas)) and [British Overseas citizens](/source/British_Overseas_citizens) in addition to [British citizens](/source/British_citizens). [Martin Lee](/source/Martin_Lee) referred to it as "One country, six citizenships". The creation of [British Nationals (Overseas)](/source/British_Nationals_(Overseas)) (BNO) class was satirized as "British NO" by some Hong Kong media.[11]: 40 Despite its status as a British national, holders do not have the [right of residence](/source/Residence_permit) in the [United Kingdom](/source/United_Kingdom), with its application and status similar to a general [Commonwealth citizen](/source/Commonwealth_citizen) of other sovereign countries.

- [Apartheid](/source/Apartheid) in South Africa between 1948 and 1991 was a nationwide institutional [racially segregated](/source/Racial_segregation) multi-level system in which [European](/source/White_South_Africans) residents of the nation had more rights and privileges than [Indians](/source/Indian_South_Africans), who in turn had more rights than [those of mixed descent](/source/Coloureds), who had more rights than the majority of the population, namely [Black Africans](/source/Black_South_Africans). This segregation included having separate events for those of different races, separate walkways and modes of transportation, separate hospitals, Black Africans being banned from voting, and compelling those of separate races to live in separate townships. The international condemnation of apartheid that led to its end largely began in the aftermath of the [Sharpeville massacre](/source/Sharpeville_massacre), in which 69 protesters were killed and more than 175 were injured when police opened fire on a crowd of thousands on March 21, 1960.

- The [Bedoons](/source/Bedoon) in Kuwait,[12] the "untouchable" Dalits in India,[13][14] and some [ethnic minorities in China](/source/Ethnic_minorities_in_China) are sometimes referred to as second-class citizens.[15]

- [Heribert Adam](/source/Heribert_Adam) and [Kogila Moodley](/source/Kogila_Moodley) wrote in 2006 that [Israeli Palestinians](/source/Arab_citizens_of_Israel) are "restricted to second-class citizen status when another ethnic group monopolizes state power" because of legal prohibitions on access to land, as well as the unequal allocation of civil service positions and per capita expenditure on educations between "dominant and minority citizens".[16]

- The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that a naturalized person could not be stripped of her citizenship because she resided abroad, saying of the federal statute, "It creates indeed a second-class citizenship." The court said, "We start from the premise that the right of citizenship of the native born and of the naturalized person are of the same dignity and are coextensive. The only difference drawn by the Constitution is that only the 'natural born' citizen is eligible to be President."[17] Schneider v. Rusk (1964), 377 U.S. 163 (Click the link and scroll down to page 163 in the .pdf.)

## See also

- [Blacklisting](/source/Blacklisting)

- [Dégradation nationale](/source/D%C3%A9gradation_nationale)

- [Dhimmi](/source/Dhimmi) and [Dhimmitude](/source/Dhimmitude)

- [Involuntary unemployment](/source/Involuntary_unemployment)

- [Loss of rights due to felony conviction](/source/Loss_of_rights_due_to_felony_conviction)

- [Reverse discrimination](/source/Reverse_discrimination)

- [Untouchability](/source/Untouchability)

## References

1. ^ [***a***](#cite_ref-dictionary.com_1-0) [***b***](#cite_ref-dictionary.com_1-1) ["the definition of second-class citizen"](http://www.dictionary.com/browse/second-class-citizen). *Dictionary.com*. Retrieved 2017-05-11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-2)** ["Definition of second-class citizen"](https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/second-class%20citizen). *Merriam-Webster*. Retrieved 2017-05-11.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-3)** Pudzianowska, Dorota (2023-09-27). [*Statelessness in Public Law*](https://www.peterlang.com/document/1400118). [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-3-631-90704-7](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-90704-7).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-4)** Library of Congress. (2018). *Citizenship through international adoption: A comparative overview of nationality laws in select countries* (Report No. 2019670401). Retrieved from https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/llglrd/2019670401/2019670401.pdf

1. **[^](#cite_ref-5)** Gevorgian, Sofia (2022-04-24). ["To Deny the Genocide of Armenians"](https://www.talkdiplomacy.com/post/to-deny-the-genocide-of-armenians). *Talk Diplomacy*. Retrieved 2025-10-29.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-6)** January/February 2021, Barnabas Aid Magazine (2020-12-10). ["Armenian Christians"](https://www.barnabasaid.org/us/magazine/armenian-christians/). *Barnabas Aid*. Retrieved 2025-10-29.{{[cite web](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_web)}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ([link](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list))

1. **[^](#cite_ref-7)** ["Walk like a Latvian"](http://www.neurope.eu/article/walk-latvian). New Europe. 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-10-03.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-8)** [Third report on Latvia. CRI(2008)2](http://hudoc.ecri.coe.int/XMLEcri/ENGLISH/Cycle_03/03_CbC_eng/LVA-CbC-III-2008-2-ENG.pdf) [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20090509044128/http://hudoc.ecri.coe.int/XMLEcri/ENGLISH/Cycle_03/03_CbC_eng/LVA-CbC-III-2008-2-ENG.pdf) 2009-05-09 at the [Wayback Machine](/source/Wayback_Machine) Executive summary

1. **[^](#cite_ref-9)** Frédéric, Louis (2005). [*Japan encyclopedia*](https://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA93). Translated by Käthe Roth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap. pp. 93–94. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9780674017535](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674017535).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-10)** Saito (齋藤）), Naoko(直子) (29 September 2014). ["部落出身者と結婚差別"](http://synodos.jp/society/10900).

1. **[^](#cite_ref-11)** [Regina Ip](/source/Regina_Ip) (2008). [*四個葬禮及一個婚禮 - 葉劉淑儀回憶錄*](https://books.google.com/books?id=3aixAAAAQBAJ&dq=%E6%9D%8E%E6%9F%B1%E9%93%AD+%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D%E6%B3%95&pg=PA40). 明報出版社. [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [9789628993628](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789628993628). [Archived](https://web.archive.org/web/20191129190132/https://books.google.com/books?id=3aixAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40&lpg=PA40&dq=%E6%9D%8E%E6%9F%B1%E9%93%AD+%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D%E6%B3%95&source=bl&ots=OD4tWMs19A&sig=Ip4e7eLFZrqHxbT_DN7x3qmRl_g&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjm5IvA0PnZAhWxm-AKHUaWDSYQ6AEIaTAG#v=onepage&q=%E6%9D%8E%E6%9F%B1%E9%93%AD%20%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D%E6%B3%95&f=false) from the original on 2019-11-29. Retrieved 2018-03-20.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-12)** ["The Bedoons of Kuwait"](https://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Kuwait.htm). *Human Rights Watch*.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-13)** ["Dalits being treated as second-class citizens under BJP rule: Cong"](https://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/dalits-being-treated-as-second-class-citizens-under-bjp-rule-cong-118050500634_1.html). *Business Standard*. 5 May 2018.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-14)** ["Under India's caste system, Dalits are considered untouchable. The coronavirus is intensifying that slur"](https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/15/asia/india-coronavirus-lower-castes-hnk-intl/index.html). *CNN*. 16 April 2020.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-15)** ["China's Race Problem"](https://www.foreignaffairs.com/china/chinas-race-problem). *[Foreign Affairs](/source/Foreign_Affairs)*. 20 April 2015.

1. **[^](#cite_ref-16)** Adam, Heribert; Moodley, Kogila (2005). [*Seeking Mandela: Peacemaking Between Israelis and Palestinians*](https://books.google.com/books?id=jY2D-u4_t7AC). Psychology Press. p. [20f.](https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183305/http://www.temple.edu/tempress/chapters_1800/1813_ch1.pdf#page=12) [ISBN](/source/ISBN_(identifier)) [978-1-84472-130-6](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84472-130-6).: *Second-class citizenship:* "Above all, both Israeli Palestinians and Coloured and Indian South Africans are restricted to second-class citizen status when another ethnic group monopolizes state power, treats the minorities as intrinsically suspect, and legally prohibits their access to land or allocates civil service positions or per capita expenditure on education differently between dominant and minority citizens."

1. **[^](#cite_ref-17)** [*Schneider v. Rusk (1964), 377 U.S. 163*](https://www.supremecourt.gov/pdfs/USReports/USREPORTS-377_PDFA.pdf) (PDF).

v t e Segregation in countries by type (in some countries, categories overlap) Religious Partition of India Northern Ireland Israel Serbia Greece and Turkey Partition of Bengal Portugal Saudi Arabia Spain Bahrain Myanmar Ethnic and racial Bahrain Brazil Bulgaria and Romania Bulgaria Canada Czechoslovakia and Hungary Dominican Republic Fiji Germany Israel Malaysia Portugal Rhodesia Apartheid in South Africa Spain United Kingdom United States Civil War Separate but equal School segregation Brown v. Board of Education Massive resistance Anti-miscegenation laws Gender Islam Afghanistan Iran Saudi Arabia Judaism Sex segregation in public restrooms Separatist feminism Dynamics Auto-segregation Balkanization Ethnic cleansing Ethnic federalism Bantustan Ethnopluralism Ethnocracy Exclusionary zoning Forced migration Internment labor camps Residential segregation in the United States Segregation academy (United States) Social exclusion Related topics Apartheid laws Anti-miscegenation laws Black Codes Corporative federalism Discrimination Ghetto benches Hafrada Jim Crow laws Majority minority Nativism Nuremberg Laws Online segregation Racism Rankism Religious intolerance Reservation in India Second-class citizen Separate school (Canada) Shunning Social apartheid White Australia policy Xenophobia See also: Pillarisation Category caste gender racial Commons

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Adapted from the Wikipedia article [Second-class citizen](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-class_citizen) by Wikipedia contributors ([contributor history](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-class_citizen?action=history)). Available under [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/). Changes may have been made.